Machine Faults

MACHINE FAULTS

1. Unbalance
Imbalance occurs when the center of mass differs from the center of
rotation.

Characterized by 1X peak.

The highest amplitudes occur in the radial direction; specifically, the

horizontal plane for horizontal mounted equipment.

Overhung rotors may exhibit higher amplitudes in the axial plane.

Imbalance amplitudes increase with operating frequency.

Harmonics of 1X have low amplitudes.

If harmonics of 1X have high amplitudes, then other faults may

exist or are the primary fault.

Amplitude is affected by speed (if possible reduce speed of the

machine , amplitude of the vibration due to Unbalance will also be
reduced)

Ch.
#6

1
Machine Faults

Unbalance

DETECTION
High level radial vibration
Steady 1xRPM component-time and frequency
Amplitude at 1xRPM increases with speed
Low level at speed-related harmonics
NOTE
1. In general if there are strong, speed-related harmonics above 1xRPM,
other faults should be suspected. These include misalignment bent shaft,
and mechanical looseness which must be corrected before checking for
unbalance.
2. One possible cause of high vibration at 1xRPM is a machine
resonance If a small change in speed causes the 1xRPM component to
drastically change level then resonance should be suspected
3. On a horizontally mounted machine horizontal vibration should be
greater than vertical or axial if vertical is higher, suspect base looseness
.If axial is higher suspect misalignment. Correct other problems before
balancing the machine
Ch.
#6

2
 Machine Faults

A. Parallel misalignment

Radial Vibration approx. 180° phase shafted 2X often highest peak

B. Angular misalignment

Axial Vibration approx. … 0° phase shifted 1X 2X or 3X highest

Please
. Note
Misalignment often
appears on 1X component
only

Ch.
#6

3
 Machine Faults

2. Misalignment

 There are two principal types of misalignment – offset and angular

 A high 2X characterizes offset misalignment a high 1X signifies

angular misalignment
 Both types of misalignment frequently combine to cause both the
1X and the 2X peak in the spectrum
 The waveform appears very repeatable and periodic with one or two
clear peaks per revolution
 Offset misalignment amplitudes typically appear higher in the radial
plane
 Angular misalignment amplitudes typically appear higher in the
axial plane

4
 Machine Faults

 When combined 1X and 2X appear in both planes

 Phase analysis across the coupling or between bearings showing a
significant phase difference (near 180°) verifies misalignment
DETECTION
 High level axial vibration :
Steady 1x 2x or 3xRPM component-time and frequency
Low level at 4-10xRPM harmonics
 High level vertical or horizontal vibration :
Steady 1x, 2x or 3xRPM components
Low level at 4-10xRPM harmonics
NOTES
IF 1xRPM dominates suspect angular misalignment
If there are high levels at 4-10xRPM and the time signal is “noisy”
without clear peak, suspect looseness
Looseness

Loose Foundation
2X often high
Sub-harmonics

Loose shaft
Often series Of sub harmonic components ½ , 1/3 , …. 1/n

3. Mechanical Looseness
 Characterized by harmonics 1X and irregular impacting in the
waveform
 The highest amplitudes occur in the radial direction; specifically,

5
Machine Faults

the vertical plane for horizontally mounted equipment

 The number of 1X harmonics and their amplitudes increase with the
severity of the problem
 Unstable phase characterizes looseness
 Fractional harmonics (1/4, 1/3, ½) may appear if a rub develops as a
results of looseness

6
Machine Faults

Mechanical Looseness

Detection
 High level radial (especially vertical) vibration :
Strong harmonics especially 3-10xRPM
May be highly directional
Sub-and inter- harmonics possible
Time signals may be “noisy”
High impulsive levels possible
 Low or normal axial vibration

NOTES
1. Sub-harmonics are typically at 1/2xRPM and inter-harmonics are
3/2xRPM, 5/2xRPM and so on
2. Looseness may not appear until a machine reaches its operating
temperature and components expand
3. Base looseness of horizontally mounted machines will often appear
as a high 1xRPM level in the vertical direction-greater than the horizontal
vibration

7
 Machine Faults

Bearing Mounting Defects

Rotor Misalignment Rotor Unbalance
1*RPM
Radial Tension of Bearing
Misalignment2*RPM
of outer Race

Slip of Race in the 2*BPFO

Mounting Seat

Harmonics
Lubrication of RPM
Defect

Increase of Background level

4. Rolling Element Bearing Defects

 There are four calculated fault frequencies Harmonics of no
synchronous peaks in the spectrum and impacting in the time waveform
characterize race defects
 The highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial direction
Thrust bearings may exhibit higher amplitudes in the axial plane
 Defect harmonics for a rotating race fault are typically accompanied
by sidebands of turning speed

8
Machine Faults

Rolling Bearings

DETECTION
 Characteristic radial vibration :
Non-synchronous harmonics at bearing fault frequencies (BPFO, BPFI or
BSP-see note 1 below) often over wide frequency range, sometimes
modulated
Time signals may show repeated impacts. High-frequency energy may be
present
 Axial vibration may show similar features if bearing has some axial
loading

NOTES
Fault frequencies depend on the location of the fault the bearing
geometry, and shaft speed. The characteristic bearing frequencies are
usually identified by the acronyms BPFO , BPFI , BSP , FTF , which
mean :
FTF = Cage frequency
BPFO= Outer race fault frequency
BPFI = Inner race fault frequency
BSP = Rolling element fault frequency

The bearing frequencies may be calculated knowing only the shaft speed
(S) , pitch diameter (PD) , ball or roller diameter (BD) , number of balls
or rollers (N) , and contact angle ()

Inner race rotating outer race stationary (most common case)

9
Machine Faults

Outer race rotating inner race stationary

2
S PD [ BD ]
( ) [ ( ) )]
BSP= x x 1 − x cos Θ
2
S PD BD
BSP = x
2 BD
x 1− ( )
PD
x cos Θ
(( ) )

2 BD PD
1. Approximate typical bearing frequencies may be estimated within
about + 20% for cases (a) and (b) by :
FTF = 0.4 x S (a) or 0.6 x S (b)
BPFO= 0.4 x N x S (a) or (b)
BPFI = 0.6 x N x S (a) or (b)
BSP = 0.23 x N X S (N < 10) (a) or (b)
= 0.18 x N x S (N > 10) (a) or (b)

These approximations may be adequate to identify non-synchronous

10
 Machine Faults

harmonics in some cases

5. Gear Boxes

ar Boxes Produce Complex

Gear Box Spectrum

Faults produce Side Band
xes Produce Complex Spectrum
Gear Defects (TMF) and

 High Gear Mesh Frequency (GMF) with sidebands of the faulty

harmonics TMF .
gear speed and high amplitude impacting in the waveform normally
characterize gear defects
 The highest amplitudes typically occur in the radial direction for
spur gears and axially for helical gears
 GMF = # teeth on the gear x 1X
 The number of 1X sidebands and their amplitudes increase with

11
 Machine Faults

DETECTION
 High level radial vibration at and around gear mesh frequencies and
harmonics, with modulation side-bands .The gear mesh frequency
indicates the meshing pair and sidebands spacing indicate the source of
the problem
 High level axial vibration, for helical, bevel, or herringbone gears,
Frequencies same as radial
NOTES
1. one gear mesh frequency (GMF) is associated with each pair of
mating gears , so that the shaft speeds (S1 , S2) and number of teeth (N1 ,
N2) are related by :
GMF = S1 (N1) = S2 (N2)
2. typical sideband spacing include :
 Shaft RPM (input, intermediate, output shafts
 External speed or load fluctuation frequencies
 Hunting mesh frequency = GMF/LCM (N1, N2) where LCM,
means least common multiple. If N1 and N2 are mutually prime ;
Hunting mesh frequency = S1/N2 = S2/N1
3. If there is more than on fault, there may also be “intermediation”
sidebands appearing at sums and differences of the fault modulation
frequencies
4. The gear mesh frequency harmonics may be small and difficult to
locate for helical gears with a large number of teeth in mesh
6. Journal Bearing

12
Machine Faults

Journal / sleeve Bearing Defect

 Excessive clearance improper bearing load, and improper
Oil Instability
lubrication can each result in high vibration levels in journal bearing
 Excessive
Normal 42% clearance allows
-47% of running a small excitation force , such as a slight
speed
may appear
unbalance (from in some occasions ) non Synchronous
or misalignment
 The frequency of the vibration can occur at 1X, 2X, 3X, or even
higher harmonics depending on bearing design and application
 Radial readings usually provide the best information on plain
bearings
 The vertical reading usually gives the best indication of excessive
clearances inWear
a journal bearing
 Oil whip or whirl Problems
Clearance occurs 42% to 47% of the shaft speed
 You can often correct oilofwhip
Harmonic Series Rotation
eitherSpeed
by properly loading the
bearing or by changing one or more of the following bearing design oil
viscosity, oil pressure, or the oil injection point
Journal Bearing
Excessive Clearance – No Whirl

DETECTION
High level radial vibration may look like unbalance or misalignment or
looseness ; vertical direction most of ten the best indicator :
Steady 1x, 2x, or 3xRPM components
Higher harmonics possible may be high level like looseness
High level axial vibration possible especially in thrust bearings .May
look like misalignment :
Steady 1x, 2x, or 3xRPM components
Possibly higher harmonics.
Oil Whirl or Whip
A self-excited vibration possibly due to excessive clearance poor design
improper loading or incorrect lubrication Oil whirl is a forward type of

13
Machine Faults

whirl Occurs only in pressure – lubricated (hydrodynamic) sleeve-type

bearings

14
Machine Faults

DETECTION
 High level radial vibration :
Steady sub-synchronous components at 42 to 48 % of shaft 1xRPM –
May look like 1/2xRPM due to mechanical looseness
May be higher harmonics present
 Low level axial vibration at whirl frequency
RUBS
Rubes occur when the journal makes direct contact with the bearing
surface May be intermittent or continuous in nature. Can be caused by
inadequate lubrication inadequate clearance, incorrect loading, or
excessive vibration due to other faults Rubs because a reverse whirl of
the shaft
DETECTION
High level radial vibration :
Erratic sub-harmonic and inter-harmonic components at ½, 1/3, or ¼ of
shaft 1xRPM – may look like 1/2xRPM due to mechanical looseness –
indicates intermittent rub.
Erratic “noisy” signals at very high levels possibly with much high
frequency energy, indicates a continuous rub
Low level axial vibration , unless a thrust bearing
NOTES
Distinguish whirl frequency from ½ order components due to looseness
or rubs by using high resolution in the spectrum and the “mark” function
at the peak
Oil whip is usually associated with a whirl behavior that is initiated
during a machine start-up as a shaft critical speed is reached but persists
as the speed increases through critical
There is some evidence that the whirl frequency may be linked to the
relative clearance between shaft and bearing the frequency reduces as
clearance increases. Wear may load to onset of whirl
Long vertical shafts with a guide bearing are prone to whirl partly due to
the low static load on the shaft Whirl may also occur in bearings
lubricated by other fluids such as a water-lubricated guide bearing in a
vertical lift pump

15
Machine Faults

16
 Machine Faults

7. Electrical Motor Problems electrical Defect

Vibration Dominate
Dominate Frequency
At 1X w/sideband spacing = to # of plane
Pole passElectrical Problems
Loose iron 2 x line
poles x slip frequency (LF)
frequency Radial
Start problems 2 x LF Radial
Phase unbalance 2 x LF Radial
Loose stator 2 x LF Radial
Broken rotor bar 2 x LF at 1X w/sidebands Radial
Eccentric rotor 2 x LF at 1X w/slip Radial
sidebands

2 x LF , slot frequency +
Loos stot Radial
sidebands

17
 Machine Faults

Electrical Motors

DETECTION
1. Rotor Problems
 Radial vibration :
 Strong 1x, 2x, 3x, RPM with distinct sidebands at P*s*F1 (see notes
below), or slow modulation over time Presence of line frequency
component may indicate rotor bowing or eccentricity
 Axial vibration :
 Low level unless there is thrust on a bearing which may indicate a
cocked bearing, rotor pulled off magnetic center, or bowed rotor
 Stator Current :

18
 Machine Faults

 Sidebands around 1xF1 increase in level as number of cracked or

broken bars increases Key sideband is at (1-2s) * F1 When its amplitude
is greater than 1/200 of 1xF1 components there are definite indications of
rotor bar problems The higher the relative level the more cracked or
broken bars present .See also note below.
2. Stator Problems
 Radial Vibration
 At 2x line frequency indicates eccentricity unbalanced phases shorted
windings loose iron See also Note 2 below
 Axial Vibration
Usually low level unless also rotor problem
NOTES
 The “slip frequency” in an induction motor is the difference between
the rotational speed of the motor and the rotational rate of the
synchronous electromagnetic field in the stator windings Slip increases as
load increases so that detection of motor problems is usually best done
under full load. The amount of slip is often described by the non-
dimensional number , “per-unit slip , s” which is calculated as

S = 1 – (Fr/Fs)
Where
Fr = rotational frequency (Hz)
= motor RPM/60
Fs = synchronous magnetic frequency (Hz)
= 2 x (FI/P)
FI = Line frequency (Hz)
P = Number of poles in motor

19
 Machine Faults

8. Bent Shaft

Axial And Radial Vibration

180° Phase shift in Axial Vibration
0° Phase shift in radial Vibration

9. Rotor Rub

 Symptoms same as Mechanical Looseness

 Sub harmonics ½, 1/3 etc
 Strong Harmonic pattern Caused by truncation

20
 Machine Faults

10. Shaft Creak

Shaft Cracks may be detected by monitoring of:

Amplitude and Phase of 1X first and 2X and second harmonic of RPM
Monitoring of Coast down and Run-up characteristics when passing through resonance

Center of rotation different from geometrical center

Vertical an horizontal phase either equal or 180° different

21
Machine Faults

22