Choosing the Right Method Makes all the

Difference
Phases of Learning
Hattie (2017) created the surface, deep, and transfer model (based on the SOLO Taxonomy) to illustrate
learning as a development of comprehension and application. The levels are sequential. An individual
must be able to retain and access substantial knowledge (surface) in order to create connections and
extend their thinking (deep) before they can be expected to apply their learning in novel situations
(transfer). This is important because different instructional methods activate learning at the various
phases.

Models of Instruction
Models of instruction are essentially methods and protocols for structuring learning experiences. Think
of them as recipes that can be tweaked and changed depending on your tastes, preferences, and
ultimately your intended outcome.

It is important to select the appropriate model of instruction based on the phase of learning you want
students to attain. For example, project-based learning (Hattie calls it “Problem-Solving Teaching”) is a
proven method to help students deepen and transfer knowledge and skills; however, it is not very
 effective to develop surface understanding. If the model is introduced too early when they don’t have
the surface knowledge, they may struggle to produce the desired results. On the flip side, multiple-
choice/fill-in-the-blank quizzes and exams may help student recall surface level knowledge, but do not
facilitate deep or transfer.

Some models may have to be tweaked to fit the discipline. Below is a list of the phases of learning and a
selection of models of instruction that generally fit those phases. Some models may activate multiple
phases when used correctly while others may have to be tweaked to fit the discipline.

Surface Learning Deep Learning Method Transfer Learning

Method Method
Jigsaw Close reading Problem-solving teaching
Integrating prior knowledge Note transformation Synthesizing information across
texts
Summarization Discussions Formal Discussion (Debates,
Socratic Seminar, fish bowl,
Academic controversy model,
etc.)
Direct instruction (modeling Cooperative learning Peer tutoring
technique: “I do, we do, you
do”)
Note-taking (study skills) Plan-monitor-evaluate Authentic assessments
Wide reading (exposure to Questioning Transforming conceptual
reading) knowledge
Spaced practice Journaling Organizing conceptual knowledge
Interleaving Simulations Identifying similarities and
differences
Repeated reading Case studies Cooperative learning
Annotation (study skills) Concept mapping Academic controversy model
Concept development Class discussion Cause & Effect model
Concept attainment Self-questioning Creative problem solving model
Graffiti Model Feedback-driven Meta-cognitive Workshop model
strategies
Gallery walk Cause & Effect model Reflection
Reading protocols Concept development Autonomous Learner model
Retrieval practice Concept attainment Conceptual Change programs
Suchman inquiry model Future Problem Solving
Reflection

Resources for models of instruction and protocols

 National School Reform Protocols - 200+ protocols and activities to use in your
classroom focused on specific desired outcomes
 School Reform Initiative Protocols (by Tag) - Offers hundreds of options focused
on all ages/levels of learners as well as specific types of engagement, individual and
collaborative
 Ideas for Checking for Understanding (Formative Assessment)  -Entrance, Exit,
and mid-session checks; questions and strategies
 UMASS ED Students' Online Tools for Teaching & Learning  - Resources shared
at end of session
 WMU Elearning Student Help - You can add this link to your course so that you
don't have to field tech questions as well as to give students direction for recording their
own meetings.
 Scaffolding Reflection - A quick discussion with links to some how-to questions
for guiding and scaffolding student reflection
 Project-Based Learning - The Buck Institute presents PBLWorks, which
promotes a research-based model for “Gold Standard PBL”. They have all kinds of
information, examples, and materials to guide you.