Tracing Techniques

Take the advantage of myelin by using lipophilic dyes so place this tracers

Anterograde(forward)

Retrograde(backward)

These are for projecting neurons

Hoe can test damage

In morris water maze, after learning, probe trials are used to assess reference memory look at how long it takes and
the distance.

Blood supply tot the brain

fMRI machine

playing tennis(imaging)-might activate motor cortex ligh up(changing avtivity)- directly related to Blood supply

Brain imaging
Structural img. Tech.
 resolve the anatomy of the brain w/O physically penetrating the brain,

Might be progression of a disease, like vascular disorder or tumor.

What is the basic principle to differentiate different parts of brain region

Gray matter: have cell bodies compound of proteins. Carb, less lipid

White matter: have fibers since it has axon terminals bc oh myelin sheetwhere a lot of fat

Ventricles: filled wiht cereb. . fluid mostly water salty. . different content in differen. Part of brain like fat, protein are
effective the characterizing brain sturucture by observing in different degree.

X-RAYS

(1960larda)Transmit radiation and the brain regions absorbs in different amount but little info on indiv. structures

Consistency diff

Bone—hard

Tissue –soft

Thechniques

cerebral angiogramEnhanced X-ray. info about blood vessel; cerebral circulation, stroke bc differentiate the
vessels give radio opac dye into one of the large vessel. Shows a clear view of vasculature

Compıuterized tomography info about slive of the brain, like X ray but instead of sending it only single angle,
rotating X-ray source, detector is 180 derece from rotating X-ray source, u have get axial plane. Also in scan
leftright, rightleft

CT vs X-ray: in CT u can get a better contrast btw diff areas

It is tto useful bc identify fluid boundiries like blood clots

And also detecting tumor or calcification.

IMP!!

Spatial resolution  how well u separate diff. areas in mm such as MRI has better resolution

Spatial resolution can determine the quality of an image and

describe how detailed an object can
Temporal(meaning time) resolution  time to reflect what u seen. Iig has a good T.R

be represented by the image. Iig-U MAY NOT BE ABLE to identify certain area

so we can combine them.

MRI use magnetes and radio frequency to differen soft tissue,

Overall gives architecture

Compered to CT, MRI have better resolution(spatial)

Instead of radiation—magnetic fields

Advantage: certain part of the neural tissue act differ under a large magnetic field. Take
advantage of H protons of our body act as a mini magnet bc of slide enuqual electron distrubitıon (like in CSF)

Mrı artificially excite proton swhich are all aline certain direction(parallel)measure their relaxation properties over
time

There are different relaxation state: vertical and parallel. U can differentiade gray and wh. matter if u see T1 signal
gray mat. is gray, wt matter is wt in T2 opposite.

Limitations: cannot visualize bony/calcified structures in head

Diffusion MRI

focus on white matter, fiber tracks(connection), take advantage of of water diffuses on myelin sheet. Aniotropic:
more randomly in single axis like in mylelin(hydrophobic) they tend to be parallel towards them its not gonna going
to up perpendicular to it.

Functional techniques
To see how this activity correlates things u performing mentally
Examine by how the blood suppley slightly alter with hemodynamics
fMRI
u can’t see the patwaty like dopaminergic pathway just see where the activitie is taking place (limitation)
but it is noninvasive u r not injecting a contrast agent
seen structure and fuction
PET
no info about structure

Excited hydrogen protons how magnetic field changes the intensity of oxygen carrying hemoglobin
BOLD(blood oxygen level dependent) effect
Indirect measurement

Metabolic activity-blood flow, glucose metabolism, oxygen level

How b.i can be more easier?
They must have good resolution
Some of them are more applicaple of brain cognitivity
Physics is included
Algorithms PC included
Gives info w/o harm

 Gives anotomical Picture

 Physical and physological basis of MRI/Fmrı
When it comes to struc. Tech. – produce images of the anatomical archite. Of the brain anotomy .
 Cerebral angiogram(dye is used)
Berst approaches for stroke since it can pictured blood ves,cles
 How the White matter are …-diffusion MRI
Overlap can causer problem when you put into paper of 3-D structure
How can we seperately see structures in brain
Ted talk-spect imaging -brain pattern can change person to person
Functional tech
fMRI-PET-SPECT-EEG-MEG-optical imaging
difference from pre one give physological process , indirect activity-how much blood consume so more
activating parts requires more oxygen
Structur brainimaging tech
İmpor. Dignose the damage or disoreders like tumors are detectible
How can we differant differe parts of brain
Berebral angiography
Uses dye contrast additional of X rays
Cerebral vasculature

Computerized tomography(Ct)
Rotating X ray source and improve conventionaş X-ray .
Reveal certain lesions that cause trauma or stroke
Darker areas-white matter
A blood clot u can see in the dark area. İn imaging right side shows actually left side.

CT strenghts
Faster
Cheaper to operate
Fmrı- limitations
Signal change is extremely lox
Temporal resolutiom
Positron emission tomography(PET)
İndirect measure-flourodeoxyglucose (FDG)
Radioctive h2o but u can also use radioactiv. Dopamine or radioactively bind protein.
U r not goig to get info about structure
But neural activity is represented
Anhillation events these gamma photons go
Magnetoencephalography(MEG) – under neural activity functiional technique.
Optical imaging

Learning and Memory

Episodic task
Semantic task
ÖDEV SPECT bak
FUNCTIONAL IMAGING
Neural basis of thought and perception depens on imaging techniques
Learning and Memory
humans and animals have several ty pes of memory, which may be mediated by diff erent neural mechanisms.

All forms of memory involve cellular and circuitry changes in the nervous system.

Short-lived memory, working memory sensory memory

Long term memory persist for decades

Opered conditioning out put your behaviour

Less likely
Researchers divide learning and memory into three major processing stages:

 Encoding s the processing of incoming information that creates memory traces to be stored. Steps,
o Acquisition the stimuli are available for processing. This state is known as a sensory buffer. Only
some of these stimuli are sustained and make the cut into short term memory, the acquisition
o Consolidation  changes in the brain stabilize a memory over time resulting in a long term memory.
 Storage represents the permanent record of the information.
 Retrieval involves accessing stored information and using it to create a conscious representation or to
execute a learned behavior, such as a motor act
Changes occur in the synaptic connections betw ee n neurons.

the role of the basal ganglia in reinforcement learning and the involvement of the cerebellum in trial-and-error
learning based on prediction error signals.

medial temporal lobe memory system, fi rst described aft er H.M.’s surgery, is made up of the hippocampus, an
infolding of the medial temporal cortex that is shaped like a sea horse, surrounding entorhinal cortex, perirhinal
cortex and parahippocampal cortex within the temporal lobe, and subcortical structures including the mammillary
bodies and anterior thalamic nuclei are interconnected w/ hippocamous.

For long term memory there needs to be a change in the synaptic connections, these changes are in the form of the
change in the gene expression that’s gonna change the protein expressioexpressing new ion channels at the post
synaptic membranesmuch axion potential is generated at the same frequency and overall certain synaptic
connections are strengthen overtime.

Reconsirible

Coronal section- medial temporal lobes are import for building memories:
 Green parts are critical for memory
Hippocampus: core parts of memeory
formation convert short term
memorlong term mem. Amygdala: imp.
İn fear conditioning(kind a form of
learning) and its going to be also how ur
emotions form part of ur memor.
Entorhinal cortex: (ventral part,bottom
part) neurons in EC are going to Project
into the hipcaminput of all hippocampal
neurons come from the EC

and these parts are important for

episodic memories

The cerebellum is critical for maintaining posture, walking, and

performing coordinated movements. It does not directly control movements; instead, it integrates information
about the body, such as its size and spe d, with motor commands.

Basal ganglia: in the mid brain region and these 2(cerebellum and basal gang.) are important in different forms of
learning:habits,skills, self consious conditioning. Basal ganglia is importatn in initiation and termşnation of
movement (muscle memory)

Thalamus: all the info coming from external envir. Must be passing through thalamus.

Hippocamp is under the medial temporal system

Amydala has a lot connections

Bkz: Amydala can go to the HPA axis (hipothalamus) and change the hormones and also contect with
sensory neocortex
Spatial learning task: labirent maze.
Associate learning-
Operate conditioning; Instrumental learning-behaviour, increase or decrease likelihood to repeating that
event
Positive reinforcement- positive
Negative reinforcement (punishment)-
Th e multifaceted basal nucleus is important for mediating instrumental behavior, such as running from
bears.
unconditioned response ( UR )

conditioned stimulus ( CS )light

unconditioned stimulus ( US )shock

conditioned response ( CR )

CRUSUR
Korsakoff ’s
syndrome (Chapter 9), characterized by an absence of any short-term memory
There is 2 types of learning:

implicit(without conscious awareness)- fear conditioning

explicit
Long term memory

Nondeclarative memory is so named because it cannot be “declared” . Also called implicit memory ,
knowledge that we have no conscious access to

Categories : : priming, simple learned behaviors that derive fr om conditioning, habituation, sensitization, and
procedural memory, such as learning a motor or cognitive skill.

Declarative (explicit)
H.M s deficits were unlikely due solely to hipocam. damage. Other tem. lobe structures and thalamus form
a larger functional circuit necessary for consolidation of declarative memories.

Amnesia damage to MTL causes:

Impaired long term mem. but working memory fine.

Sudoku,chest,calculationsshort term memory.

How memories are made?
Thalamus and third ventricle are also important for memory

In N.A patientdorsomedial thalamus

Storing Information in Nervous System

Hemian synapse occurs when the successful stimulation of a cell by an axon leads to the enhanced ability
to stimulate that cell in the future. Increase effectiveness and associate many kinds of kearning
Habituation
Sensitization- once u are habituated, u can became sensitized if there is a more painfull- recerted. More
aware in it.
What is a Hebbian synapse?
A synapse that is strengthened when it successfully drives the postsynaptic cell, i.e. when pre- and post-
synaptic neurons are repeatedly activated together, the synaptic connection between them becomes
stronger and more stable.
How memories are made?
For the habit. part there is need to be increase in glutamate which was done by the serotonin sig,
serotonin receptors are G coupling receptors and signals through adenylyl cyclase pathway(cAMP) and
than phosphosyl. some channels caouse overaal increase calcium cause increase glutamate.
Cre genes maintain activation in a longer time that is going to get rid off the regulatory subunits and cause
always activation
The hippocampus is reciprocally connected with wide regions of the cortex via the entorhinal cortex and the
output projection pathway of the fimbria and fornix to the subcortical portions of the system, which themselves
project to the prefrontal cortex.

Retention period: if it is longer it is going to be more challenging, animal less likely to be recall it.

Surrounding neocortex, parahippocampalregions, entorhinal, perirhinal cortex also imp. in input to the
hippocamppal cortex equally important.
Overall not only hippocampal system in MTL but also associated cortex also important.
Modal model:

Short term memory can impaired but l.t memory not

Take sensory inputsattention ok get to short term storage, otherwise a lot of info is lostrehearsal-
try to keep in mind by actively by strengthen those synaptic connections by long term poten.
Study STM

Shows items ask to encode the inforetention interval(longer-more challenging - the period between a
participant's exposure to information and being tested for retention of that informationtest (two ways)
1.recall(need to retrieve the info -harder) 2. Recognitiom(easier)

Studies of patients w brain damage displayed deficits of STM but preservation of LTM.

Left perisylvian cortex(left angular gyrus close to this area), imp in speech formation and close to the
limbic system. Limited capacity of STM when damaged. LTM is okay.

STM is not the gateway to LTM always

WORKING MEMORY

Have limited capacity like STM but main differences in WM u have the ability to manipulate(change) that
info activating other system in brain.

Originated fromsensory inputs and retrieved from LTM.

Brain areas involved in WMpart of the frontal lobe, prefrontal cortex (anterior part of the brain ?)

Serial position effect

Primacy effect:
Recency effect can stay long if is interfered
phonological loop(memory lost in 2 seconds unless u rehearse it) is a hypothesized mechanism for acoustically
coding information in working memory, process at left Parietal Cortex(which is also language center-language
related info process) addition to this to refresh an item u need to activate prefrontal cortex, the part that connected
to primary motor cortext,bc also muscles are contracting to speech.

WM is mostly prefrontal, but at the same time left Parietal Cortex is also activating.

Central executive mechanism is a cognitive system, a command-and-control center that presides over and
coordinates the interactions between two subordinate systems that are short-term memory stores (the
phonological “loop” and the visuospatial “sketch pad”) and long-term memory
Visual cache: function is the passive storage of visual information. The content of the visual cache is
subject to rapid deterioration
inner scribe retains information about movement sequences and is closely linked to the planning and
execution of movement
the prefrontal part of the working skatcpad is the right prefrontal cortex.
• Prefrontal cortex: planning, paying attention

neglectright parietal lobe can solely recover in several years (20o)

fail to noticw objects presented on the left side
unilateral neglect it is not a visual problem
Balint’s Syndrome
ADHD
ATTENTION MEMORY AND COGNITIVE CONTROL
Focused attention
Divided arrrention there can be some internal attention so you divitding your atteniton
Experiment: how covert attention is work
Models of attention

1. voluntary attention top-down processing

2. reflexive attention bottom-up
3. overt attention
4. covert attention

cost of attention  invalid cue

benefit of attentionvalid cue

cuing attention
enhancement of attented stimuli a type of early selection changes in perceptual processing
can happen when the participant is attending a stimulus location
MULTI TASKING
we aren’t really multitasking, but quickly alternating between tasks.

a visual stimulus and auditory stimulus presented simultaneously = a dual task

types of reasoning
induvtive reasoning -bottom up approach(personal experiences) but it can fail u sometimes

to deal w bounded rationality

heuristics make a desivcion based on short mental shortcut

heuristicsuse in decision making judgement

there is 2 types

 special purpose heuris.

 Common decision making heur.
Heuristic- short cut -quicly
There is availability heuristic
And can be depending on representative heuristic look at the percentage and probability of the
event.
representative heuristic conjunction fallacay
DECISION MAKING

reasoning laws of logic

decision making laws of probability

In reasoning all necessary info to come to a conclusion is given, however in decision making there is a
certain amount of uncertainty

Decision making can be goal oriented or habitual

The regions that takes part in decision making: the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), the lateral prefr ontal cortex
(LPFC), and the orbitofr ontal cortex (OFC).
2 types of reasoning
1. Deductive reasoning
 reasoning to a conclusion which necessarily follows a set of premises,
for instance “if-then” rules
2. Inductive reasoning aka Standard mode reasoning
generalizing from examples or previous experience
not necessarily need to be true
Karl papper – because there is no absolute caertanity in generalizing from precious observations,
inductive reasoning can never be used to prove scientific hypotheses
Another example all swans are white
confirmation bias
- Present in everyday life
- Confirms your believes

Are we maximisers- no not all time

How we make decision?
Assign each option
estimate the probability of the option
- Evaluating the available alternatives until an acceptiple one is found.
- humans are mostly satisficers
- we trying to found acceptable solution
why satisfying instead of maximizing?

-bounded rationalityour cognitive abilities are limited by a info that is available – we can not keep online
for all that info

-the finite amount of time we have to make a decision which leads to a satisfactory solution.
We deal with these limitions -bounded rationality by using heuristic

Heuristic: a decision making strategy that gives a solution which is not guaranteed to be optimal.
-advantage is it does thake much less resources
-reduces cognitive load
Heuristic- can be cause bias

common decision making heuristic

-satisficing
-availability heuristics
●more discussion among people
●more media coverage
For ex fly accident- or car accident or the words start with “r” or words w “r” at 3th position- more people
think that there is more words start w r but it is not true there is more words w “r” at 3th position. Why we
think otherwise bc it is easy to think of words which start with “r” but it is hard to think a word r” at 3th
position
-representative heuristic
●this bias is also called ‘gambler’s fallacy
●Gambler’s fallacy(fallacy-misconception-safsata)

Law of large # if you toss a coin(but proof said head so don’t know which one) a thousand times
u will be closer to the %50 percent

-recognition heuristic

Base rate neglect

Base rate(prevalence)
What effect us during decision making? Gives examples?