Living … Loving … and…

Learning:
Principles Underlying
Teaching
Abe G. Belleza, PhD
Facilitator

1
Living…Loving…and…Learning

Multiple Intelligences
What are you???
“It is not how smart you are, it is
how you are smart!”

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Theory of Multiple
Intelligence
Howard Gardner
Who is Howard Gardner?
• Howard Gardner is a psychologist and
Professor at Harvard University's
Graduate School of Education.

• Gardner defines intelligence as “ability to

solve problems or to create products which
are valued in one or more cultural
settings.”

• According to Gardner, 8 different

types of intelligence are
displayed by humans.
Gardner’s Intelligences:
 Can we be more than
one?

YES!
• Although the intelligences are
anatomically separated from each
other, Gardner claims that the eight
intelligences very rarely operate
independently.
• Rather, the intelligences are used concurrently and
typically complement each other as individuals
develop skills or solve problems.
7
Learning Styles

Learning style is the way in

which each learner begins
to concentrate on, process
and retain new and difficult
information.
Dunn

8
Why Is It Important to Know
Students Learning Styles?

Students process information differently

If educators teach exclusively to one

style
student’s comfort “level may be diminished

If only taught in one style students may lose

mental dexterity to think in different ways.

We should address the learning needs of all

students
9
Learning Gap

GAP

Rosemary Burdick 10
“Teachers should have a
variety of teaching
styles. If a child does not
master a skill the first
time, try again, but not
necessarily the same
way you taught it the
first time.”

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 The Major Modalities
visual

kinaesthetic auditory

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How do you like to learn?
“I just don’t get it when I read the
book; I have to hear someone explain
it.”

“I have to write it down to remember it.”

“If I do the problem or procedure

a few times, then I understand it.”
13
 Learning Styles and Preferences

• Ask yourself:
• How do I best
process information?
• How is information delivered
to me?
• How can I make information
more accessible?
• How can I learn and
remember more effectively?

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PEPS LEARNING STYLES MODEL

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 PEPS Learning Styles Model
• Environmental • Sociological
– Sound – Self, Pair, or Team
– Light – Feedback from authority
– Temperature – Variety vs. routine
– Design • Physical
• Emotional – Perceptual
– Motivation – Intake
– Persistence – Time
– Responsibility – Mobility
– Structure • Psychological
– Global/Analytic
– Right/Left Hemisphere
– Impulsive/reflective

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 Which version did you prefer?
• Environmental
– Sound • Sociological
– Light
– Temperature – Self, Pair, or Team

•
– Design
Emotional
– Feedback from authority
– Motivation – Variety vs. routine
– Persistence
– Responsibility • Physical
– Structure
– Perceptual
– Intake
– Time
– Mobility

• Psychological

– Global/Analytic
– Right/Left Hemisphere
– Impulsive/reflective

• The visual, pictorial, • Or the straightforward list?

colorful version?
• One version probably “looked” better to you, or seemed
better organized or clearer.
• This choice reflects your preferred style.
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 Global and Analytic Learning Styles:
Based in Hemisphericity

• Analytic • Global
(left hemisphere) (right hemisphere)
– Linear
– Visual
– Concrete
– Sequential – Holistic
– Logical – Simultaneous
– Rational – Subjective
– Verbal – Non-verbal
– Temporal
– Intuitive
– Objective
– Linguistic – Symbolic
– Detail-oriented – Emotional
– Spatial 18
Global and Analytic Styles in PEPS
• Global Learners
– Need • Analytic learners
• Sound – Need
• dim light • Quiet
• informal design • Bright light
• The overall picture • Formal design
• Sequence from part
– Are to whole
• Energetic, but are low – Are
persisters; need
multiple projects and • Highly persistent
frequent breaks • Punctual
• Responsive to visuals • Reflective
and stories • Detail-oriented
– Use color • Responsive to word
– Process in chunks or wholes meanings
– Need intake for maximum – Don’t intake while
concentration concentrating
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 Study Tips for Global and Analytic Learners
Global learners tend to • Analytic learners tend to
– Be interested in the big picture – Be interested in details or components
– Seek patterns and of the whole
relationships – Analyze details separately
among details
– Like to examine things one step at a
– Like to examine things time, in order
from several angles at once
– Use verbal or symbolic (such as
– Use visual-spatial processing math symbols) processing
Study tips for Global
learners – Use mnemonics
– Get overviews of topics
– Use applications or
examples
– Use visual or tactile models
– Work in small groups
– Seek variety of feedback
– Use color in paper, ink, etc.
• Study tips for Analytic
learners
– Put details in a clear
sequence
– Use step-by-step
procedures
– Use written models and
examples
such as texts and handouts
– Work alone (at first)
– Write things down, take
notes, make lists
– Research for additional
details 20
 Living…Loving…and…Learning

HOW WOULD YOU DEVELOP A

LESSON….to bring this out of
your students!

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Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning
Styles and Multiple Intelligence (Cornett, C.E.
(1983)
a.Use questions of all types to stimulate various
levels of thinking from recalling factual
information to drawing implications and making
value judgments
b. Provide a general overview of material to
be learned i.e. structured overviews, advanced
organizers so that students’ past experiences will
be associated .with the new ideas
c. Allow sufficient time for information to be
processed and then integrate using both the right-
and left-brain hemispheres
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Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning
Styles and Multiple Intelligence (Cornett, C.E.
(1983)
d.Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing
or reading experience
e.Warm up before the lesson development by using
brainstorming, set induction
f.Use multisensory means for both processing and
retrieving information. (write directions on the
board and give them orally)
g.Use variety of review and reflection strategies to
bring closure to learning (writing summaries,
creating opinion surveys)
h. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply
praising (The example you’ve provided is an
excellent one to point to the concept of…) 23
Learners with Exceptionalities

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Learners with Exceptionalities
a.Teachers must have both the right
information and proper attitude in
dealing with special learners
a.Disability is a measurable impairment
or limitations that “interferes with a
person’s disability, e.g. to walk, lift,
hear or learn.
a.Handicap is a disadvantage that occurs
as a result of a disability or impairment.

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Learners with Exceptionalities
d. Specific Cognitive or Academic
Difficulties

i. Learning Disabilities involve difficulties

in specific cognitive processes like
perception, language, memory or
metacognition e.g. dyslexia (reading),
dyscalculia (number operations) and
dysgraphia (writing)

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Learners with Exceptionalities
d. Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
ii. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD) is manifested in either
or both of these 1) difficulty in focusing
and maintaining attention and 2)
recurrent hyperactive and impulsive
behavior
iii. Speech and Communication Disorders
difficulty in spoken language including
voice disorders, inability to produce sounds
correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken
language comprehension that significantly
hamper classroom performance
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Learners with Exceptionalities
e. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties
 Autism is a condition manifested by different levels
of impaired social interaction and communication,
repetitive behaviors and limited interests. It have an
intense need for routine and a predictable
environment
 Mental Retardation sub-average intelligence and
deficits in adaptive behavior
 Emotional/Conduct disorders presence of emotional
states like depression and aggression over a
considerable amount of time that they notable
disturb learning and performance in school
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Learners with Exceptionalities
e. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

 Autism is a condition manifested by different

levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and
limited interests. It have an intense need for
routine and a predictable environment.

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Learners with Exceptionalities
e. Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

 Mental Retardation sub-average

intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior

 Emotional/Conduct disorders presence of

emotional states like depression and
aggression over a considerable amount of
time that they notable disturb learning and
performance in school

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Learners with Exceptionalities
f. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments/Severe
and Multiple Disabilities
g.Sensory Impairments
Visual impairment
Hearing impairment
h. Giftedness significantly high level of cognitive
development. There is unusually high ability or
aptitude in one or more of these aspects: intellectual
ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity,
visual or performing arts sports or leadership
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Learners with Exceptionalities
PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUAGE –putting the
person first, not the disability
 Person with disability not disabled person
 Avoiding generic labels (People with mental
retardation vs. mentally retarded)
 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (
uses a wheelchair not confined to a
wheelchair)
 Avoiding euphemisms (such as physically
challenged)
 Avoiding implying illness or suffering (had
polio is preferable to is a polio victim)
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Learners with Exceptionalities
A) Revise the following sentences to adhere to the people-
first language.
1. The teacher thought of many strategies to teach
the mentally challenged.
2. Their cousin is mentally retarded.
3. Para Fernalia is a polio victim who currently suffers
from post-polio syndrome.
4. Their organization is for the autistic.
5. There was a blind girl in my history class.

By means of a graphic organizer present the basic

catergories of exceptional learners and describe each
category briefly.
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Learners with Exceptionalities
 What are your views about placing children with
learning disabilities in regular classrooms?

 What strategies can teachers use when working with

students with disabilities/gifted and talented?

 What characteristics are often observed in

gifted students?

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Questions?
 FOCUS
ON
LEARNING

36
1. THEORIES 2. MODELS
3. METHODS

4.
SCENARIO

Segue to
Learning Tools

5. LEARNING GOALS
AND ACTIVITIES
 1.1 Theories: Behavioural
• Primary Focus • Major Theorists
– Observable behaviour – Thorndike
– Stimulus-response – Pavlov
connections
– Watson
• Assumptions – Skinner
– Learning is a result of
environmental forces
• Principles
• Subcategories – Time/place pairings
– Contiguity – Biological basis of
– Respondent behaviour
(Classical) – Consequences
– Operant (Instrumental) – Modelling
1.1.1 Behavioural: Subcategories
 Contiguity
– Stimulus and response connected
and associated in time and space
– Example: The “Lucky Bathrobe”.
 Respondent or Classical Conditioning
– We make associations with stimuli
– Example: The Pavlov Dog.
 Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
– Learning is the result of the application of consequences; that
is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain
stimuli.
– Examples: Positive Reinforcement, Negative
Reinforcement
 1.2 Theories: Cognitive
• Primary Focus
– Mental behaviour • Major Theorists
– Knowledge – Bloom
– Intelligence
– Piaget
– Critical Thinking
– Gagne
• Assumptions
– Learning is a result of
mental operations/ • Principles
processing – Memory is limited
• Subcategories – Changes in
– Information Processing complexity
– Hierarchical – Changes over time
– Developmental – Good thinking
– Critical Thinking requires standards
 1.2.1 Cognitive Subcategories
 Information Processing
– study of the structure and function of mental processing
within specific contexts, environments, or ecologies .
– Example: Stage Model of Information Processing
 Hierarchical
 Developmental
– The classification of
– stages in cognitive
educational goals and
development
objectives
– Example: Bloom’s – Example: Piaget
Taxonomy

 Critical Thinking
– How we apply our cognitive processes to evaluating
arguments (propositions) and making decisions
– Examples: Thinking to a standard. Critical Thinking Model
 Behaviorist Perspective
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian Psychologist

well known for “Classical Conditioning or

Stimulus Substitution”
conditioned to associate particular objects with
another object, person, or a concept.

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 Behaviorist Perspective
Edward Thorndike, Connectionism theory gave the
Stimulus-Response framework of behavioral
psychology.

• Law of Effect: S – R is strengthened when the

consequence is positive (reward); S – R is
weakened when the consequence is negative
(punishment); however, negative rewards
(punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds
and that some seemingly pleasurable
consequences do not necessarily motivate
performance
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 Behaviorist Perspective
Edward Thorndike, Connectionism theory gave the
Stimulus-Response framework of behavioral
psychology.

• Law of Exercise: the more S – R bond is

practiced the stronger it will become. Practice
makes perfect, however, practice without
feedback does not necessarily enhance
performance

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 Behaviorist Perspective
Edward Thorndike, Connectionism theory
gave the Stimulus-Response framework of
behavioral psychology.

• Law of Readiness: the more readiness the

learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When
a person is ready to respond to stimulus and is
not made to respond, it becomes annoying to
the person..

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 Behaviorist Perspective
Principles derived from Thorndike’s
Connectionism
– Learning requires both practice and rewards
(laws of effect/exercise)
– A series of S-R connections can be chained
together if they belong to the same action
sequence (law of readiness)
– Transfer of learning occurs because of
previously encountered situations
– Intelligence is a function of the number of
connections learned
• 46
John Watson
• Early 20th century, "Father of
American Behaviorist theory.”
• Based his work on Pavlov's
experiments on the digestive
system of dogs.
• Researched classical
conditioning
• Children are passive beings who
can be molded by controlling the
stimulus-response associations.
 B. F. Skinner

• Proposed that children "operate" on their

environment, operational conditioning.

• Believed that learning could be broken down

into smaller tasks, and that offering
immediate rewards for accomplishments
would stimulate further learning.
Reinforcement. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response
– Positive reinforcer. E.g. when a teacher promises
extra time in the play area to children who behave
well during the lesson. Verbal praises, star stamps
and stickers
– Negative reinforcer. Any stimulus that results in the
increased frequency of a response when it is
withdrawn or removed. E.g. the negative reinforcer
is “removing” the final exam which is realized as a
form of reward for working hard and getting an
average grade of 1.5
– A negative reinforcer is not a punishment because
it is a consequence intended to result in reduced
responses.
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• Extinction or Non-reinforcement.
Responses that are not reinforced are not
likely to be repeated.
• Principles derived from Skinner’s
Operant Conditioning
– Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur;
intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
– Information should be presented in small amounts so
that responses can be reinforced (shaping)
– Reinforcements will generalize across similar
stimuli producing secondary conditioning

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 Theory of Behaviorism-
B.F Skinner & others
Based on Locke’s tabula rasa (“clean slate”) idea,
Skinner theorized that a child is an “empty organism”
--- that is, an empty vessel --- waiting to be filled
through learning experiences.

Any behavior can be changed through the

use of positive and negative reinforcement.
Behaviorism is based on cause-and-
effect relationships.
Major elements of
behaviorism
include:
– Positive and negative reinforcement
– Use of stimulus and response
– Modeling
– Conditioning.
Applying connectionism
1.Choose a topic you want to teach.
2.Think of ways where you can apply the
three primary laws to teach your chosen
topic.
3.Explain how to use rewards effectively in
the learning process

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 Neo Behaviorism
It has an aspect of behaviorism but it also reaches
out to the cognitive perspective.
– Edward Tolman Purposive Behaviorism – also
referred as Sign Learning Theory. It is founded on
two psychological views: Gestalt psychologists
and John Watson. Tolman believed that learning is
a cognitive process.
In his Sign theory, he stated that an organism
learns by pursuing signs to a goal i.e., learning is
acquired through meaningful behavior
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Edward Tolman
• Learning is always
purposive and goal-
oriented. An organism
acted or responded for
some adaptive
purpose. He believed
individuals do more than
merely respond to
stimuli

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Edward Tolman
• Cognitive maps in rats. Organisms will
select the shortest or easiest path to
achieve a goal

• Latent Learning. It is a kind of learning

that remains or stays with the individual
until needed. It is learning that is not
outwardly manifested at once.

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59
Edward Tolman
• The concept of intervening variable.
Variables that are not readily seen but
serve as determinants of behavior.
• Learning is mediated or influenced by
expectations, perceptions, representations,
needs and other internal or environmental
variables
• Reinforcement not essential for learning though
it provides an incentive for performance.
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Urie Bronfenbrenner
Ecological Systems Theory
• The varied systems of the
environment and the
interrelationships among the
systems shape a child's
development.
• Both the environment and biology
influence the child's development.
• The environment affects the child
and the child influences the
environment.
• Believed that development can't be
explained by a single concept, but
rather by a complex system.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

• The microsystem
• The mesosystem
• The exosystem
• The macrosystem
• The chronosystem
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

• The microsystem -
activities and
interactions in the
child's immediate
surroundings:
parents, school,
friends, etc.
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

• The mesosystem -
relationships among
the entities involved
in the child's
microsystem: parents'
interactions with
teachers, a school's
interactions with the
daycare provider
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model

• The exosystem - social

institutions which affect
children indirectly: the
parents' work settings
and policies, extended
family networks, mass
media, community
resources
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
• The macrosystem -
broader cultural
values, laws and
governmental
resources
• The chronosystem -
changes which occur
during a child's life,
both personally, like
the birth of a sibling
and culturally, like the
Iraqi war.
Gestalt Psychology

67
 Gestalt Psychology
– It is the initial cognitive response to
behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of
sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of
visual perception.

– The term gestalt means “form” or

“configuration.”

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 Gestalt Psychology
– Perceivers are not passive, but active. Learners
do not just collect information as is but they
actively process and restructure data in order to
understand it. This is the perceptual process.
– Certain factors have impact on this perceptual
process like past experiences, needs, attitudes
and one’s present situation can affect their
perception (Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler,
and Kurt Koffka)

69
 Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Principles:
• Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer
together will be perceived as a coherent object
• Law Similarity. Elements that look similar will
be perceived as part of the same form
• Law of Closure. Tends to fill the gaps or close
the figures perceive
• Law of Good Continuation -individuals have the
tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of
the pattern establish an implied direction
• Law of Good Pragnanz -the stimulus is organized
into as good figure as possible.
• Law of Figure/Ground 70
71
 Gestalt Psychology
Wolfgang Kohler – INSIGHT or DISCOVERY
LEARNING. The important aspect of learning
was not reinforcement, but the coordination of
thinking to create new organizations

Kurt Lewin- “life spaces”. Individuals have

inner and outer forces that affect their
perception and learning.

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 DAVID AUSUBEL’S VERBAL
LEARNING
• The most important factors influencing
learning are: quantity, clarity, and
organization of the learner’s present
knowledge.
• Ausubel’s Reception of Information
– Learner’s cognitive structure
– Use of advance graphic organizers
• Subsumption

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Four Processes of
Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal
Learning:

• Derivative subsumption – describes a

situation in which the new information one
has learned is an example of a concept that
he /she has already learned.

• Correlative subsumption – in order to

accommodate a new information, one has
to change or expand the attributes which
include other characteristics
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Four Processes of
Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal
Learning:

• Superordinate learning - in this case

the learner knows already a lot of
examples of a concept

• Combinatorial learning – this is when

newly acquired knowledge combines with
prior knowledge to enrich understanding
of both concepts
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76
ROBERT GAGNE’S CONDITIONS OF LEARNING
/ HIERARCHY OF LEARNING & GUIDED
• Nine instruction events served as bases for the
sequencing of instruction:
• guidance of students’ performance (semantic
encoding)
• recall prior learning (retrieval through memory)
• enhance retention and transfer (generalization)
• gain attention (reception)
• provide feedback
• assess performance (testing)
• present stimulus
• elicit performance (perception)
• Identify objective (expectancy 77
GAGNE’S CONDITION OF LEARNING
• Different instruction is required for different
learning outcomes
• Gagne named 5 categories of learning:
verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, motor skills and
attitudes
• Learning hierarchies define what intellectual
skills are to be learned and a sequence of
instruction
• Events of learning operate on the learner in
ways that constitute the conditions of learning 78
The mind is not a
vessel to be filled, but
a fire to be ignited.

(Plutarch)
 Original Terms New Terms

• Evaluation •Creating
• Synthesis •Evaluating
• Analysis •Analysing
• Application •Applying
• Comprehension •Understanding
• Knowledge •Remembering
(Based on Pohl, 2000, Learning to Think, Thinking to Learn, p. 8)
 Practical Bloom’s
• Suitable for use with the entire class
• Emphasis on certain levels for
different children
• Extend children’s thinking skills
through emphasis on higher levels of the
taxonomy (analysis, evaluation,
creation)
 Practical Bloom’s
• Possible approaches with a class could be:
– All children work through the remembering and understanding stages
and then select at least one activity from each other level
– All children work through first two levels and then select activities
from any other level
– Some children work at lower level while others work at higher
levels
– All children select activities from any level
– Some activities are tagged “essential” while others are “optional”
– A thinking process singled out for particular attention eg.
Comparing, (done with all children, small group or individual)
– Some children work through the lower levels and then design their
own activities at the higher levels
– All children write their own activities from the taxonomy
(Black, 1988, p. 23).
 Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Knowledge
What are you Comprehension
trying to do? Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Write two learning objectives, each from a
different Bloom’s taxonomy level:
 Knowledge
 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluation

How would you test for your learning objectives?

 Pedagogic
Cirilo F. Bautista
I walked towards the falling woods to
teach the trees all that I could

of time and birth, the language of men, the

virtues of hate and loving.

They stood with their fingers flaming,

Listened to me with a serious mien:

I knew the footnotes, all the text,

my words were precise and correct—

I was sure that they were learning— till

one tree spoke, speaking in dolor, to ask
why I never changed color.

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