Geographical Information: Mapping Dialects of Chong in Chanthaburi Province, Thailand:An Application of

2 1 」
UN 2002
ヽ
MAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

PROVINCE,THAILAND:AN APPLICATION OF
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM(GIS)
ISARA CH00SRI
With cornpliments
of
ll tt14口 3■ U18U“ 冒偶 ■U18ulJ‖ na
THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
(LINGUISTICS)
FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
PIAHIDOL UNIVERSITY
2002
ISIBN 974-04‐ 1453-2

COPYRIGHT OF MAHIDOL UNIVERSITY
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C、 % Copyright by Mahidol University
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PIAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

PROVINCE,THAILAND:AN APPLICATION OF
GEOGRAPHICAL INFOR■ lIAT10N
SYSTEル 1(GIS)
lt** gk*,r.
Mr. Isara Choosri
Candidate
ンは
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il..'P;;i il;iiui p,.r.'i*,, prln.

Major-Advisor
Co-Advisor
誰鰍ン……
Co‐ Ad宙 sor
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Ntt Denlns Malone,Ph D
Co‐ Advlsor
∠ノ %拇く
Dean ^_6ほ
Prof LiangdlJ Lttdonlwongse,Ph D
Faculty olGraduate Studies

Assoc Prof Amon Thavisak,Ph D
Cluir
Master ofArts Progrzunme
in Linguistics
Institute oflanguage and Culture tbr
Rural Dwelopment
‐
Copyright by Mahidol University

ヽA
Thesis
entitled
MAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

PROVINCE,THAILAND:AN APPLICAT10N OF
GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM(GIS)
was submitted tOtheFacultyOfGraduate Studies,Mahidol Ulliversity
for the degree of Master of Arts cinguistics)
O11
March 25,2002
… 鷹 .… 黙 _・
…
Mr.Isara Choosri
Candidate
Assoc.Prof SuwllaiPremsrirat,Ph.D.
Chair
亀,こ .…
Assoc.PrOf SttaritlakDeepadung,Ph.D.
NIlember
ζ:魚鷺
鰍織 9轟 ..イ .“ .彙
t Mr Derlms Malone,Ph.D.
Ⅳleinbcr Member
るノ∠二為メニム
Prof Liangchai Lirnlontwongse, ph.D. Assoc.Pl・ OF Suwilal PremsHrat,Ph.D.
Dean Director
Faculty of Graduate Studies Institute oflanguage and Culture for
MahidolUniversity Rural Development
MahidolUniversity
い

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to thank Assoc Prof Suwilai Premsrirat, my major advisor, who both intro-
duced me to the Chong language, and gave me a chance to join the Mahidol Ethnolinguistic
Map Project. Subsequently, I was also allowed to use digital base maps, computer software
and equipment in order to do this study. I fully appreciate her encouragement and support.
I atso thank Dr Dennis Malone and Mr Philipp Dill, from SIL Intemational, wiro are
my co-advisors. Dr Malone showed me how to approach a minority language from an engag-
ing viewpoint. This allowed me to do my field works more like making new friends. He also
helped me improve the thesis manuscript. Mr Dill not only fained me during my first year in
the Mahidol Ethnolinguistic Map Project, but also helped me discover the potential of GIS for
linguistic studies.
Assoc Prof Sujaritlak Deepadung, my co'advisor, gave me valuable comments for

revising this thesis. Her occasional questions about the work progress were also helpful for
getting this work done. I am also gtateful to Asst Prof Suwattana Liamprawat, my external
examiner, who suggested improvements for this thesis.
This thesis is supported in part by the Ministry ofUniversity Affair and Faculty of
Graduate Studies, Mahidol University in the academic year of 2000-2001 I am grateful for
theirjoint scholarship that provided financial aid for this study until completion.
Thanks to Kimmo and Tuula Kosonen, also from SIL Intemational, for kindly dis-
cussing with me about aspects ofchong language and culture on our trips to and back from
Chanthaburi.
A lot of Chong people in many villages, with whom I talked and asked questions,
contributed to my knowledge about Chong language and dialects. Some even fed me and
provided shelter To name but a few: Uncle Chian and Auntie Chin Phanphai, Kamnan Choen
ihanphai, Uncle Chuay and Auntie Chom Santhawong Uncle Somkhuan Thongkhanr, Auntie
Phat Ngamphrom, Brother Khuam Wannaphakdee, etc. They are not only my teachers, but
also friends.
I owe my final thanks to Premrudee Choosri and Varaporn Chamsanit whose love
and care gave me strength to accomplish this long work.
Isara Choosri

" fac. ofGrad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. Thesis/市
4136585 LCLGnl : MAJOR:LINGUISTICS;M.A.

(LINGUISTICS)
KEY WORDS :DIAHCT RIAPPING/CⅡ ONG/CⅡ ANTEABUR1/
GEOGRAPⅢ CALINFORMAII10N SYSTEPI
ISARA CⅡ 00SRI:PIAPPING DIALECTS OF CⅡ ONG IN
CⅡ ANTⅡAШ PROVINCE,¨ :ANAPШ Cパ■ ON OFGEOGRAPII‐
CAL INFORDIIAT10N SYSTEⅣ I(GIS). TⅡ ESIS ADVISORS :SUWILAI
PREDIISRIRAT Ph.D。 ,SUJARITLAK DEEPADUNG Ph.D.,DENNISル mLONE
｀
Ph.D。 ,PHILIPP DILL.149 R ISBN 974‐ 04… 1453-2
Ths ttdyis an attempttO detemhethe degree of価 1讀 ies and du翫釧 κs
between dialects ofChong in ChanthabuH province and to map them by applying the geo‐
graphicalttnn敲 onwstc鴫」SOknownasGIS Bttdemttistt∞ n壺 ¨ お、 geOppHca
parameters suchas distance and barrlers aretaken into accountin orderto depict an Over‐
宙ewOfChOngddectareas Basedontheresearchm山 8s,ChongofChanthaburishouldbe
divided into three dialects instead of加 o‐ ―
Chong boand Chong Йaap__as propOsed by
Marth(1974a)
I propOse that Martinis category ofChong′ o,shOuld be regarded as com―

p● sed ofnorthem and southem dialects ofKhao IGtttchakut district,onthewest● deofSoi
Dao mount洒 n range,while ChOng力 ,2ρ is nOw spoken by only a small number ofelderly
ChonginPong Naln Ron dst五 ct,onthe east side ofthe mountaln range To acconlmodate
current data,a treatmentofPЮ to Pearic*‐ s(■ ―
S>/‐ t/in ChOngあ ,and*‐ s>/‐ h/in ChOng
h"う prOposedbyHcadley(1985)asabOundary ofChong ddectsshoddbe supメ emented
by a treatment oflcr‐ (*Cr_>/c― /in the nOrthem Chongあっ ,or CLl,and*cr‐ >/kr‐/in
southem ChOng′ 場 Or cL2,and Chong力 att CD ItiSdsoremarkableth江 ,anewdisthc‐
tionofCL2 putsiselfintherdddleofadalect∞ n血uum lnfact suchthree‐ waydisttctions
COmpサ With bcal awareness ofmany Chong speakers
Addionall■ appし hgGISto ddectmapメ ngCOddbeuse島 lforthework of

ordharywottng L卿 i■ swhO areloo掲蛇 fOra tOol capableOfdi蒻 ■buting ingui■ icv面 ″
tionsaccordingtogeographical settings

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
一
´ ¨
Ｐ
皿・
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ⅳ ¨
ABSTRACT
Ⅷ ・
LIST OF TABLES
Ｘ
LIST OF FIGIIRES

Ｘ
LIST OF MAPS l
CHAPπ RI: INRODUCT10N
１
l.l Background
５
l.2 Research questions
５
l.30晰 ect市 es
５
l.4 Research Framework
６
l.5 Hypotheses
６６
l.6 Expected Outcome and Beneits
l.7 Scope
７
l.8 Research Conditions
７
l.9 Teminology
CHAP皿 Ⅱ:P駆 Ⅵ OUS STUDIES OF CHONGPEOPLE
AND LANGUAGE
2.l Early Accounts 8
2.2 Chong and Kasong(Chong OfTrat) 10

2.3 Chong People 11
2.4 Studies ofChong Language 17
2.5 A Sketch ofChongPhonology 19
2.6E)ialects ofChong:the State ofKnowledge 24

CHAPl圧ヨヒIH:NIIATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 0veⅣiew 28
3.2 Data 28
3.3 Analysis 33
3 4 Distribution 34

4
Vll
TABLE OF CONTENTS(cont。 )
CHAPコ田tIV RESIILTS OF DIALECT SllRVEY

4.1 0veFⅥ eW 40
4.2 Genera1 0bservations 40
4.3 Lnglli面 cEvidences 43
4.4 ChongDialect COntmuum 48
1
4.5 Lingllistic ChangeswithnChongDidects 52

CHAPmV CHONG DIALECT MAPS
5.l Geographical Distribution ofChongDialects 54
5.2 Data lnput 54
5.3 Data Storage 55
5.4DttaanalydsoittribudOndPattemm 56
5.5 DataI〕 isplay 57
5.6 Mappmg Criteria 58
CHAPtt VI: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
6.l The Asy― etricalDecline ofChongDialects 99
6.2 Dialects ofChong and ChongLiteracy 100
Development
6.3 Conclusion 102
6.4.Suggestions 104
BBLIOGRAPI‐ IY 107
APPENDIX A:QUESTIONNAIRE 111
APPENDⅨ B:CHONGBASIC VOCABIILARY 119
BIOGRAPHY 139

ヘ
LIST OF TABLES
１
０
TABLE l: Phonological differences between Chong and Kasong
１
２
TABIJE 2: Estimate of Chong population
２
４
TABLE 3: Chong Communities Mentioned in Previous Studies
２
５
TABIJE 4: Comparison ofCL and CH
２
６
TABLE 5: Comparison ofCLand CH (continued)
２
７
TABLE 6: Different'Notation' ofBreathy Voice in Chong
３
２
TABLE 7: Basic Word List Being Used as Questionnaire
３
３
TABLE 8: Reduced Word List
３
５
TABLE 9: Comparison ofthe Cartographic Process as Applied to Traditional

Cartography (map) and Geographical Information System
４
４
TABLE 10: Correspondences of/-tl and I -h/
４
５
TABLE ll: Correspondences of/c-l and ll<r-l
６
４
TABLE 12: Lexical Variants
４
７
TABLE 13: Breathy Voice and Aspiration
５
０
TABLE 14: ChongDalectContinuum

4
ヽ
LIST OF FIGURES
３
４
FIGllRE l: Map Triangle Properties
３
８
FIGllRE21 Layered Data (from tabular to gaphic forms)
３
９
FIGURE 3: A Procedure for Application of GIS
５
４
FIGllRE 4: Linguistic Data Plus Coordinates
５
５
FIGURE 5: Base Map of Chanthaburi
５
５
FIGURE6: ArcView Project
５
６
FIGURE 7: Distribution of Variations
５
７
FIGURE 8: Overlaying Layers
５
７
FIGIJRE 9 Use ofOpen and Closed Symbols
●｀

こ
LIST OF MAPS
１
MAPl: Pearic area
２
MAP 21 Chanthaburi's Administrative areas
８
２
MAP3: Research Site
４
９
MAP4: Chong fueas in Geographical Context
５
９
NIIAP 5: Distribution of barking deer'
６
０
MAP6: Distribution of 'grease'
６
︲
MAP7: Distribution of 'old' (person)
６
２
MAP8: Distribution of 'skimp'
６
３
NIIAP 9: Distribution of'tail'
６
５
MAP 10: Distribution of 'harvest'
６
６
NIAP ll: Distribution of'pig'
６
７
MAP12: Distribution of'ring'
６
８
MAP13: Distribution of 'river bank'
６
９
MAP14: Distribution of 'stilt'
７
０
MAP15: Distributionof'run'
７
２
MAP 16: Distribution ofbea/
７
３
MAP 17: Distribution of 'cattle'
７
４
MAP18: Distribution of'come'
７
５
MAP19: Distribution of'mud'
６
７
NIAP 20: Distribution of'nail'
７
７
MAP21: Distribution of'play'
７
８
MAP 22: Distribution of'roof ７
９
MAP23: Distributionof'ugly'
８
︲
MAP 24: Distribution of 'alcohol'

８
２
MAP 25: Distribution of'drunk'

８
３
NIAP 26: Distribution of 'moming'

８
４
MAP27: Distribution of 'person'

５
８
MAP 28: Distribution of'soup'

８
６
MAP29: Distribution of 'see'

７
８
MAP30: Distribution of'wate/

８
９
MAP31: Distribution of 'ask for'

９
０
MAP32: Distributionofbuy'
９
︲
NIIAP 33: Distribution of'fish'

９
２
NIAP 34: Distribution of'flesh'

９
３
MAP35: Distribution of 'liver'

９
４
MAP36: Distribution of'sit'

９
６
NIAP 37: Treatment ofProto Pearic *-s

９
７
MAP38: Treatment ofProto Pearic *cr-

９
８
MAP39: Treatment ofProtoPearic *-s and *cr- (ChongDialect Continuum)

０
０
︲
MAP40: Distribution of Chong Population

ヽ
Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / I
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
l.l Background
Chong is a minority language of Thailand; it belongs to thL Pearic group ofMon-
Khmer sub-family ofAustro-Asiatic family. Pearic languages, which include Saoctr, Chong,
Samre, and Pear extend across eastern provinces of Thailand, Chanthaburi and Trat, and
western provinces of Cambodia such as Batdambang, Pursat and Kampot. Due to the
rapid decrease in mother tongue transmission, now it is difficult to determine the exact
number ofChong speakers. Different studies present different numbers of Chong speak-
ers in Thailand, ranging from merely 500 (Grimes, 2000) to about 4,000 (Suwilai et al.,
ヽ
2001). The latter source indicates that, today, the largest group of Chong speakers is in
Khao Khitchakut district of Chanthaburi province.
anmar (Burm
Thalland
Map 1: The Pearic Area

\.
Isara Choosri
Introduction /.2
Sakaeo P;orince
Chonburi
Province '
Soi Dao District
o
Cambodia
.,. r'""{- t}st

/\_
*.f'"''r' ''l
Gulf of tthailand
The zoom-in map shows

areas covered in this research.
Map 2: Chanthaburi,s Administrative Areas

・｀
Fac. of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ.

M.A. (Linguistics) / 3
I started learning chong in late l99g with speakers from

Khrong phlu vi\age
north ofKhao Khitchakut district. chong is arready famous
for having a contrastive use
of4 registers (TherapharL 1992; Edmondson, 1996).* Concerning Chanthaburi
prov_
ince alone, there are 5 descriptive works dealing with
chong phonology both in Thai and
English, plus two recent instrumental analyses ofchong 'register,
in particurar. A
these
works are based on data from Khao Khitchakut district.
on the contrary studies on
dialects ofchong are rare. The dialectal division of chong
/aa and chong haap.went
back to M. A. Martin's Fre,ch publication in 1974, which
was subsequently eraborated
by R. K. Headley in 1985. This division seems acceptabre
by linguists such as Huffrnan
(1985), Suriya (1995) and Edmondson (1996).
Researches on Chong language in Thailand in the past consisted
mostly of de_
scriptive studies of phonological and syntacticar features (phonology:
Surekha, l9g2;
Huffinan, 1985; Phonology and Syntax: Sirikarn, 1987; Saifon, l99l; Kunwadee
,1997 **)
and instrumental analyses of'register' from a phonetic point
ofview (Theraph an, 1992;
Edmondson, 1996). Although agood dear ofringuistic data has
been collected through
these studies, a specific picture of the inter-relationship between
diferent dialects of
Chong language has not yet been drawn.
A comparative study on pearic dialects conducted by Martin in 1974 concrudes

that chong language in chanthaburi provinceis comprised oftwo
dialects, namely chong
/ca of Makham district lnow the chong-populated area belonging to
Khao Khitchakut
district) and cho ng haap* * * ofpong Nam Ron district (for more details
on chanthaburi,s
* Theraphan (1994: 144) defines a register language as ,.a language that has a
lexically contrastive register complex (a combi,ation oivowel quality,
-'
type, etc.), whereas a tone language has lexically contrastive pititr.,,
litcir,- phonation
'
l(unawadee (1996) is a description of ,Chong, language

. 1*
vrhose distinct vocabulary difers greatly from chong ofchinthab=urilsee
in Trat province
rteadley tsts:
430 and Section 2.2 in Chapter 2 ofthis thesis).
**.* lcc and haap are sentence-final

particles marking emphases comparable to
nd and 16 inThai.

ヘ
Isara Choosri Introduction / 4
administrative areas, see Map 2). Following Martin's study, most if not all researches
on
Chong language in Chanthaburi take for granted that there are only two Chong dialects
in the area. This broad dialectal division, however, fails to accommodate linguistic
diver-
sities arising from new data collected in recent years. In fact, there has never been any
direct survey on the inter-relationship between different dialects ofChong in Chanthaburi
in order to determine the degree of similarities and differences among them.
The gap in the studies of Chong language can be filled by undertaking a survey
of
Chong dialects to determine the degree of similarities and differences of these dialects
using the method ofdialect geography, resulting in dialect maps. Furthermore, an appli-
cation of Geographical Information System (GIS) to such mapping, as being conducted

in this research, will introduce a geographical dimension to analyses of linguistic phe-
nomena. This technology of a database system integrated with digital mapping will pro-
vide clear illustrations ofgeographical distribution of linguistic data in relation to affect-
ing factors such as geographical distance and barriers. This will add to the comprehen-
siveness of existing linguistic studies of Chong language.
Currently, there is a Chong language revitalization effort underway. This starled

from the making ofChong orthography based on Thai script in cooperation with linguists
from the Institute oflanguage and Culture for RuralDevelopment, Mahidol University.
From a practical point ofview, I regard my study of Chong dialects as a data support for
this literacy program that must take geographical variations into account.
This research on mapping dialects of Chong in Chanthaburi province is not only
an attempt to provide a more comprehensive better explanation of a specific linguistic
situation, but also an effort to apply geographical information technology to studies of

language. In view of that, this study may contribute to the academic advancement of
linguistic science in the long m. Indirectly though, it is also an attempt to contribute to
the revitalization of Chong language, which is a diflicult task for native speakers who
have only known how to speak the language.

R
4●
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol U壷 v M.A. (Linguistics) / 5
1.2 Research Questions
1.2.1 What are the degrees of similarities and differences between dialects of
Chong language in Chanthaburi?
1.2.2 Do these similarities and differences reflect a different division of Chong
dialects in Chanthaburi other than the existing Chong lcc - Chong laap division sug-
gested by Martin (1974a, 1974b, 1974c, 1975)1
1.2.3 What pattern can be drawn from such similarities and differences in terms
ofgeographical distribution? I
1 .2.4 Is there any correlation between the inter-relationship of Chong dialects in
Chanthaburi and geographical factors such as distance and natural barriers ofthe area
studied? And how can this correlation be visualized by using GIS program?
1.3 Objectives
1 3.1 To survey Chong dialects using basic wordlist comparison

l.3.2To distribute the survey results by using a GIS program
1.3.3 To display the pattem of similarities and differences between Chong dialects in
Chanthaburi in the form ofdialect maps

1.3.4 To discuss inter-relationship between different dialects of Chong in
Chanthaburi in relation to some geographical factors such as distance and natural barriers.
1.4 Research Framework
Basically, this research bases on the framework of dialect geography (Chambers

and Trudgill, 1980; Kirk, Sanderson and Wddowson, 1985). The research process is
comprised a dialect survey (data and analysis) and mapping (geographical distribution of
analyzed data). The mapping process is applied with Geographical Information System,
also known as GIS, which is a computerized system capable ofhandling spatial informa-
tion (Demers, 2001; ESRI, 1996). Though this research attempts on applying a new
technology to dialect mapping, it benefits from the established framework ofdialect ge-
ography (See Chapter 3 in this thesis).

Isara Choosri Introduction / 6
1.5 Hypotheses
1.5.1 Dialects of Chong language in Chanthaburi province exist beyond an ap-
proximate division of Chong lcc and Chong haap.
1.5.2 An application oIGIS on dialect mapping provides an effectual framework
for studying linguistic phenomena in geographical context.

1.5 . 3 Geographical distance and natural barriers correspond to the degree ofsimi-
larities and differences between dialects ofChong in Chanthaburi
1.6 Expected Outcome and Benefits
1.6.1 The degree of similarities and differences between dialects of Chong in

Chanthaburi being determined.
1.6.2 A modification ofdialectal division to accommodate up-to-date data and to
clearly demarcate Chong dialect areas.
1.6.3 Production of maps displaying dialectal variations of Chong language in

/- Chanthaburi.
1.6.4 A more comprehensive explanation of the inter'-relationship between dia-

lects of Chong in Chanthaburi province.
1.6.5 Increased know-how ofthe application ofGIS to linguistic studies.

1.6.6 Clear understanding of diferences of Chong dialects contributes to the
development ofChong orthography, an important tool for maintenance and revitalization
ofthis endangered, indigenous language in the twenty frst century.
1.7 Scope
1.7.1 In terms of area scope this study will cover Khao I(hitchakut and PongNam
Ron districts, Chanthaburi province, where Chong villages are found (see Maps 2-3).
1.7 .2 Data collection are conducted as prerequisite for producing maps, which
represent the similarities and differences ofChong dialects in Chanthaburi province as of

the year 2000-2001 when data was collected.
1 .7.3 The validity claim of similarities and diferences between dialects of Chong
in this thesis are bounded within phonological and lexical subject matter, as accounted in
the basic wordlist used in the research.

Fac. of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 7
1.8 Research Conditions
Because chong language is declining in the number ofspeakers, especially in the
southern part of Khao Kh.itchakut district and in pong Nam Ron district, it is unlikely to
maintain a proportionate sampling ratio between total speakers and informa'ts. The
choice ofinformants in this research was selective and based solely one the abil.ity oftheir
chong speech. Therefore, the speech variants that might arise from gender and age
differences were not fully controlled. with that condition, phonetic variants th4t are
considered as inlluenced by differences in gender and age were not regarded as a deter-
minant factor in this study.
1.9 Terminology
Dialect: In this thesis 'a dialect' means solely as .a regional dialect,, or a lan_
guage variety associated with a place (Trask, l99Z: 68).
Dialect mapping: The documentation ofdialectal conditions and developments

in the form ofa geographic map on which the results of linguistic-geographic analyses
are presented either as a non-keyed text (e.g. individual words in their regional distr.ibu-
tion) or in the form of symbols (Asher, 1994).

Geographical Information Systems (European terminology), Geographic In-
formation systems (US terminology) or GIS. Generally, GIS are tools that allow for
the processing of spatial data into information, generally information tied explicitly to,
and used to make decisions about, some portion ofthe earth. The definition ofGIS used
in this thesis follows what Demers (2000: 9) proposes as comprised of (1) a data input
subsystem that manages spatial data from various sources (2) A data storage and re-
trieval subsystem that allows retrieval, updating, and editing of data. (3) A data manipu-
lation and analysis subsystem that performs tasks on the data, aggregates and disaggre-
gates, estimates parameters and constraints, and performs modeling functions. (4) A
reporting subsystem that displays all or part ofthe database in tabular, graphic, or map
form.

Isara Choosri Previous Studies ofChongPeople and Language / 8
CHAPTER II
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF CHONG PEOPLE
AND LANGUAGE
2.1 Early Accounts
It is proposed that chong people in eastem Thailand have ethnic affliation with Saoch
Samre and Pear, orPorr people inthe southwest ofTonl6 Sap in cambodia (Khoun, 1975:'
79) who speak the same Pear language (Martin, 1975: 85). The oldest account ofthese
peoples dated back as far as the ancient Khmer Empire of 14m century. A chinese diplomat
at the Khmer court about 700 hundred years ago, refened to 'Chuang' as uncultured people
who were enslaved and sold in the town (chou Ta Kuon, 1987: section 9. Slaves):
...These savages are captured in the wild mountainous regions, and are ofa
wholly separate race called Chuang (brigands) After being brought to tow4
they dare not venture out oftheir owners' houses' So looked down are these
wretchesthatwhe&inthecourseofadispute,aCambodiarriscalled.Chuang'
by his adversary dark hatred strikes to the marrow ofhis bones' ' ' '
Both Thai and foreigrrers have documented the existence of chong-Xong chawng
or chuang-as a minority people of eastem Thailand for at least 150 years. one of the most
famouspoetofthenSiam,sunthornPhu,derogatorilyreferredtoChongpeopleinhisfre-
quently-quoted t tavelogoe Nirat Muang Klaeng (Kaengor /kre:4/ means
'ring' in Chong)'
an account ofhisjoumey to what is now a district ofRayong province ln amenoiby Abbd
Pallegoix ( 1853) concerning the actual state ofthe catholic mission ofSiam
in 1853' the French
abbot had described that the kingdom's then six-million population

was mainly comprised of
he also mentioned
the Siamese, Lao, Chinese, Malay, Cambodian, and Mon (Peguans)' But
a few indigenous peoples, living in forest areas, who had paid yearly tributes to the king;
4):
among them were theXong or Chong in Anglicized spelling @allegoia 1853:
Ilyaenoutreplusieurstribus(premiershabitantsdupays)quiviventaumilieu
ce sont: les
des plus 6paisses for€ts, et qui paient tribut au roi chaque ann6e,
Karieng, les Lava" les Kha et les Xong.

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahdol U」 v MAcm亜 → /9
AfamousEnglish diplomat, John Crawford (1856: 383) went furtherby locating where
the Chongpeople had dwelled:
...The wild race ofthe Chong inhabits the mountains to the east ofthe prov-
ince ofChantibun, on the eastem side ofthe Gul{ and the Kariengs have tlteir
locality to the nortn ofthem (sic). The Lawa are found in the range ofmoun-
tains lying between the river of Menam and the river of Martaban. In refer-
ence to the Siamese, the Lao, and Kambojans, those tlree rude tribes stand
in the same relation as do the mountaineers ofHindustan to the civilised Hin-
dug or those ofthe Philippine Islands to the advanced inhabitants ofthe low-
lands.... I
Thereforg I assume that the existence ofChong people should be widely known to
the Siamese people at that time from one pfwhom Pallegoix had acquired such information.
Dctionary of the Sianese Imrguage the fust Thai-language dictionary published in 1873
-
by a well-known American missionary Dr Bradley- or Mor PladJay in Thai tongue--{e-
fines the word lChong' as jungle people, with resemblance to the Khd, who settled in
Chanthaburi. More later texts (Seidenfaden, 1967; Kannika, 1979;M. Sribusara" 1981)
which mentioned Chong seem to adopt the same viewpoint as those writers ofthe colonial
period, considering Chong as primitive people ofthejungle. Eventhe Thai official dictionary,
published by royal academy, still contains a derogatory and somewhat misleading definition of
theword'Chong' defining them as'jungle' people (Ratchapunditstarl 1982:258).
What allthese sources have in common is an unvaried picture ofthe Chong as max-
ginal and primitive people. Thevoices ofthe Chong thunselves mean very little or go unheard.
How do the the chong view themselves? Do they think ofthemselves as people ofthejungle?
Do they regard themselves and their speech as uniform? From a recent publication by a
ChongBhik*kr @uddhist monk), locally known as Zznrg Phor Khian,wewill know how a
Chong feel about what people had written ofand talked about Chong (Dharmasarakhun,
1gg8). It is remarkable that the venerable Bikkhu named his pamphl el Aryadham chong
Chcmthaburi or ' Chong civilization in Chanthaburi' to advocate that his own race was and is
a civilized one and certainly not 'savage.' Such attitude can be interpreted as a reaction to
centuries ofcultural humiliation. Dharmasarakhun (I 998) proposes that it is pointless to clas-
sifi one race as Khon Pda (ungle people) and another as Khon Muang (urban people)
because no one can claim to be mentally and morally superior to another.

Isara Choosri Previous Studies ofChong People and Language / 10
From my briefreview ofprior studies on Chong people, I come to realize that it is
essential that those who are interested in Chong should rely more on the insider's view in order
to come up with a more balanced description oftheir language and culture. Likewisg in the
following section about the distinction between Chong olChanthaburi and ofTrat zuch insider's
view is essential forjudging the matter.
2.2 Chong and Kasong (Chong ofThat)

I
Although Thai people and foreign missionaries must have leamt ofthe Chong settle-
ment in the eastern Siam, namely Chanthaburi, for more than a century it was not until I 93 5
ihat field data otlhe language, collected by Nai Noe Isarangura" appeared in Joumal of Siam
Society. Ironically, his is not data from Chanthaburi but from Trat. For no apparent reason,
the group of people is usually called by outsiders as'Chong.' However, by comparing vo-
cabulary ofChong ofTrat with Chong ofChanthaburi, Headley ( 198 5) sets them apart from
each other by phonological criteria based on two treatments ofProto-Pearic forms: *j- > c-
and *-rlJ > -y--w in then case ofChong ofChanthaburi versrs *j- > s- and *-rlJ > -rl-l in the
case ofChong ofTrat. To illustrate such a proposition we can browse at a few lexical items
from the following 'Chong' commrmities:
Table 1: Some dilferences between Chong and Kasong
Chrnthr burl (C hon g) Trrt (Kr.ons)

G loss
Trkhlrn Thung W.ng DrI Chum phon
Thong Srphrn Krrpr!e
(Sur€khr, (Huffmrn, (S Irlp h e n, (XunI'rdee (S uIe e,
1982) r9r5) 2001) 1996) 2002)
'drunk' pl'oy puv puu I
'to bart'
'to sit; 3ray' kij
c lr o:j
'lo p!rn!' ohooy cLool
L!nuny k rn u,j kheuuul

cha0
Marks of 'registers' are witheld.)

ヽ
M.A. (Linguistics) /
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mand。 lu亜 v
11
ChongofTratisnotonlysetapartfromthoseofChanthaburibecausetheyhave
areas but the former group also possesses a different
phonology ln all
settled in far away
dialects ofChanthaburi Chong there is no use offinal /-U,

which occurs in the rest ofPearic
languages(Headley|985:446.447).Besides,IwasinformedbyMsSuneeKamnuansin'a
of Dan
Mahidol University M.A. student in linguistics, who is describing Kasong syntax
sub-district, Trat province, that the people whom are allegedly called Chong
actu.
Chumphon
,Kasong. ' Considering different autonyms and distinct phonologies, it is
ally call themselves
and Trat
controversial whether one should call those who speak similar dialects in Chanthaburi
bY the same ethnonYm 'Chong. '
To better distinguish two ethnic groups ofChanthaburi and ofTrat, it is then convenient
to apply the distinction ofChong and Kasong. This not or y mnforms to their different autonyms
but also highligtrts their distinct phonologies. However, those who are interested in the relation-
ship between Chong and Kasong, which is not an issue in this thesis, should further compare
their vocabularies fiom available sources (Kunwadi, 1996; Surekha, 1982; Huffrnaq
1985;
J. Siriphen 2001) to find more details.
2.3 Chong PeoPle
Up to now, the most extensive field research on Chong population and occupation is
people in
the work by Weber (1976), which gives a broad view of settlements of Chong
Chanthaburi province. Socio-economic data such as land uses and agricultural mode were
also presented. Although names ofChong villages, number ofhouseholds and population
were given, the method for obtaining such data is questionable. Weber (1976) depended on
hishalf-Chongassistantfordecidingwhichvillageshouldbelabeledas'Chong.'Thenall
households and population in such villages were regarded as Chong households and popula-
tion. Therefore, this method left out the possibility ofthe mixture ofChong-speaking and Thai-
speaking populations that should have begun several decades ago. Besides, in this report,
thereisnomentioningofChongpopulationinPongNamRondistrictatall.
However, the problem ofestimating Chong population is not unique in Weber (1976)
as the estimated number ofChong speakers in Thailand varies from source to source; to cite an
it may,
extreme instance, 500 in Grimes (2000) and 4,000 in Suwilai et al. (2001). Be that
as
the tist ofChong communities given in Weber (1976) is by no means incorrect. It

is confirmed
-,
ヽ
by data collected by Mahidol Ethnolinguistic Map Project during 1990s. The project had
obtained data from community leaders who would estimate the number of speakers of what-
ever languages in their villages. By comparing data from both sources one would find that the
Chong population has been diminishing.
Table 2: Estimate ofChong Population
MU Ethno lingu13tiC
M ap ProJect'3
V lll.8 e Sub‐ dis tric t D ls tric t W eber D nt■ b■ 8e
(1976)
T ot口 : Chong
Pop PoP.
T!khian K h80 K hltchakut 310 470

La.oph.ng
Thong
Takhian K hao K hitchakut 449 370 130
Trkhr.n ThorS I
Thong
Ttlhnn Thong 2 Tit hi! n K hac K hitchakut 202 240

Thong
Takhi6n K hao K hltchakut 190 262 15'
T3ヒ h■ n Thon8 3 ThonS
Takb● n Thon3 4
T!khirn K hao K hitchakut 319 255
Tho ng
C ham K hloh Trkhien Khao Kh“ chakut 420 294

Tho ng
Takhi.D K hao K hitchakut 238 480

Thuog K ab in
Tho ng
T.khisn K hao K hltchakut 313 1290 i032

K hlo ng Phlu I Thong
N8口 K hun i Tsk hia n

K h8o K hitchakut 327 617 308
Thong
K hloos Phlu 2
T.khi.n K h80 K hitchakut 675 46● 325
Thong
Trk hh D
K hao K hitchakut 402 956
C hankhlem
Thong
T.khirn K hao K hitchakut 249
I( hlong Yai T honS
Tak hla n 157

N1!! K hun 2 K h8o K hitch3kut 282 522
ThOn3
63
ThuDg S.phrn I P hluana K hao K hitChakut 224 629
Thung S rph.n 2 PhluarS K hao K hichakut 289 〕

'9
Di! Dt€ng Phlu6ng K hao K hitchakut
C hak Thai P hluang K h80 K hichakut 922 575
P.k P hlu!n8 PhluanS K h80 K hichakut 218 254 N on.

K hao K hitchakut 5'5 442
P bb! na P hlua ng K hao K hitchakut 371 732
K r!tbing Phluang K hao K hichakut 540 1282 513
Ph..g K ! 16.n8 Phlu.DS Khao Kh:tC ha k ut 425

P ucヽ M akh.m 369 509
W .nB K raphrac Thap sti PonB N.m Ron 1118 13

ヘ

ミ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Ul■ v M.A. (Linguistics) / 13
It is apparent that most ofthe villages locate in Takhian Thong and Phluang sub-
districts that are currently under the administration ofKhao Khitchakut district. By comparing
data ofWeber (1976) with that ofMahidol Map Project, we will find that Chong population
has diminished more rapidly in Phluang area than in Takhian Thong area (see Map 40 in
Chapter 6). lfthe current data were sufEcient, this would make Takhian Thong and Khlong
Phlu the most concentrated area ofChong population in Thailand. While in Phluang and its
adjacent areas are found sharp decrease in Chong population, and in Tambon Thap S.ai of
Pong Nam Ron disrict only small remnants of elderly Chong speakers. But we should not be
definitely certain ofthe figure until a proper census on Chong speakers is conducted in the
field.
Thanks to rising consciousness of some Chong speakers in Tambon Takhian Thong, a
projea for revitalizing the use ofChong language has been initiated. As a part ofzuch project,
a language census will be launched in mid-200 1 by locals in order to determine the number and
competence ofChong speakers in two sub-districts: Takhian Thong and Khlong Plrlu. The
result from this future census will better depict the status ofcurrent Chong population in its
most concentratd area.
2.3.1 Settlement Areas
From various sources, for instance Pallegoix (1853), Crawford (1856), Seidenfaden
( 1967), Weber ( 1976), and Kannika ( 1979), it can be assumed that the Chong had lived in the
hinterlan( in contrast with coast are4 ofChanthaburi for centuries. That area is distinct for its
rugged landscape with small patches offlat plains here and there which are not suitable for wet
rice cultivation. But their Soi Dao Mountainq from where Chanthaburi River originates, has a
reputation for its abundance offlora and fauna. Most ofthese mountains have now become
forest reserves, a wildlife sanctuary and a national park.
The forests on and around Soi Dao mountain range are watersheds from where
Chanthaburi River originates. Elderly Chong people living in Tambon Ktrlong Ptrlu still remem-
bered forests that were so dense that they had to spend an entfe day to travel down south to
now Tambon Phluang halfuay to Chanthaburi. A buffalo-cart trip to the city ofChanthaburi
would happen once a year in the dry season as that was the only time when a cart could cross
the river. They would have to spend the night e roule aschurthaburi was too far to reach in
ヽ

Isara Choosri Previous studies ofChong People and Language / 1 4
one day. It is now a 40-kilometer drive.
Chong speakers call their own village slr* that is derived from Khmer srai or town,
with slight change in meaning. Sometimes they c alledit sltk phrii that means 'forest village',
possibly to emphasize their environs. Chandler ( 1996) proposed that ancient Khmer commu-
nities could be classified into 3 categories: towns orsnr/r, rice-producing villages around srut,
and forest villages. Martin ( I 974) described the Pear of the Cardamom Mountains, an affiliate
ofChong in Cambodi4 as cultivator-gatherer who live both on subsistence cultivation and

forest goods gathering. We may deduce that Chong communities ln Thailand had developed
from small forest villages ofthe same sort.
Recent decades had seen deforestation and the introduction ofcommercial fruit or-
chards and small rubber plantations, mostly by the Thai-speaking populatiorL into Chong home-
lands. More recent trend is the settlement oflao-speaking newcomers who came for tapioca
planting. A Chong planter illustrated the fact that fruit orchards in Khao Khitchakut district
were quite recent by pointing to types offruits being grown. He said that new planters oflittle
means would begin with rambutan-the case of Chong areas-that bears fruits faster than
durian and mangosteen. Therefore, Chong settlements in the area can be summarized as
developed from forest harnlets ofsubsistence cultivator-gatherer, with the hnovation in recent
years ofcommercial fruit growing and rubber planting in cultivable plains. Most ofthe forest
areas are proclaimed national properties.
2,3.2 Livelihood
As stated earlier Chong communities are assumed to have developed as forest ham-
lets ofsubsistence cultivator-gatherer Like other Mon-Khmer people, the Chong have lexical
distinction between dry and wet rice cultivation luaj baaT'dry (filed) rice' and haaj see'wet
(filed) rice.' Although Chong people must have known wet rice cultivation, no irrigation sys-
tem for rice farming was introduced. Maybe it is due to rugged landscape and scarcity of
plains. Even Chong people today only grow rice for household consumption. So it is rather
safe to say that earlier Chong had to depend on the forest as another source ofsubsistence and
income.
Seidenfaden (1967), Kannika ( 1979) and Surekha ( 1987) provide similar descrip-
tions ofthe livelihood ofChong people before commerciat fruit growing began. They were

Fac. of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ M A. (Linguistics) / 15
known as keen planters and gatherers ofcardamom (Amomum kervanh Pierre) seeds or
lcawaap From interviews with senior Chong who had helped their fathers in such enterprise,
cardamom planters had to stay on the mountains for a whole six-month period. No women
were allowed to enter the cardamom fields as they would make the plant wither This relation-
ship between Chong ofChanthaburi and cardamom is in accordance with a similar relationship
between the Pear ofCambodia and the expensive spice (Osbome 1979: 58).
.Until the French stopped the procedurg because they saw it as an example
..
of slavery aminority group of southwestern Cambodia had the hereditary

task ofsuy'plying the Cambodian court with cardamom seeds. In return for
this tribute the Pear or Por hill people were allowed to live largely undisturbed
in their malaria-infested environment....
Apart from cardamom, other important forest goods include valuable sandalwood
and wood tar. The first is highly needed for perfume production and now under legal protec-
tion due to the threat ofextinction. The second product has many uses such as plank coating
boat caulking, and torch production. Chong people ceased collecting those goods decades
ago for many reasons such as the nationalization offorests and the innovation ofcommercial
fruit growing.
In the past, hunting was considered an indispensable prowess ofChong males. Even
today, when meat, pork and poultry are available in nearby markets, some ofthem still love
shooting wild animals. Shallow streams allow them fish and shrimp. But these practices are
limited and considered as a secondary mode of livelihood. The Chong who own land are
mostly fruit growers and rubber planters. Landless Chong become hands for hire.
2.3.3 Customs
In this section I try to wrap up my previous field experience in Chong communities
since November 1999, against the background ofprevious publications on Chong customs. It
should be noted that what I took from published sources are referenced while my own obser-
vations are not.
Cenerally, Irlrrl or Buddhist temple is the ritual center in each Chong village. Ifthere
were none in some villages, people in such communities would have to go to Wat innearby
villages. This is usually the case where there are villages in proximity. Such practice is not very
far different from what is done in traditional Thai villages, especially the Buddhist ones.

However, the culturalidentity ofthe chong can also be found in non-Buddhist cus-
toms. Some ofunique Chong customs are wedding ceremony,laatdk 'big affair,' and ances-
tor-spirit trances, phii hirl 'shelfghost' and phii rooy 'shack ghost'(see also, Kannika,
1979; Surekha 1987). It should be noted that these kinds ofrituals are organized outside the
Wat aidby lradiftonal master ofceremonies instead ofBuddhist monks.
In the case ofwedding ceremony, we will see how the chong traditionally regard the
good begiffring ofa new family. In addition to food ofering to the spirits, required equipment
and provision include a bucketful ofunhusked rice and a traditional ax. During the ceremony
the master would enact the important role: forest going. The master would take an ax and
walk in circle around bride and groom, humorously followed by few people playing the role of
hunting dogs. ln the rice bucket stands a symbol made ofbamboo wickerwor[ it represents
a tree trunk. Then the master would hack the tree; this could be interpreted as clearing the
growrd for cultivation or extracting wood tar. We may infer from the acts atraditional mode of
subsistence of early Chong people, the cultivator-gatherer
occasionally, the chong will seek rapport with their ancestors tkough trances in the
phii hiy and phii rooy ituals. Surekha (1987) describes that such rituals differ only inthe
time settings: the first held at nighttime, and the second at daytime. These ancestor-worship-
ping rituals serve Chong communities as reinforcing the customs and traditions (Surekha 1987:
70; English translation mine):
Apart frombeing the gathering ofkinsmen, for updating the welfare of clan
mlmbers, these ceremonies are instrumental in controlling the behaviors of
descendants. During the ceremonies, trances, in the name ofpassed-away
parents or grandparents, would cry or deny food offerings iftheir descendents
irad misbehaved. They would reproach them and demand improvement' Such
crying and denial ofofferings would continue until the misbehaved descen-
dents agree to improve. In most cases they would actually improve' Unac-
ceptable behaviors include being heedless ofsuffering kinsmen, lack ofsup-
port for tiving elders, laziness, negligence ofwife and kids suffer, dishonesty,
and insincerity to clan members.
My own observation of htunan interactions in chong communities confirms the above

excerpt. chong communities are mostly bounded by kinship. Generally, senior chong earn
considerable respect from younger Chong both inside and outside families'

Fac. ofGrad. Studies, Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics)/ 17
2.4 Studies ofChong Language
Prior studies ofChong language cover three main categories ofinterest. The first
category comprises ofdescription ofphonology and syntax ofChong language as spoken in a
particular village: Ban Takhian Thong(Surekha, 1982) Ban Thung S4plan Slufrnan, 1985)
Bcot Thng TaJn (Sirikam, 1987) and Ban Nam Khun (Sufon,l99l). Among these works
only Huffinan ( 1985) is written in English, thus, becoming most well known to international
linguists who are interested in Chong language. And it is through Huftnan's description that
the language has been known as possessing 4 register contrasts (see section 2.5.3). However,
Surekha ( 1982), a master's thesis submitted to Sri Naktarinthnawirote University and super-
vised by Theraphan who later did an instrumental study on Chong registers (1992), also de-
scribed the language as having 4 register contrasts but her work is in Thai, thereforg less well-
known than Huffinan (1985).
Works in the second category concem the particular topic of'register' in Chong pho-
nology. Because this is the only language in Thailand to have such a 4-way contrasts in voice
quality (sates ofthe glottis), the topic becomes the focal point for linguists looking for a 'solid'
proofofsuch phenomena. So far there are instrumental studies ofregister by Theraphan

(1992) and Edmondson (1996) that confirm the four-way distinction ofregister in Chong
language
Theraphan (1992)claims to have surveyed many Chong villages but selected two
informants from Ban Krathing who were brought to work in a phonetic laboratory because she
found their dialect most suitable for studying about registers in Chong. Although it is not her
aim to compare the use of registers in various localities, Theraphan (1992) also remarks that,
from her preliminary survey ofChong communities, she observed a phonological shift from
register-complex system to tonal system, of which the extreme case is Ban Cham Khloh,
Takhian Thong sub-district. I find this claim rather controversial as the village is located in the
middle ofmany Chong villages in Takhian Thong and Khlong Phlu sub-districts, the most
concentrated area ofChong speakers. Ifthe Cham Khioh variant is that much inclined to the
tonal system, it implies that the whole area should develop in the same direction. According to
my field experience in Cham Khloh and adjacent villages, it might be an overclaim to say that
the Chong language in this area is becoming tonal.
Edmondson (1996) studied the same topic with an informant in Ban Khlong Phlu

ヽ
(Khao Khitchakut district), with different tools and techniques, and confirmed what Theraphan
( 1992) concluded about the nature ofChong registers. Ifwe followthe line of snrdies in the 1"
and 2 groups, we would find that the 'register' problemwas the main interest oflinguists who
got involved with Chong language.
Works in the third category are comparative studies of the Pearic branch of Mon-
Khmer languages, including Chong, in Thailand and Cambodia by Martn (197aa 1975) and
Headley (1985). Therefore, it might not be an exaggeration to say that Martin is one of the
pioneers ofthe study ofPearic languages. She is not only the first to mention ton gloUal
(gtottal tone) that students ofChong language would now call 'creaky voice,' it is also in her
comparative works that the distinctio nchong haap"ttdistrict de Pang Ngon" and chong /ac
..de
la region de Thung Kebin ' (Ma rtin 197 4b: 431)had been proposed to mark main difler-
ences between dialects ofchong in chanthaburi province. Pang Ngon or Phang Ngawn is the
name of a village in Pong Nam Ron district and Thung Kebin or Thung Kabin is a village in
Khao Lhitchakut district. Huffinan (1985)regards the dialect ofThung Saphan, whose pho-
nology he described, as belonging to Chong /cc. Linguistic evidenc€s to support such distinc-
tion will be recounted in section 2.6.

However, it is in Headley (1985) that isoglosses were drawn to neatly divide the
Pearic branch by phonological criteria. He marks Chong of Chanthaburi from Trat by pointing
to diferent treatments of
*j- and *-rl-l between the first and the latter groups. In all dialects of
Chanthaburi, *j- and

*-rl-l beco me lc-l arrd /-wl respectively, but in Chong ofTrat they be-
come s- and -l (see Tabte 1 in section 2.2). Theq he subdivides chong /aa from chong
hnp
by using another criterion, the treatment of*-s. TheProto Pearic *-s becomes /-tl in Chong
/co and Ahl in Ch ong lnap.
It is remarkable that, except for Martin (197 4a), all researches about chong in
Chanthaburi province are derived from field data coUected in Khao Khitchakut district To
follow Huftnan ( 1985) these data are collected from the chong /ac proper Since there is no
direct study on dialects ofChong and descriptive linguists seem to be satisfied with the distinc-
tion ofChong /ac and Chong haap, nobody further investigates or tries to validate the division.
Recently Siriphen (2001) attempted a comparative study ofchong phonologies in
Ban Khlong Phtu (Khao Khitchakut districtFthe same area as in Edmondson (1996)-and
Ban Wang Kraphrae @ongNam Ron district). She found more diferences between dialects

ヽ
Fac ofGrad Studies,MahidolU」 v M A cingu燎にS)/19
ofChong in Khao Khitchakut and Pong Nam Ron than already accounted in Martin ( 1974)
and Headley (1985). Also, the results ofstudy by Siriphen (2001) seem to strongly confirm
the distinction ofChong /ac and Ch ong haap.
However, within the past two decades, more data from the Chong /aa proper have
been collected. It is temptingfor students ofChong language to look for differences in such
data and see whether Chong /ca is a unified entity.
Quite recently, a well-known Buddhist monk, who is also a Chong of Ban Krathing,
published his pamphlet on Chong culture, including a wordlist transcribed with Thai script and
grouped according to semantic domains (Dharmasarakhun, 1998). In the introduction he
mentions that there are geographical varieties among Chong speakers, which he puts into 3
groups. First he sets his own dialect, belonging to Phluang proper, apart from what is spoken
in Takhian Thong proper. However, these two dialects share some words that differ from
what is spoken in Pong Nam Ron district. He also provides examples to illustrate such distinc-
tions that are similar to what I have heard from other Chong speakers who were aware of
regional varieties in their own language.
I further compare dialeas ofChong from wordlists in various documents in order to

roughly estimate the degree ofdiferences amongthem (section 2.6). Before looking through
them it is essential that we take a briefview ofChong phonolory. The following section is a
summary ofChong phonology, which is summed up from sources mentioned here in section
2.4 together with my prior knowledge ofthe language as spoken in Ban Khlong Phlu. On the
explanation ofChong registers I depend largely on Huftnan ( 1985) Theraphan ( 1992) and
Edmondson ( 1996) that are so far the most authoritative sources on the subject. Diferences
found in these sources will be treated separately in section 2.6.
2.5 A Sketch ofChong Phonology
For more than 2 decades, the phonological structure ofChong language had been
studied by Thai and international linguists, as mentioned in section 2.4. It is essential to take a
briefview ofChong phonology before reviewing the state ofChong dialects. This section is a
synthesis ofwhat preceding linguists have published on Chong phonology, and ofmy own
experience with Chong speakers in Khlong Phlu area. Most examples are from my own field
notes otherwise references are gtven. Howeveq ifwe examine wordlists in each work men-

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Isara Choosri Previous studies ofChong people and language / 20
tioned in section 2.4, there might be some phonetic differences, but most ofthe sources agree
more or less on the phonemic level (segments and supra-segments [registers]).
2.5.1 Consonants
Place of Articulation
Manner hbial Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
VI Vd Vl Vd VI Vd Vl Vd vI｀
p1
０１
Plosive b t tr' d cch kkb
Nasal m n ユ lo
Fricative (0 s h
TⅢ l
Approximrnt J
Lateral 1
(/rv/ is a labial-velar consonant. )
Most linguists describe that Chong language has 2l consonantal phonemes, excluding
/fl. But, about 2 years ago, when Chong people from Takhian Thong and Khlong Phlu sub-
districts started to collaborate wittr Assoc. Prof Suwilai Premsrirat and linguistic students ftom
Mahidol University on making the writing system for the language, the Chong insisted on put-
ting /fl in the inventory (Suwilai, 2000). But I have found that /fl occurs only in Thai loan
words, for instance, /ftn/ 'dust' and /fir:4/ 'herd; flock' (from Thai /ftu4f .
Initial consonants:
Al1 consonants can appear in the initial position. For examples:
/pi:4/'ripe'
/ptri:5/ 'fishhook'
/bo:t/'younger sibling'
ItaH 'big'
/thak/ 'to be tom'

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Fac. ofGrad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics)/21
ldak/ '3'd person pronoun'
lcak/ 'shoot'
lch# 'seed'
ke*vl 'bark'
/khenv/'call'
l?icl 'excrement'
lmc?/ 'beautiful'
hakl 'very'
lJnpl 'curly(hair)'
lqaj/ 'heavy'
ha:.j/ 'nce'
hcryl 'embrace'
/wa:/ 'monkey'
/ja:ry' 'gibbon'
ヽ
/le:.k/ 'chicken'
Final Consonants:
Ofall consonants only /p t c k ? m n Jr. I h w j/ can appear in the final position.
For examples:
Itapl 'bite'
/patl 'abandon'
/pacl 'broken'
lpualr.l'pick'
lkha.la?l 'leaf
/lCe.nam/ 'medicine'
/?arl'this'
It\a;g/ 'weave'
/pa.q/'flower'
ke.pil 'coconut shell'
lke.panvl 'buffalo'
/haj/ 'spicy'
ヘ

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Isara Choosri Previous Studies ofChong People andLangtage I 22
Consonant Clusters:
plosives. But in
Medial /r/ and /u appear in consonantal clusters after labial and velar
a rare cases we may find medial /il after velar plosive in Thai loan words such as /kwa:/
,wide,, thus, we can concluded that it is a non-chong combination. There are also a set of
words with /ml-/ and /mr-/ as initial cluster For example:

/pri:/'monitor'
/plc/ 'cooked rice'
/phlu{ 'thigh'
/phrarn/'five'
/me:?w klo:?j/ 'snake-head fish'
/tug kbla:w/'testicles'
/ka:6/ 'branch'
/k\ury' 'chicken coop'
tkwa:ry' 'wide' (Thai loan word)
&e.mr.icl 'pepper'
/ke.mlu../ 'betel leaf
2,5.2 Vowels
Front Central Back
Hgh ii: ii: uu:

Md eel eel oo:
I-ow eel aai cc:
Diphthongs: ie ie ue
2.5.3 Register system

MostofpriorresearchesonChongphonologyagreethatthereare4distinctivevoice
quality contrasts or register complexes. For the description of the 4 registers' I
rely on
Edmondson (1992).

た
Fac. ofGrad. Studies, MahidolUniv M.A. (Linguistics)/23
Register 1. Modal voice at syllable onset and throughout the syllable.

/traun/'ask'
/baj/ 'dryfarming'
Register 2. Modal voice at onset followed by creaky voice.
/tbatlm/ 'crab'
/khu|/ 'mongoose'
Register 3. Breathy voice at ons€t.
/kbuj/ 'shadow'
/rc.rjl 'hundred'
/pba:j/ 'row (a boat)'
Register 4. Breathy voice followed by creaky voice.
/r-c.:?j/ 'general name for plant of the family Cucurbitaceae'
/pbafjl 'two'
2.5.4 Syllable Structure

A syllable in Chong language C(C)V(VXC)
Monosyllabic words:
/cak/'shoot'
/pralc/'silver'
/paty' 'flower'
/khra:/'road'
Disyllabic words:
/ke.tcq/'six'
ke.ta:$/ 'ax'
/pa.tew/ 'left-side'
lp.tet4l 'right-side'

Isara Choosri Previous Studies ofChong People andLangtage I 24
2.6 Dialects of Chong: the State of Knowledge
So far there is no direct study on dialects ofChong, and the most relevant literatures
on the topic are Martin (1974b) and Headley (1985). Martin (1974a, 1974b,1974c,1975)
consistently applies the distinaion ofChong /cc and Chonghaapinallherworks conceming
the Pearic peoples and languages. Following these studies, many writings that directly or
indirectly concem the Chong language in Chanthaburi take for granted that there are only two
major dialects in the area: Chong bc ofMakham district (now belonging to Khao Khitchakut
district) and Chongftaap ofPongNamRon district (HuffinarL 1985; Suriya, 1995; Edmondson,
1996).
However, there are some master's theses in Thai, having been done during the last two
decades, that can be used together as accounts ofdialects ofChong especially about Chong
bc. Table3 is the list ofChong communities whence linguistic data were collected.
There is no doubt that Chong /aa (Khao Khitchakut) and Chong haap (Pong Nam
Ron) represent two extremities ofChong dialects. But it is also worthwhile to study the varia-
tion within the Chong /aa proper where more data have been collected. As mentioned by
Dharmasarakhun ( 1998), there might be a certain degree ofdialect division between Chong
Thble 3: Chong Communities Mentioned in Previous Studies
bcalities Khao Kbitchakut Pong Nam Ron Sources
Thung Kabin + Martin(1974b)
Smphen(2001)
Khlong Ptrlu +
Edmordso<1992)
Ntt Khtm + Saおn(1991)
Thkhian Thong + Surekha(1982)
nung Ta_In + Sttarn(1987)
Ъ eraphan(1992)
K曖晦 +
Kblldhasaro(1998)
Thtmg Saphan + Hthlan(1985)

Phang Ngon + Manh(1974b)
Wang Kraphrae + Siriptrcn (2001)
(The order ofnames is from north to south and west to east.)

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Fac ofGrad Studie■ ⅣIandol unv M.A. (Linguistics) / 25
speakers oflowerKhao IGitchakut, in Phluang and Chak Thai sub-districts, and those inthe
northem sub-districts ofTakfiian Thong and K}long Phlu.
Let us assume that all Chong villages in Khao Khitchakut are Chong /ac (CL) and all
in Pong Nam Ron are Chong haap (CH). Given the data from Martin (I 974a) that supports
such division, we will add three more sets ofdat4 the first is from Takhian Thong (Surekha
1982), the second from Thung Saphan (Huffinan 1985), and the third from Wang Kraphrae
(Siriphen 2001). IfChong /ac - Chong fiaap assumption is valid, there should be no discrep-
ancies between the first two sets. But in Tables 4 and 5 we will find some discrepancies if we
insist on using the distinction of Cho ng bc and Chong loap.
Thble 4: Comparison of CL and CH
Gl∝ s ⅣL耐h(1974o
Smth ¨ Silinn
(19821 (198o 12001)
CL CIII CLl ∞ CH
`∞ br 割 h句輌 h" k硼
`pぜ COk k・ ok dok klt lcok
`r∞ t' r直五h rcκ え rcct Hh
`lFad' toot looll t∞ t toot toll
Unfo■ unately Ma■ in(1974め provides no irther examples forthese two sets of
correspondences/c― ,そイand/■ ,h/But we canlnd more ofthem ttom Surekha(1982),
Hufhan(1985)and Siiphen(2001)
`ヘ

Thble 5: Comparison ofCL and CH (continued)
Surekhr H uffma n S iriph e n

(leE2) (1e85) (200r)
Gloss
cLl cL2 CH
'ring' cee! kreetl kr e;g
'run' co ok krook kroよ
'harve st' cuu t kruu t k ru:t
'b ark ing loh

loot loot
deer'
pha:h
¨
■
pb at ph at
'to give' ?ih
From Tables 4 and 5 we find two colrespondence sets /c-, k-/ and /-1, -hl that
mark CL from CH. Headley (1985) proposes that the two sets were derived from the proto-
forms *cr- and t-s respectively though he reconstructs or y one word forthe cluster *cr-in
* cre{'ring.' However, we frnd that the CL2 data in both tables difer from the other two in
one point or y. Ifwe bring in more data from other sources, we will find that data from Saifon
( 1991) resemble CL I while data from Sirikam (1987) and Dharmasarakhun (1998) resemble
CLz.
Apart from systematic diferences in consonant cluster and final consonant, we may
find some differences in lexical use that more or less correspond to the 3-way pattem already
mentioned. However, ifwe look through the wordlists in Surekha ( 1982), Saifon ( 1991),
Sirikarn ( 1987) and Huftnan ( 1985), another ambiguity arises. We wil find that initialplosives
that co-occur with the 3d register (breathy voice) are interpreted as aspirated series in the first
two sources and as unaspirated series in the latter two. As proposed in the co-occurrence
chart ofregisters and initial consonant, Theraphan (1992) finds no occurrence ofaspirated
plosives with the 3d register. The following are some ex.imples of such ambiguity.

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Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahldol Uruv M.A. (Linguistics)/27
Table 6: Different'Notation' ofBreathy Voice in Chong
Sure kha S alfo n Sirlkarn H uffm sn

Gloss (198s)
(1982) (1991) (1987)
'morning' phaapRs phaa4 R3 paa13R3 paa0

n3 lria
`ne、 v' phlaaRr pb laa plaaR3 p
taak
'water' tb aakR3 thaakR, taakR,
crluc
`ncsh' chuuc*r cuucR,
l
k01
'stomach' kbuOR, khu tl
Rr
`hold' khiOR, ki]R, kr13
Huffinan ( 1985) acknowledges a certain degree ofaspiration found attached with the
initial plosives but he finds them influenced by the 3d register Oreathy voice) rather than being
aspirated series themselves. Therefore, there are two possibilities; Siriphen (2001), Surekha
( 1982), and Saifon ( 1991) mistake breathy unaspirated plosives for aspirated oneg or, there
might be a different degree ofaspiration attached to initial plosives occur with the 3d register
From all the discrepancies found in recent data ofchong language spoken in the assumed
Chong /ca are4 Khao Khitchakut, it is reasonable to doubt the homogeneity of Chong /"'
So far there is no research that directly concems dialects ofchong, let alone mapping
them together using the framework ofdialectology or dialect geography. This lack could be
attributed to the fact that such a discipline originated from studies ofnational languages such as
Germar\ French and English, which concern about data distribution on a national, or some-
times continental scale(Chambers and Trudgilt, 1980). In Thailand, works ofthat sort are
mostly on one or another variety ofThai language, using variations in tonal systems as criteria
in setting Thai dialects apart. Howeveq there is no restraint for applying dialect geography on
a small language like Chong except that it would be small scaled in comparison to studies of
languages ofwider communication.

´．
Isara Choosri ⅣhtenalsandMethods/28
CHAPTER IⅡ
MATERIALS AND lⅥ ETHODS
3.1 Overview: Data, Analysis, and Distribution
In an introduction on the methods oflinguistic geo$aphy, Kirk, Sanderson and

Wddowson (1985: l1-12) propose that a linguistic map should incorporate three properties:
dat4 analysis and distribution. In fact,-it must answerthe following questions: (l) What data
does this map present? (2) what grouping (analysis) does this map offer? (3) what is the
geographical distribution ofanalyzed data? To apply this schema to my study, I dMde the
work into 3 processes accordingly. The data process involves data collecting and organizing.
However, in t}is thesis the analysis process indicates two overlapping tasks: a) the 'linguistic
analysis' or the grouping ofbasic words according to shared similar and different linguistic
propertieq b) the 'analysis of spatial pattems' or grouping of similarities and differences of

linguistic groupings according to areas and boundaries. The final process is the geographical
distribution ofanalyzed data in map forms. In this thesis such process is done ttuough GIS
applicatiorL by which analyzed data and geogaphical locations arejoined, theq distributed on
base maps.
3.2 Data
To verify my assumption about the inadequacy ofthe two-way division ofChong /ca
and Chonghaap,I had coltected data in some Chong villages, especially in Khao
Khitchakut
district (See Map 3). In the beginning I elicited data from 8 primary villages byusing a 303-
item basic wordlist (See Table 7). After I analyzed the results and observed some patterns of
diffarences, which would be discussed in section 4.3 in Chapter 4, I reduced the original
wordlist to include only 32 words that could represent, in map forms, the systematic differ-
ences among Chong dialects (See Table 8). Then, I elicited more data in another 3 villages,
using the reduced world list in order to see whether it works. Therefore, the data I had
.\ worked on inthis thesis consists ofdialect survey data lrom 11 villages'

Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics)/29
3.2.1 Research sites and informants:
For the prelimnary information of Chong villages, I rely on the electronic database of
Mahidol Ethnolinguistic Map Project. Then, eleven villages in Khao Kitchakut sub-district
and Pong Nam Ron district are selected for this survey ofChong dialect areas. There are two
criteria for choosing the villages: firstly, the selected villages should cover the geographical
range of Chong settlements in Chanthaburi; secondly, the selected villages must be locally-
known as original Chong communities. For example, Ban Khlong Phlu andBan Takhian
Thonghavebeen known,as original Chong communities, now there are many villages that are
´﹁
一
Map 3: Research site

へヽ
Isara Choosri Materials andMethods/30
formally named Ban Khlong Phlu and Ban Takhian Thong, but I chose to survey only one
each. In another case, there is avillage formally namedasBan Khlong Phlu 5, but it is locally
called as Ban Thung Kablr, so I also surveyed this village. In Phluang and Chak Thai sub-
districts, there are old villages like Ban Krathing, Ban Phottg Kalaeng, Ban Thung Saphan
and Ban Thurg Ta-In;they are well-known among Chong speaker as original Chong com-
munities. So, I included these villages in this study. However, there is only one possible choice
ofvillage in Pong Nam Ron district because the condition oflanguage shift in such are is the
most severe and the number Chong speakers are fastly diminishing.
During my survey I divided target villages into 3 groups according to distance and
barriers. I have had personal ties with many Chong speakers in Ban Khlong Phlu where I had
visited many times during the past two years. I also managed to know some speakers in
Takhian Thong sub-district adjacent to Khlong Phlu. So this was the area I mostly stayed. In
fact, these two sub-districts used to be one sub-district, but they were later split because of
population increase. So I define these two sub-districts here as Takhian Thong Proper. Next
is Phluang proper, which includes Ptrluang and Chak Thai sub-districts that earlier belonged to
the same sub-district @hluang), where it is now the most convenient area to go to from the city
of Chanthaburi. But I had to go there by bicycle because most villages are not very close to
the inter-district road, and I had to look for fluent speakers from whom I could elicit data.
Pong Nam Ron district is farther from the city ofChanthaburi than Khao Khitchakut, but there
are regular buses on service because the district is by the highway to Sa Kaeo province, thus,
providing a doorto the northeast region (see Map 2 in Chapter l). However, at the moment
Chong speakers are scarce in Pong Nam Ron proper. Although people told me this was one
ofthe Chong areas, it was dfficult to find just one fluent speaker. The number of speakers in
Phluang proper is far less than in Takhian Thong proper, and there are hardly any Chong
speakers in PongNam Ron district.
A. Villages in lhkhian Thong Proper

l. Ban Klrlong Phlu (the major one is village 4 where Chong are the majority). Main
informant: Chian Phanphai, male, sixty-one. Married to Chong-speaking wife.
2. BanKhlong Phlu 5 (called by the locals as Thung Kabin). Main informant:

Sirichai, male, mid-fifties. Married to Chong-speaking wife.

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mabldol U」 v M A cing面飩iC⇒ /31
3. Ban Namkhun. Main informant: Kampan Sitthicharq malg seventy-one' Wd-

ower.
4 Ban Tdttan Thongヽ亜 nittHnant PhatNgamphro■ fe融,sln‐ nlne
Wldow
‐
象
‘Ｄ
Ban ChamKbloh ManinfOrlllant Chom Saenthawong,femde,町

NIarriedto Chong‐ speaking husband
6 BanLamphang.ヽ輸 infonltant SetWIstt maQ fOrty‐ s破
B.Villagesin Phluang Proper

7 Bantathngヽ 1血価 nnant:SotthuanThongkha■ mat seventy‐ two Mar‐
hedto Chong sp山 Ⅵ畿

8 BanThung Saphan Maininfomant DuangChaingan m」 Q Seventyethree
9 BanThungTa‐ Inヽ価 infom■ nt TamSuthaphote,nuL seventy‐ one
10 Ban PhangKalaengヽ価 infonnant PhuangPrabph前れ female,面 d‐ 鰤 es
C.Vilagesin Pong Nam Ron Proper

∼ ‐
H BanWangKraphrae Mainttnlamt LimPhutthewan,偽 male,si● ninC Mar‐
Hedto Khme「 spe2磁 ng husband ThsWOmanisthe mostable Chong speよ er

that was av“ lable atthetime l wentto the宙 1lage Her httly members do not
speak Chong
3.2.2 Basic Wordlist:
AIst of303 baЫ cwordsused inChongddlylifewas sdectedお mv前 ous sources
hdudhg`SoutheastAsianBasicVocabdary'∞ mpttbythelnsttute ofLanguage andCm‐

ture forRuralDevdopmentttMahidolUn“ 転 PrOtO‐P∽ icVocabdaryα eadley 1985),
“
andotheraddltbnalmiesthatl choseお m∞ tttOther sources such as Surekha(198の ,
"醸
Dharmasarakhun(1998)and Shphen(2001)Thel説 served as a qucttbnnare fOrdiding
dttabmittmants Aft∝ IanalyzedtheК wls,obse― gsomedatapatterls,Isdected 32
wOrdsfrOm the listthat could represent systematiC dコ腱rences among Chongdialects The
reasonisthatlindimoreclearlyunderstoodtOstresSOIWdiStinctdrerences,for example,
rences are
the direrencesin inal consonant and hitial consonant duster Such distinct di3に
elaborated in section 4 2 in Chapter 4 The reduced wordlist is also used as the basis for
production ofmapsshown inChapter 5

八
Isara Choosri Materials and Methods / 32
Thbte 7: Basic Word List Being Used as Questionnaire

80 rvax 60 buy 240 tllree■
l sky 241 four
2 cioud
8l leech 61 push
82 water leecht 242 flve
3 sun 83 nose :::‖ [ 243 six'
4 moon 84 eye 64 take● 244 seven●
5 star 65 get' 245 cight
85 ear
6 wind 86 head 66 keep拿 246 nine
7 rain 87 mouth 67 wash 247 ten'
8 1ightning■ 248 hundred●
88 tooth 68 1aullder
9 thunder 89 tongue 69 split 249 all
10 mist 90 hair 70 tie 250 1uany
ll night 9l neck 171 hit 251 big
12 morning● 92 shoulder 172 siap■ 252 small
13 year● 93 chest 173 cut 253 1ong(Space)
14 water 94 breasts 174 break' 254 1ong(time)
15 earth 75 broken apart摯 255 round 、
95 heart
16 mud 96 belly 76 stab 256 smooth
17 sand 97 intestine 77 dig 257 thick
18 stone 98 liver 78 bury' 258 thin'
19 silver 99 hand 79 scratch 259 wide
20 mountain 100 nail 80 squeeze 260 narrow
21 river bank 101 leg 81 person 261 black
22 wood 102 foot 82 man 262 red
23 tree 103 knee 83 woman 263 white
24 jungle' 104 thighr 84 father 264 greell
25 1eaf 105 calf 85 mothcr 265 blue'
26 bark 06 blood 86 child' 266 yellow
27 thornⅢ 07 bone 87 husband 267 dry
28 nower' 08 skin 88 wife 268 wet
29 root 09 woundt 89 older Sibling' 269 rotten
30 fruit* o nesh 90 younger sibling中 270 full(container)
31 raw● ● 1911 271 dirty
32 seed
33 sap●
雪∬
〕 :ment, [92 we 272 sharp●
273 dull
3 1ive 93 you
34 vine' 4 dic 194 name 274 ne、 v
35 grass S sick 195 rioe fleld' 275 hot
36 thatch● 6 breathe 276 cold
37 banana'
3 8 rattan
7 hear 3'1肌 t" 277 good
278 bad
8 see 198 nall●
39 bat中 9 speak 199 bran' 279 old(person)中
40 bird 20 ask● 200 rice(unhuSked) 280 decP'
41 wing● 21 ask for● 201 husked rice 281 sanle
42 feather 122 call* 202 winnow● 282 direrent
43■ y 123 weep 203 husk■ 中 283 ugly●
44 egg 124 Lugll 204 cooked rice 284 far
45 tail 125 suck 205 alcohol● 285 near
46 claw 126 sPitホ 206 saltⅢ 286“ ght‐ side。
47 horn 127 bite 207 salty 287 1en‐ sideⅢ
48 dog 128 chew 208 sweet 288 here●
49 bark(v)● 129 bloW' 209 chili 289■ lis
50 pig● ● 130 cat(riCC) 210 oook・ 290 that
51 chicken' 131 cat(Sth・ dse) 21l ra■ un∞ oked 291 in
52 duck 132 drink 212 soup 292 where?
53 rlsh 133 drunk' 213 ftre 293 、vho?
54 eel' 134 vomit 214 ftrewood 294 what?
55 crab' 135 cough' 215 bum 295 witll
●
5 6 shri11lp● 136 think 216 smoke 296 how?
57 turtle摯 137 know 217 ash 297 not
58 snakeⅢ 138 count 218 house● 298 do not●
59 rat 139 afraid。 219 stilt*・ 2991■ ust中
60 rabbit 140 want 220 roof 300 1lot yet
61 civet' 41 angry● 221 rope 301 beforeⅢ
62 monkey 42 ashamed● 222 Path 302 aner*
63 deer' 43 sieep 223 village'中 303 already
64 barking deer 44 dreanl' 224 Khmer中
65 tiger● 45 awaken● 225 arow
66 bear
67 rhinoceros中。
46 bathe● 226 crossbow Ùnlnarked'=
47 sit 227 spear
68 buralo
69 cattic
48 stand 228 shoot拿 Southeast Asian
49 walk 229 klll
50 run■ ● Wordlist
7::￨:;‖ 紺lusk 51 conl●
230 basket'
231 drunl' *=Proto―Pcaric
72 wornl 52 enter 232 knife*
73 scorpioll' 53 clitnb。 233 mortar
74 sPider 54 swim 234 pestle (Headley9 1995)
75 1ouse 55 now 235 ring。 **=Additional
76 mosquito 56 play 236 sew
77 ny(n)' 57 dance中 237 weave' Words
78 ant'* 58 sing 238 one
.aヽ、
79 bee' 59 hide' 239 two

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Fac ofGrad Studic■ Mandoludv M.A. (Linguistics)/33
Table 8:Reduced Word List
12 moming 14 water 16 mud 21丘 ver bank

45 tail 50p壇 53 flsh 56 shHmp
64barking d∝ r 66 bear 69 cattle 981Nは
100 na] l10 1esh lll grease 118 see
121 ask fbr 133 drunk 147 sit 150 run
151 come 156 play 160 buy 181 person
197 harvest 205 al∞ hol 212 soup 219J」 t
220 roof 235 ring 279 old 283 ugly 、
The words in the reduced wordlist represent the differences among Chong dialects in
5 groups: final consonant (items 45 ,56,64,111,279), consonant cluster (items 21, 50, 150,
197,219,235),leical ditrerence (items 16, 66, 69, 100, 151, 156,220,283),breathyvoice
and aspiration (items 12, 14, I18, 133, 181,205,212), and vowel height (items 53, 98, I10,
121,147,160). For the discussion ofthese main differences, see section 4.3 in Chapter 4.
3.3 Arralysis
3.3.1 Grouping Similarities and Differences
Data from each locality were compared to determine the phonological and lexical
similarities and differences. Phonological similarities and differences were grouped according
to features such as initial and final consonants, vowels, and registers. Relationships were
traced through similarities and differences ofthese word forms and their correlation with geo-
graphical factors such as distance and baniers. However, the grouping that is based on lexical
and segnrental (consonant and vowel) features is held to be more prominent than the supra-
segmental one.
3.3.2 Comparing with Pearic vocabulary:
Data was also compared with Proto Pearic forms in order to measure their closeness
and distance from earlier forms so that we can group such variants according to their change
pattems In this respect I consulted the Pearic wordlists compiled by Headley (1977, 1978,
1985)

/
Isara Choosri MatcnalsandMethods/34
3.4 Distribution
As stated in section 3.1 and depicted in Figure 1 (Kirk, Sanderson and Wddowson,
1985: 12), mapping incorporates three properties. It is a useful and flexible framework for
dialect geography, especially when GIS is applied to it as in this thesis. We may see that the
application ofGIS occurs mostly in the 'distribution' process.
ANALYSIS
DAT.il DISTRIBUTION
Figure 1: Map Triangle: ProPerties
In this thesis, I apply GIS to the distribution ofanalyzed data and map production.
The following are procedures through which I make dialect maps from survey data. There-
fore, when I apply this principle ofmap properties in this thesis, I consider results ofthe dialect
survey in Chong villages ofChanthaburi province as my primary data. Distinct parts ofthis
data are basic words, that is, linguistic data. Analysis ofdata is particularly a linguistic group-
ing according to sets of similarities and differences between basic words collecled from Chong
villages.
3.4.1 GIS Applied to Dialect Mapping
Geographical Information System, or GIS, is a type ofcomputer software specially
desigred for managing spatial data. Functions of such software may vary from map digitizing,
to coordinate registering, to geographical analysis, to map assembly, to database management,
tO map layout and printing. Some recent Software packages even include remote sensing
capabilities, and some provide a geo-data server engine for servicing the Intemet users. Ap-
plications ofGIS are extensive and diverse atthough they are mostly concemed with the distri-
bution and analysis ofphenomena on the earth's surface. Thus, GIS can serve anybody rang-

Fac. ofGrad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics)/35
ing from a salesperson analyzing hiVher sales territories, a military planner devising defense
strategies, an environmental scientist selecting an appropriate wastedisposal site, to a linguis-
tic student investigating a distributional pattem of languages or dialects in any given a reas. In
Thailand, there has been utilization of GIS in the more geographically related studies such as
environmental sciencg agricultural plarming and forestry. Thereforg to apply GIS to linguistic
geography is also a trial whether it can make such study more convenient and efficient to
manage for ordinary working linguists without background in traditional cartography. For the
comparision between traditional cartography and GIS, see Table 9 @emers, 2000: 9).
Thble 9: Comparison of the Cartographic Process as Applied to

Traditional Cartography (map) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Map GIS
Data collection; aerial photos, Data collection: aerial photo, surveys,

surveys, etc. etc.
Data process ing: aggregatioq Data processing: aggregatiorl

chssing etc; linear process classing phs analysis; circular process
Map production: fnal step except for Map pmduction: not ahnays fnal
reproduction and dissemination step; nonrnlly one nup used to
produce still more
Map reprduction Map re production
The main task ofthis thesis is to produce dialect maps based on dialect survey data by
appllng GIS technology. GIS in itselfis notjust a mapping tools, it should rather be regarded
as a database system capable ofproducing maps. What I did was importing linguistic data into
a GIS project, projecting them on geographical locations, classi$ing, and printing out paper
maps, using ArcView GIS software that is one ofthe most popular tools working on Windows
platform. Regarding this topic, I will discuss the pros and cons ofthis application on linguistic
studies so that those who might want to use the tools for their research project rnight know
about the prerequisites before they attempt a project like this.
GIS is ideatly good for handling a great amount ofdata that would be overwhelming to
handle manually. Let us think about linguistic data from 100 villages, say, covering an area of

ハ
Isara Choosri Ⅳhtcnals and Methods/36
two or three provinces, which include lots ofvariations ofa language. To classifi and distrib-
ute them on locations would take a long time and a lot of labor. With GIS, once we input data,
the program will take care ofthe routine tasks, like recognizing sameness and diference. We
can also put in indices to group data under headings that come from our analysis and interpre-
tation of data. This is what I did when I classified my survey data according to different
treatment ofproto-forms. By classiSing and re-clasifying the data distribution, with some
analyses when needod we could find the geographical pattems oflirguistic phenomenon. This
is a more dynamic, and less time-consuming, method than separating linguistic analysis and
linguistic map-making as two distinct processes. Moreover, the printout process is by no

means the last step as we can still come back to modify or input more data for sustainable,
long-termed monitoring of language situations.
The fact that my s.rrvey data covers a limited area of rwo districts, wittr only 1l villages
included, does not imply the limit ofGIS. Because Chong is a small language u,ith a small set
ofvariations, to cover all the villages will be too redundant and too 'costly' for a onc.person
... research project. In fact, to try the interface ofGIS and a study ofone small language is more
controllable both in terms ofmethodology and resources. I have already proved that this kind
of small research project, which requires fundamental linguistics background and basic com-
puter skills, can be done.
However, it also has some drawbacks. I will mention two major prerequisites that are
needed before one could attempt an application ofGIS on linguistic studies. The frst is the
base map on which our data will be located. The second is to know how to operate GIS
software plus some basic knowledge ofgeography, not to mention hardware and software
tools to be used. Without base maps we cannot make any linguistic or dialect maps, and
without enough time spent on leaming about GIS software and basic geography we will get
stuck very easily.
Thanks to access to nation-wide electronic base maps ofThailand granted to me by
Mahidol Ethnolinguistic Map Projea, where I have worked part-time as a researcher, the first
requisite is not a hindrance. Moreover, I had been responsible for operating the GIS software
for the project for a while before I decided to apply this tool to my thesis project. Those
without both prerequisites should deliberate carefully whether it is worth the cost to obtain
them in order to go ahead with a linguistic geography project. Ifit is worth the cost oftime and

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mand。 lu壼 v M A cingui試に9/37
resources, meaning that project is too big and complicate to handle manually, GIS will be a
useful and powerful tool for such task. On the other hand, ifwe already have access to
software, hardwarq base maps and resource persons, it is worth an attempt to apply GIS to
small, one-person linguistic research project, too.
One minor problem that I encountered during the process ofinputting and distributing
linguistic data is the incompatibility of phonetic symbols with GIS software; this caused some
inconveniences during the course ofthe work. Linguistic data are sometimes coded with non-
roman scripts and diacritical marks, therefore, incompatible with screen fonts recognized by
ArcView GIS. This renders differences in table views and map views. This problem implies
two altemative resolutions: ( 1) stick with IPA symbols and the discrepancies between table
and map views, while accepting that some uncommon symbols will need to be corrected
manually; and (2) avoid IPA symbols and used only roman scripts (ASCtr characters), so as
not to get connrsed and input wrong data. In my thesis I chose the first alternative, but the
second method would be a better choice for those who deal with huge amount ofdata.
In this thesis, I use a PC-based GIS software called ArcView GIS that works on a
Wndows platform. Users can easily point and click to make maps with no need to draw or
remember complex commands as in line{rafting programs like AutoCAD.
Step 1: Data Input

Dialect Survey Data
Linguistic data from various villages are input to another table that contains 'coordi-
nates' ofeach village. Whenjoined together, they become 'attributes' that not only contain
varied linguistic properties, but also have distinct locations. These coordinates can be pro-
jected as 'points' on a base map.
Base Maps
The partially processed data will be distributed on a digital base map ofChanthaburi
using GIS software called ArcView GIS. This base map is obtained by permission from
Mahidol Ethnolinguistic Map Project.

Isara Choosri Mateialsand Methods/38
Step 2: Data Storage
An ArcView GIS Project
An ArcView project is a file where we keep all data and work. This project contains
all the views, tableg charts, layouts, and scripts that I need for a particular purpose. In this
way, the work is stored in one convenient place. The GIS approach makes the work process
an integrated ong as the data is kept inside the 'project. ' For a small-scale research project,
linguistic geographers can distribute and redistribute their data without support from trained
cartographers.
Step 3: Analysis ofSpatial Pattern

Data Layering and Inyers Arrangement
In an ArcView project, both graphic and tabular data can be assembled as themes in
.view,
the same frame so that we can see similarities, differences, and co-ocorrence in them.
One set ofdatq or theme, is considered a layer, which can be put over or lower or between
other layers. This approach allows us to :urange them until we see the geo-structure ofour
analyzed data. The following figure is an example ofwhat the 'layer' concept looks like.
fJIR
Figure 2: Layered Data (from tabular to graphic forms)

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Udv M.A. (Linguistics)/39
Step 4: Map Display

Creatine Map Layout
Along with a linguistic discussion ofChong dialects and dialect areas, map displays are
also made to present the research findings using ArcView GIS. Topographic details such as
mountain contours and rivers will be additionally displayed where necessary. Linguistic infor-
mation derived from data processing procedures will then be added to locations on the maps.
The technical procedure can be schematized in the following diagram (See Figure 3).
Electronic Ease llaps

Dialect Survey Data
DATA STOmGE
AroViellI CIS Iap pro]ect
ハ .
DATAANALISIS
Data ■ayering
Layers Arrangenent
IS PATTERN FOllND?
DATA DISPLAY
Figure 3: A Procedures for Application of GIS

Isara Choosri Results ofDialect Survey / 40
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS OF DIALECT SURVEY
4.1 Overview
This chapter is the repdrt ofmy s,.rrvey results primarily from 1i villages. Before
going into linguistic diferences I found from the survey, I want to describe briefly, in
section 4.2, about my observations and impressions ofthe Chong villages I visited. The
section is not only about their physical or geographical details, but also briefly about the
social use ofChong in some particular area. I believe it would be useful to include these
observations that I noted down whenever possible. After I describe my observations, I

will go into some linguistic differences that I find apparent enough for roughly distin-
guishing dialects olChong in section 4.3.
Howeveq because I had spent more time in some villages than in the others, my
knowledge about them could not be symmetrically compared. But I can say from my
observations that the frequency ofChong language use is not the same in every village.
In some villages, people spoke a lot in Chong, but in other villages I rarely heard conver-
sation in Chong. In some cases even old Chong speakers could not recall basic words.
4.2 General Observations
Geographically, the province ofChanthaburi can be viewed as composed ofcoastal
areas and hinterlands (Weber, 1976). Soi Dao mountains, which include Khao Khitchakut,
lie from north to south and split the hinterlands of Chanthaburi into west and east. The
Chong lcc - Chonghaap distinction corresponds to the west - east axis. Currently, to
travel from Chong /.r.r proper to Chong haap proper in Pong Nam Ron district by road
one has to go by a roundabout way down to the south and then go up north. Altematively,
one has to cross the mountains on foot.
Not only separated by a physical barrier, I also found that there is a certain degree

Fac ofGrad Studies,MJほ dol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 41
of social distance between Chong of Khao Khitchakut and ofPong Nam Ron. During
my fieldwork, I came across a phrase Chong Nim Khiaw that represents a bizarre dialect
according to speakers in Khao Khitchakut area. When I tried to locate where N6m
Kliiew was, I could not find it from those I interviewed until I went to Pong Nam Ron
and found out that it is just a small village called Ban N6m Khiew. My informant in Ban
Wang Kraphrae, Pong Nam Ron, assumed that there used to be some Chong speakers
there.
The west hinterlands of Khao Khitchakut where Chong /ac resides look appar-
ently the same, except for the fact that we could find Chong villages located in two
clusters. From an interview with a Chong speaker in Khlong Phlu village, there were a
stream and thick forests to cross before reaching Krathing village in Phluang proper.
This corresponds with an old map drawn by Pavie (1904) from his mission to Cambodia.
In the map there was a forest called 'Pha Takian Tong' in the northem part ofChanthaburi.
Subsequently, I found that my observation confirms the data collected by Mahidol

Ethnolinguistic Map Project that the most concentrated area of Chong speakers are in
Khlong Phlu and Takhian Thong sub-districts. (See Map 40 in Chapter 6.)
In terms ofpopulation, we would find that the number ofChong speakers varies
in each area. In Pong Nam Ron there are no more than a few dozen of elderly Chong
speakers, in Phluang in the hundreds, but in Takhian Thong proper-Takhian Thong and
Khlong Phlu sub-districts-the data from Suwilai et al. (2001) show that there are thou-
sands ofthem. Supported by these geographical patterns I propose tentative boundaries
ofthe Chong areas as (l) Takhian Thong Proper (2) Phluang Proper (3) Pong Nam Ron
Proper in order to clarifr Chong lcc and Chong haap in a wider perspective.
4.2.1 Takhian Thong Proper
Ban Khlong Phlu is the northernmost Chong community in my survey, and very
likely the northern boundary ofChong area in Chanthaburi. I was told that in the past
Chong speakers settled as far north as Ban Chankhlem where in these days outsiders,
Thai and Lao speakers, have heavily settled. It is harder to find Chong speakers there.
Chankhlem, Khlong Phlu and Takhian Thong used to be within Takhian Thong sub-
district. It is only recently that Khlong Phlu became another sub-district, and subse-

Isara Choosri Results ofDialect Stwey I 42
quently Chankhlem split from Khlong Phlu. Ban Nam Khun is an old community by
Chanthaburi river. In the old days, when forest goods trade were still thriving, riverboats
from Chanthaburi city would travel north and anchor at this village, waiting to take goods
back to the city. Nowadays, as road communication prevails, commuters can reach
Khlong Phlu before going further to Nam Khun. But that was not the case in the past
when boats stopped at Nam Khun, and one had to walk further to Khlong Phlu. Linguis-
tically speaking, data from Nam Khun is the most deviant case in my survey.
In Takhian Thong sub-district, there are many villages that share the s.rme name
of Ban Takhian Thong but it is just the usual case of community expansion. They are
south of Khlong Phlu. I was told by Chong speakers that this area is the most concen-
trated area ofChong population, and people still speak Chong a lot in their everyday life.
The Takhian Thong village I surveyed locates on the mountainside and there are mostly
locals. Not many Thai-speaking 'outsiders' were found there. In terms of loc ation, Ban
Cham Khloh appqrs very much like the previously mentioned village, Takhian Thong
where fewer outsiders came to settle. Also, I observed the frequent use of Chong in
natural conversations. When I asked Chong speakers in Khlong Phlu and Takhian Thong
about the Chong language situation in Cham Khloh, they all told me that Chong people
there used Chong a lot more that anywhere else. Rougtrly speaking, I assume that the
more contact with Thai-speaking outsiders, the less Chong speakers are induced to use
the language.
4.2.2 Phluang Proper
Two female speakers from Ban Kralhing had been taken from this village to be
informants in the renowned instrumental study ofchong registers by Theraphan (1992).
She wrote that she found this dialect perfect for her study of registers. The informant
from whom I elicited data, Somkhuan Thongkum, claimed that he used to work with that
linguist. This village is the easiest to visit from the city ofChanthaburi as it is located on
both sides ofthe main road. The district headquarters of Khao Khitchakut is located
there. The village itself is more like atownthan the rest ofthe villages. There are a lot
of vendors and fruits planters from the outside who came to settled in this village. Batt
Thung Saphan is close to Krathing though far less urban. Huffinan (1985) had done a

Fac ofGrad Studies,ヽ 1」 Jdol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 43
phonological description of Chong based on the data collected in this village. To my

surprise, I learnt from villagers that there are few Chong speakers left here and most are
in their sixties. .Ban Thung TaJn and Ban Phang Kalaeng are in close proximity; people
in both villages go to the same Buddhist temple, Wat Thung Ta-In, on auspicious days.
Both villages are located further, about 15 kilometers, from the main road. However, it
is harder to find Chong speakers in Thung Ta-In; and the two speakers I found used to be
working with a linguist doing her master's thesis on the language there. I was luckicr in
Phang Kalaeng because I knew a man from the village who is married to a woman in
Khlong Phlu. He took me to talk with Chong women in Phang Kalaeng. He also told me
that there were many Chong speakers, and no linguist had ever gone to study the Chong
language there.
4.2.3 Pong Nam Ron Proper
Ban Wang Kraphrae. I think that the Chong language here is the most endan-
gered. The dialect will soon die if no drastic measure for language revitalization is
initiated in the community. However, I doubt that such effort can be mobilized in this
community as only elderly persons can still speak Chong, and the language is hardly
spoken at home.
4.3 Linguistic Evidences
From my survey data, similarities and differences between dialects of Chong

could be analyzed as five groups: (1) difference in final consonant; (2) difference in
consonant cluster; (3) difference in lexical items; (4) difference in breathy voice and
aspiration; (5) difference in vowel height. However, I find the first two categories more
helpful in explaining the majority of data in the most systematic pattern as the first and
second groups are interpreted as different treatment ofProto Pearic *-s and *cr-. So. in
reporting the primary data Ijust group them in five categories, but in presenting maps I
would add the sixth category that was deduced from the analysis in section 4.3.1 and
section 4.3.2 that yielded a pattern ofsound changes in dialects ofChong.

Isara Choosri
Results of Dialect Survey / 44
4.3.1 Final Consonant
The correspondence / -t/ and /-hl is systematically explained by Headley

(19g5)
as different treatments of *-s in chong lcc (*-s> -t) and chong
haap (*-s> -h). Such
treatment became the most salient boundary between the two dialects.
My survey results
confirm Headley (1985) about the treatment of *-s as the boundary between
Chonglcc
and Chong haap. Datafrom l0 villages in Khao Khichakut district are homogeneous
in
that aspect, *-s ) /-t/, whereas the wang Kraphrae data, pong Nam Ron propel corre-
spond to *-s > l-h/ treatment.
Thble 10: Correspondences of t-tl and l-hl*
晩輸ｂ
Takhian Thong Phluang
Gloss
KP5 CK KP NK 富 LP PK π Kr T WP
`barking
deer
lo■ lo■ lol lol lol lol lol lol lol lo■ loh
・
・
ｐ
・
ｐ
・
ｐ
・
ｐ
・
Ｐ
・
ｐ
ｐ
`wse'
,t pih
òH' chit chit chit chit chit chit ♂it chit chit chit chill
`tail'
ずat 山 t
ずat phat ずat ずat Fat ずat ずat phat ずat
4.3.2 Consonant Cluster

The correspondence between lc-/ and/kr-/ was treated in Martin (1g74),but
was
not pursued by Headley (1985) in the same way as he did for l-tl and /-h/.
However, he
reconstructed the Proto-Pearic *cr- in the word *cre:4 'ring.' My data attest that in
chanthaburi chong the cluster *cr- split into /c-/ md /rr-/ (ce:qland &r-e:gi),
but the
hung KaЫ ⇒
,CK=Chtt KHoh,p=
Khlongl品
KJaeng
温藉鵠湾躍硼
H=Th鴨 ■ 4■ KT=Krath鴨」旦 ,堺臨 Ψ ‰ 標
翼諸靴

Fac. of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Uniy M.A. (Linguistics)/45
distribution ofthis phenomena does not correspond to the same pattem as in l-tl and l-h/.
And we will see that there is another Chong /cc that is possibly not the same as in Martin
(1974). The following table further illustrates my assumption.
Table 11: Correspondences of /c-/ alad /kr-/
P.ong
Takhian Thong Pl uang Nam
Gloss I Ron
KPs CK KP NK TT LP PK TI Kt TP WP
'lEn€st' cu:t curt cut cu:t cu.1 cut cui krux krux knr"t krut
`pじ ChOk cst cq.k ♂Ok Cok cq.k kh-o.k khs.k kok kluk kek
'pilhr' ceu Chao c■ a0 Ch鶴 Chao Ch01 kra0 ka.l 勒 k+u kralJ
'rnE' crB crI ct:! cexl cExl cexJ kre{ krerl ke0 kre:r1 ke:r.1
ｍｍ
coxl coxJ co{ kro.rJ coxl co4 ko:g ko{ kr o.rJ kolS kr oq;
血¨
'nrn' co:k co:k co:k cok co:k kr ok ko:lr ko* ko:k krork
It is noticeable that only the data from Ban Nam Khun (NK) represent a deviant in the
pattern found from Takhian Thong proper.
4.3.3 Lexical Variants
Data grouped under lexical variants are somewhat more ambiguous than those
cited in the first two categories. Some items could not be clearly explained as differences
in vocabulary such as /ce:?n/and /?err,/. It could be interpreted as a phonological variant,
but I could not find any other examples ofthis sort so, for the time being, I am grouping
it under iexical variants. The same reason applies to /tba?t/ and /sa?U .nail'.

Table 12:Lexical Variants
晩赫Ｒ
ｏ
ｎ
Takhian Thong Phluang
Gloss
KP5 CK KP NK TT LP PK TI KT TP WP
'cattlc' lluJ !u3 IJUJ 30:! so:I
ru..e IJU.3 !up IJU' so:! sorrJ
'conle' ce:?n ce;h ?cn

ce:?n ce:?n ce:?n ce:?n ?en ?e:n ?en Rcm
'mud' plc:?k plcfk Plo亀 plo?k plcr?k plclk phluS pol\r? phlu.3 phlu.3 ptlu.3
lrail' th♂ t kcttal ketha?t katba?t thゴ ! thゴ t sa?t sa?t sa?t sal sa?h
α¨
Ｃ¨
Ｃ¨
α¨
'phv' lei!
Ｃ¨
lei!
が勒
が切
球匈
麒匈
'rool kebuj kabuj kobuj kabuj kobuj kebu:j kabuj
'slrimp' philt pb12t Prt kap\..?t ずrt PWi kra:?w kralw kraFw kra:?w kepllh
耐袖
耐﹄
ｍ袖
¨袖
¨鶴
'u8ly' si?do: si?do: si?do: si?do: si?do: si?dol
It is interesting that most chong speakers, especiafly among Khao Khitchakut

locals, recognized many lexical variants used by their counterpart. The clearest example
is /si?do:/ 'ugly' that is widely used among Takhian Thong speakers, but phluang speak_
ers would use /mc? ?ih/ that literally means 'beautiful not' to describe the similar quality.
Informants in Phluang proper told me that only bdan Don or 'upper village' people use
the word /si?do:/. It is also notable that these lexical variants are not as consistently
distributed as in the cases offinal consonant and consonant cluster
4.3.4 The \ Ambiguity, Aspirated or Anaspirated plosives

Apart from distinction in final consonant and consonant cluster, and some lexical
differences, there is another ambiguity when we look through the wordtists in Surekha
(1982) and Saifon (1991) on one side, and Sirikarn (1987) and Huffinan (1985) on the
other side. we will find that initial plosives that co-occur with the 3d register (breathy
voice) are interpreted as aspirated series in the first two sources and as unaspirated series
in the latter two. As proposed in the co-occurrence chart of registers and initial conso-

Fac.ofC}rad.Studies,Mahid01 Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 47
nants, Theraphan (1992) also finds no occurrence of aspirated plosives with the 3'd regis-
ter. The first two works account for Takhian Thong dialect and the latter three for Ptrluang
dialect.
Huffrnan (1985) acknowledges a certain degree of aspiration in the initial plosives
but explained that they are influenced by the 3'd register (breathy voice) rather than being
aspirated series in themselves. Therefore, there are two possibilities: first, Surekha (1982),
and Saifon (1991) mistake 'breathy' unaspirated plosives for aspirated ones; second,
there might be different degree of aspiration in initial plosives oclurring with the 3'd
register in various dialects of Chong. I had selected some of these discrepancies and
included them in my wordlist questionnaire.
What I found verifies that in Takhian Thong proper, the initial plosives that occur
with the 3'd register (breathy voice) are pronounced with stronger aspiration than those in
Phluang proper, which carry weaker aspiration. However, Pong Nam Ron dialect is the
least ambiguous in that area because the initial plosives that occur with the 3'd register are
ヽ
︵・
clearly unaspirated. Impressionistically, I would suggest that each ofthem represents the
Chong's 3'd register with a different emphasis. While Takhian Thong dialect emphasizes
aspiration, Pong Nam Ron dialect emphasizes low pitch and lax articulation, with less
aspiration and breathiness. Phluang dialect locates in the middle of this continuum.
Thble 13: Breathy Voice and Aspiration *
Gloss Khao Khitchakut Pong Nam Ron

North South
'drunk' [ph輔 ] [ph輔 ] [p可 ]
'morning' [ph)]] [pha:り ] [pal]]
'water' [tha:k] [tha:k] [talk]
'alcohol' [khra倒 [khra‖ [kl・ aiJll
* In this table I use [-h-] to mark strong aspirationand [-h-] to mark weaker
aspiration; it should be accepted as schematic because it is hard to determine the degree
of aspiration. 'Takhian Thong' stands for Cham Khloh, Khlong Phlu, Nam Khun, Takhian
Thong and Lam Phang. 'Phluang' stands for Phang Kalaeng, Thung Ta-In, Krathing and
Thung Saphan. 'Pong Nam Ron' stands for Wang Kraphrae.

Isara Choosri Results of Dialect Survey / 48
However, my survey results could only confirm that different descriptions ofthe
3'd register in Chong language (Surekha, 1982; Saifon, 1991; Sirikarn, 1987; Huffinan,
1985) arejustified. In order to veriff this distinction, more data and a different analytical
procedure, which are not used in my study, are essentially needed. I view this phenom-
enon as another example of'etic' and 'emic' views on a language because this ,differ-
ence' is never mentioned by chong speakers with whom I discussed aspects of regional
variations in Chong.
I
4.3.5 Vowel Height
About vowel use, my survey confirms Martin (1974a) that in pong Nam Ron
dialect /r/ bccurs in many words that are pronounced with /e./ in Khao Khitchakut dia-
lects. such distinction is not that clearly seen among Khao Khitchakut variants where the
difference in vowel height is not systematically distributed, or differs in a continuous
manner as in other categories. But, in my observation the difference occurs here and
there. Anyway, one need to investigate deeper into Chong lexicon in order to find whether
there is any systematic explanation ofthe difference. However, I do present some ex-
amples ofthis variation in word maps in chapter 5 in order that interested students might
find it worthwhile to find more explanations.
4.4 Chong Dialect Continuum
In this Chapter 4, I propose that we consider Chong dialect areas in Chanthaburi

as comprising ofTakhian Thong Proper (Northern Chong-NC), Phluang Proper (South-
em-SC), and Pong Nam Ron Proper (Eastern Chong-EC). The diferences between
these three dialects also correspond to distance and barriers. In Table 9 and l0 we see
that dialects of Chong differ in degrees according to the different treatments ofProto
Pearic *-s and icr- in the three dialects. Since the distributions of the l-t, -h/ and lc-,krl
correspondences are more schematic, they better illustrate the dialect continuum in Chong
language. Moreover, my view on the revision ofChong dialect division from a twc-v/ay
to a three-way distinction is that it fits not only with the concept ofdialect continuum, but
it can also be explained by geographical context ofthe language, which spreads around
the water-shedding Soi Dao mountain range. In Map 4, one will find that this dialect

Fac. ofGrad. Studies, Malddol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) /49
continuum proceeds in a U-shape pattern from north to south to east ifwe start from left
to right, and proceeds from east to south to north ifwe start from right to left.
Northern Chong
$outftern Chong
Eastern Chung
Map 4: Chong Areas in Geographical Context
It is noticeable that by modern transportation standards these areas are not so far
apart as in the past. Even so today some parts ofthe hinterland of Chanthaburi are
pristine forests reserved by the department of forestry as national park and wild life
sanctuary I am often told by old chong speakers how hard it was to travel to chanthaburi
city half a century ago. During those days they rarely visited other villages away from
the local vicinity. This helps explain why their speech differs even though they have
lived in a relatively limited area ofchanthaburi. In Map 39, the geographical distribution
ofdata in Table 13, we will see that the differences continue from north to south to east,
and vice versa.

ヽ
Isara Choosri Results of Dialect Survey / 50
Thble 13: Chong Dialect Continuum
2-W sy D is tirctio n 3-W8y D is tinction
NC SC EC
Tre atments of
Proto Pe a ric CL CH cLl cL2 CH
Takhian Po ng N sm
Phlu a ng
Thong Ron
+ + +
十
‐h/
′ +
+ +
/kr― ′ + + +
CL: Chong lcc, CH = Chong &aap, NC = Northern Chong, SC = Southern

Chong, EC = Eastern Chong
However, the distance between these three dialects is not symmetrical. As we

.i. see on maps in Chapter 5 and in the wordlist in the Appendix B, the Northern and South-
em Chong, earlier grouped together as Chong /cc, are more similar to each other than to
the eastem one, widely known as Chong haap (Headley, 1985; Martin, 1974a). One of
the reason is that reflexes of *-s, becoming /-tl in NC and SC and /-hl in EC, are found
more than reflexes of*cr-. Another factor, a geo-social one, setting them apart is that
Chong speakers ofPong Nam Ron district have lived far away (in terms ofaccessibility)
from their fellow speakers in Khao Khitchakut district where the majority of Chong
speakers live. Many Chong speakers in Khao Khitchkut whom I interviewed stressed the
fact that they could understand each other well although they were aware of different
speech pattems. This is a case of NC and SC versus EC.
Diferences in pronunciation ofChong 'phonological' registers in each dialect is

another interesting issue. From my observation, it sounds like each dialect of Chong
emphasizes a different aspect ofthe 3'd register, or breathy voice. It sounds that in NC,
the initial plosives that occur with the 3d register are pronounced with stronger aspiration
than those in Phluang proper, which carry weaker aspiration. Howeveq Pong Nam Ron
diatect is the least ambiguous in this respect because the initial plosives that occur with
the 3'd register are unaspirated ones. I would suggest that each of them represents the

ゝ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics)/51
Chong's 3d register with a different emphasis. While Takhian Thong dialect emphasizes
aspiration, Pong Nam Ron dialect emphasizes low pitch and lax articulation, with less
aspiration and breathiness. In this respect, the Phluang dialect locates in the middle of
this continuum.
Obviously from my interviews with Chong speakers, this suprasegmental issue

was never raised as'evidence' of geographical variation among Chong speakers. With-
out further verification ofthis phenomenon, I interpret it as different phonetic realization

ofthe 3d register in dialects ofChong. Howeveq this interpretation needs another par-
ticular study, with a different approach than this one, which emphasizes on a broader and
more general view of Chong dialects. Sociolinguistic parameters such as age groups,
education, and bilingualism must be accounted for in such study. The alignment of such
study would lean toward phonetics and historical-comparative linguistics as it would
involve the concept of'tonogenesis' ofnon-tonal languages. Or else, this suprasegmental
issue might be a result ofThai-Chong bilingualism that helps reduce Chong's phonologi-
cal complexities.
However, the diference in the suprasegmental aspects ofchong, especially 'reg-
isters,' is hardly an issue among Chong speakers I have encountered over the past few
years. It is far from being a dialectal criteria cited by native speakers who would rather
stick to 'obvious' variations found in lexical and segmental levels. I view this phenom-
enon as another example of the difference between the 'etic' and 'emic' views of lan-
guage. Chong speakers recognize only the 'diference' that sounds distinct enough to
their ears and leave finer 'details' out.
In this thesis, I side with the idea that dialectal division cannot be determined by
using linguistic criterion alone. It must also take the 'local' view into account. During
the course of my field research, apart from collecting vocabulary, I tried to determine
how Chong speakers perceive geographical variations in their language. It pleased me to
find out that most ofthem were already aware ofthe distinction between Chong in Takhian
Thong and Phluang areas. After knowing my purpose, some Chong could tell right away
about those variations even before I started eliciting data. I regard this as an insider's
view ofthe issue, which matters a lot to my subsequent analysis. On the other hand, what
they did not mention also says something. Most speakers talked about the existence
.\

ト
Chong in Pong Nam Ron district but only the well-traveled speakers had ever heard the
actual speech. And only the most informed speakers knew that there was another 'Chong,'
or Kasong, in Trat province. This lack of knowledge tells a great deal about social
distance between dialects of Chong.
4.5 Linguistic Changes within Chong Dialects
An outline of historical changes within Pearic languages proposed by Headley

(1985) is the most helpful source to date on the issue. I willnot discuss again the division
between Chong ofChanthaburi and Chong ofTrat, the latter ofwhich should be regarded
as a distinct language called by its autonym as Kasong, not to mention linguistic difler-
ences and social distance between Chong and Kasong (see Chapter 2). Instead, I will
take on the phonological criterion that Healey (1985) uses for dividing Chong /ac and
Chong haap. Such criterion is the treatment ofPearic
*-s, becoming l't/ inChong lcc-
or Northem and Southern Chong in this study-and /-hl in Chong haap, or Eastern
Chong. This is the most salient aspect of historical development with Chong dialects.
In contrast, the treatment oftcr- is not chosen as a criterion for dividing dialects
of Chong, though Headley (1985) reconstructs the form in his study. This omission
might have arisen from lack of data, or some other reasons. Regardless, it is this very
omission in Headley (1985) that Martin (1974a) includes: the correspondence of/c-l and
lkrJ as a mark of difference between Chong lcc and kt/ in Chong haap. I chose to
pursue the lead dropped by Headley and Martin. Though the historical change of initial
consonant cluster *cr- > lc-, kr-l might be a more recent innovation than the change in
final consonant *-s > /-t, -hl (Gerard Diffloth, personal communication), it should be
determined whether this change in initial cluster occurs in other dialects.
Another issue is the Thai and Khmer borrowings that I found even in the basic
vocabulary of Chong. It woutd be hard to determine whether these are Thai or Khmer
borrowings given that Chong heavily borrows from both languages, and Thai also bor-
rows a great deal from Khmer. We shall never be clear about the history of Chong
language unless we determine the borrowing pattern of Chong language. In this study, I
found that sometimes lexical variations between Chong dialects are simply different choices
of borrowings, such as the word for 'cattle' that is /gue/ in most cases, and becomes

ヘ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A (Linguistics)/53
/so:g/ in some villages of SC and EC (see Map 17 in chapter 5). The first form is a Thai
borrowing and the latter one is from Khmer. I also found by chance that there are two
words for sugar in NC, lng.m ?ctjl and /sekc:i{ the first one is used in Takhian Thong
village and the latter on is used in Khlong phlu village. This is another case ofrhai and
Khmer borrowings. These are minor variations that do not have distributional pattems to
be displayed as maps. But they might be useful for tracing the borrowing pattem of
chong. we may be able to understand the history of chong by seeing which lexical
domains contain a lot ofThai borrowings and which contain a lot ofKhmer ones. Then
we might know more about the phases of language contact among Chong, Thai and
Khmer.

ヘ
Isara Choosri Chong Dialect Maps / 54
CHAPTER V
CHONG DIALECT TⅦ APS
5.1 Geographical Distribution of Chong Dialects I
In order to distribute linguistic data, i.e. variation in Chong language, according

to their geogaphical context, the data must be input into Geographical lnformation SystenL
or ArcView GIS program, in particular. In the case of this study, which deals with a
limited number of data items, the data input can be done manually by typing them into a
table , which includes villages' coordinates, names, and administrative codes.
5.2 Data Input

Linguistic data from various villages are input to another table that contains 'co-
ordinates' of each village. When joined together, they become 'attributes' that not only
contain varied linguistic properties, but also have distinct locations. These coordinates
can be projected as 'points' on a base map.
Figure 4: Linguistic Data Plus Coordinates

The coordinates ofChong villages would be projected on the highlighted area in
this base map (Figure 5). Given that the data for each village contain both the coordinates
and the linguistic data, now it can be classified according to their similarities and differ-
ences, and distributed onto the map (see Figure 7).
Figure 5: Base Map of Chanthaburi

5.3 Data Storage
The above-mentioned data, both in tabular and graphic or map forms, was stored
in the same 'ArcMew project,' a database that organizes them according to different sub-
systems: Views (dealing with graphic features), Tables (displafing data in tabular forms),
Charts (creating tabular data into charts), Layouts (preparing maps for end-users), Scripts
and Dialogs (Figure 6).
Figure 6: ArcView Project

5.4 Data Analysis (Distributional Pattern)

After I input all necessary datq witll coordinates of villages being studied, and
keep them together in an ArcMew project, I project those coordinates onto Chanthaburi
area map. I also add district boundaries and classify district areas in diferent colors to
distinguish them from each other. To make a word map, I classify the linguistic data
according to variations contained in a field. The following figure is the distribution of

villages before and after classification, using the field 'ring. ' In the picture 7a villages
appear as simple dots, then in picture 7b they are split into two dot shapes (circle and
square); it signifies that there are two variations-/ce:4/ and /ke:p/-of the pronuncia-
tion of 'ring.'
Figure 7: Distribution of Variations

In a more schematic distribution ofdata, I analyze sets ofdata according to treatments of

Proto Pearic forms, say, *-s and *cr-, that are treated as two themes or layers. In both
themes, *cr- and *-s, we see two variations: lcJ : star, lkrJ = tian$e; l-t/ = circle, l-h/ =
square. However, as the theme *cr- is put on top of the theme *-s we see that they
constitute three different groups.
Figure 8: Overlaying Layers
5.5 Data Display

Mapping symbols that I use in this chapter are'point' shapes suggesting Chong
villages where geographical variants are located. In almost all maps, open symbols such
as O and E are used to signify variants and numbers are put inside to indicate village
names that are given in an accompanying table in each map. Pronunciation of such
variants are printed beside corresponding symbols. In Map 39 displaying the dialect
continuum I use closed slmbols (*6dA) imposing on open symbols (O and tr) in
order to signifu continuous diference (Figure 9):
00 E
Figure 9: Use of Open and Closed Symbols

ヘ
That being done with symbols, cartographic elements such as scale bar, north
arrow, graticule and grid are then added to the layouts before printing the maps. All of
these ready-made elements are integrated parts of the map project in ArcMew.
5.3 Mapping Criteria

Similarities and differences between dialects of Chong, reflected through basic
vocabulary, could be analyzed as six groups. The first 5 groups are base on the 32 basic
words mentioned uin section 3.2.2 in Chpter 3. The sixth group is dedudced from view-
I
ing the data in light ofthe Proto Pearic (treatments of *-s and *cr-). Thus, the grouping
of maps in the following pages can be so categorized as: 5.3.1 Final Consonant: (Maps 5-
9); 5.3.2 Consonant Cluster (Maps 10-15); 5.3.3 Lexical Diference (Maps 16-23);5.3.4
Breathy Voice and Aspiration (Maps 24-30); 5.3.5 Vowel Heights (Maps 3l-36): 5.3.6
Treatments of Proto Pearic (Maps 37-39)
熱
5.3.1 Final Consonant
Maps 5 -9 show the difference of the final consonant l-tl nd l-h/ . The first group
is comprised of villages in Khao Khitchkut district (/-tf and merely one village in Pong
Nam Ron district is the second group (/-h/) in the following words: 'barking d eer' /lo:t/
and /loh/, 'grease' /priV and /pih/, 'old' /chiV and and /chih/, 'shrimp' /kephiV and
/kepil/ (in 4 southem villages the informants spoke of the word /ka?:w/ instead of
/k"poi[ but the diference is merely that the first word means a bigger type of shrimp
while the second word means a smaller type.), and 'tail' lphal and /y'ah/. fne differ-
ence in this group should be viewd in light ofthe Proto Pearic *-s, which Headley ( 1985)
explains that it became /-tl in Chong /ca and /-hl Chong laap (see also maps in section
5.3.6).

メヽ
t
\ -r-.L/
-'*__'--a a
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?barkins
s
deart
glo:t
trte
Brcc napc uscd brc with tlc punrest

Ivlehilol Ethmlngnitic Map P:ojrct.
Map 5: Distribution of 'barking deer'

?grease7
議
呂
Map 6: Distribution of 'grease'

M.A. (Linguistics) / 6l
、
︲
﹁一
︿
ノ
回 ♂五
OerSOn)
ヽ
'old'
①
／＝ＨＶ、
．、
、
／ヽ・
ヽ・、、
Map 7: Distribution of 'old' (person)

，イ′ノ‘⋮ 、
□ ♂襲
ヽヽ
、
、

一
１
ヽ
0ぬ
‘︰
／
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、
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︲Ｌ
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﹀

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、
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、
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︱、

．
、
、
、
、
'shrimp?
O bplFtJplWt
O krざ tw
□ 峰メ′
h
Map 8: Distribution of 'shrimP'

，
、
，，︲・・・，一
″
いヽ︶﹂
′
′
′
′
′
回ヽ、
ヽ
□ゞah
?tail'
O Fat
Map 9: Distribution of 'tail'

′
一
mepellmd bre宙慟 th
はりEth"1■ 8● tiC Map
、、
Fac.ofG}rad.Studies,NIIahidol Univ.
一ヽ
¨
¨
ヽヽ
・
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︰
ヽ・
ノ
‘、
ヽ
・、
︲
ヽ
・、
・
、
．
．︲⋮⋮′ノ
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Ｆ、ヮ
︲ノ
′ＩＩ︶
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・︲ヽヽ ′ノノ、．
，・﹀・ ″ ヽ
ヽヽ
ヽヽ
ヽ、ヽ
・ヽ
ヘ
5.3.2 Consonant Cluster
Maps l0-15 show the mutual ditribution ofthe initial /c-l and /k-/ in some words'
The first group includes villages in Takhian Thong proper (northern Chong), while the
second group includes villages in Phluang proper (Southern Chong) and Pong Nam Ron
proper (Eastern Chong). For instance, 'harvest' /cut/ and lkru:V, 'pig' /chok/ and
/khrul</ and /krol</, 'ring'/ceq/ and /kre:i{ 'river bank' /co:{/ and lkro:ry', 'stilt' /ctgry'
and lkr4gl,'run' /co:k/ and /kro:.k/ (whereas /thu:/ in the case of Ban Nam Khun is a
lexical variant as this word literally means 'escape' in nearby villages. Nam Khun is also
a deviant case in Map 13 where it represent /kr-/ instead of /c-l as it does in most cases.

Fac ofGrad.Studies,NIlahid01 Univ.
一
，‘
″
′
＾
／ヽｔ
，・
ｉｉ
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′
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′
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︲、
「
′
／
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〓
〕
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ヽ、
、
、
日量ul
、
、
回 kut
Ⅲ
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tharvestt
O cart
glaut
Map 10: Distribution of 'harvest'

ヽ
,pig7
0 ChQk
□ khruk/kr9k
Map Ll: Distribution of 'pig'

八
tringt
o cE:ll
n lae:r1
Map 12: Distribution of 'ring'

ヽ
／十
O cou
,*f *k'"",
@ co{
Eko:D
回転
"
triver
﹃
bank'
勒
○ □
Map 13: Distribution of 'river bank'

ヘ
Fac ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 69
、
・
′ ‐′
_′ ´ ■
r｀ t.″
1 /′
// ト
/
ノ }
、
:,｀回kao
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、
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て ⑥♂調 ′。‐・
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'stilt'
O Cha]
□kra]
°
r
1憶乱穏鳳亀
b｀
:Ll場 :長紺
′
Map 14: Distribution of 'stilt'

Chong Dialect Maps / 70
嘔︶︶
″ ︱、
・
ヽヽ，
，ｔ、
．
ヽ
］
呻姉¨
Map 15: Distribution of 'run'

一︲も．
、′
．ｒ
メーヽ
ヽｔ
、．

´
︲メ′
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ｒヽ
・
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，、ヽヽｒ
，

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、
／、
、、
、
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、
、
．
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、
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、プ
■
一一
紳¨一

嘔一
ヽ
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︲︲
，
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絋 hJol
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中ヽ
︿Ｗヽ
、
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、
、

，ヽ・
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′ ヽ・
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ゝ，
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′

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′
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Ｎ ′′
﹁、
一
、］
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、﹁
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、
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ヽ、
、一
，
，ヽ

、
，
、一
一一一
Isara Choosri
・﹂、一
ヽ︲
・
・︲
︲
ヽ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Univ MA(Lingul飩にs)/71
5.3.3 Lexical Difference

Maps 16-23 show the ledcal diference among Chong dialects. However, this
cannot be said to systematically the 3-way distinction ofchong dialects as discussed in
section 4.4 of Chapter 4. Though the data in this groups of maps are not as regualry
distributed as in the cases of 5 .3 . I and 5 .3 .2, they supplement the proposition that the
closer-- distance-the dialects are, the more similar they are to each other (dialect con-
tinuum). For instance, 'cattle' l\ue/ and /so:g/, 'come' /ce?:n/ and /?e'n/ (This item is
questionable as it probably represent phonological difference, but I do not find other
examples of this sort. So I temporary put it in the group of lexical difference.), 'mud'
/plc?rk/ and /pt111?/, 'ugly' /si?do:/ and lmc? ?N.
ハヽ

Isara Choosri Chong Dialect Maps 172
tbeart
O k<u'U,t su/ti *tuj ruzrt
g tirr trvq
Map 16: Distribution of 'bear'

Fac.ofG}rad.Studies,Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 73
﹁
、
．
′
″
．
ム
一
′
ノ
／
／

ノ

，
ｔ

﹃ヽ
ヽ
回ヽ

、

︲、

＼ヽ

ヽ

ヽ
︲

い
ヽ︲
へ

ヽ

ヽ
ヽ
ヽヽ
ヽヽ
ノく

．．
‘︲

︹

﹁・
一

ノ′
、

，
・
、
ヽ
ｔ
ヽ

。
，

１，
ヽ

・
、
・

・
,∼
１，
・
・

・
・

，ノ
´
ヽ、
、、
′
、、
＼
メ
﹁
ヽ
ヽ／ｒ
・
″
′ヽ
9cattle9
o理 0
□ Ю:]
Baec nrpr uecd brc rittr tf,r pndesion of

tvlahilol Eihmlinguilic Map Prcjcct.
Map 17: Distribution of 'cattle'

ChOng Dialect Maps/74
ヽ
一
fcomet
﹄
・
・
´
Oce?tn
tr?en
／

、
ヽ
ヽ
Map 18: Distribution of 'come'

″
″/
、 ¨
， ′ｒ、、〓・１、
‘ヽ
′ ヽ、
′
Mop
ヽ
■ L the
ヽ
ヽ踊ヽ
日た
⑤ celn
1
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
・
・
，
，′
，
，
，′
｀
ノ″
・蘭
″

′

④
ノ
ｒ，
ｒヽ
・︰
︲
，︲
ｉｔ︰
メ
ノ
︲
′

半
︲
／
′

︷
ヽ
，ｔ
ヽ／
′ ．
″ヽ
︲ヽ
ヽ
・
ヽ‘
︲′
′
く︲
ヽ
／︶
︶、⋮⋮
″ ・
Isara Choosri
べヽ
ヽ
ヘ
Fac.ofG}rad.Studies,Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 75
102
r_´ ″
‐
′
Ft・
′′
7
/′ 〉
´
／﹂ヽ
‘ ．
ヽ
、．
■/1/
︰
︲．．
．
．．
︰ｒ，
／ ‘ヱ
t
Ｔ
ヽ
ノ″
ｒ︲
″
回P鴨 ′
・ヽ
、
・ヽ、
り′
ヽ
ヽ
O plゞよ
ヽ
91臨
跡ょ
ヽ
ゝ
:k
、︲
﹁
⑥
plメ :k
／′Ｌ．
．
^
、、
E]phlЧ ?
、
﹂
ヽ
□ pに IЧ ?
ruapc u:cdbrr ',rith lb Pnnirciol of

Etlmlin6rillic MrP Prcict.
lC12
Map 19: Distribution of 'mud'

ヘ
Chong Dialect MaPs / 76

Isara Choosri
／
ノ
／
／だ
ヽヽ
︲
ｉ︲ i O
´
′‐‐ヽ・
‐ _´ 一一
︲
ヽィ́″́ ‐
︲
、 ′
／
ノ
´´
メ
‐
′′
／
:__、 _.′
ノ
イ
l
︲
，
ｔ
ｔ
F
・
・
oゞ
′′ヽ
t、
h
︲
ヽ

■
ゝ
﹁
、
ヽ
ヽヽ
、¨
＼ヽヽ、
疵ヽ
、、、
、
い
︲
・′

ノ
一
喝

ご

ヽ

・
﹄
１

、

．．へ
∼

．

︲

﹄

︲
ヽ
ハ
＼

￨

″/ノ
″

ヽ

ヽ、
ヽ

]sが ,〆
ヽ

ヽ

時な
＼

卜

ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
、、．
′
Ｐ
//
′
′
ヽ
︲
′
″́
／
“
′、、 ― ―
′
tnailt
O kafati thati fat
fl sa?t
O sath
n of
,ldffi°
Map 20: Distribution of 'nail'

Fac ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M・ A.cinguiStics)/77
／
／
´ ヽ
″＼
ヽ
︲︱，
，
︲／
／メ十
／
′
ギ１ヽ
︲
13
ヽ，ノイー
。 l.コ
iis、。 :っ
ヽヽ
﹁
、︲ドノ
０ヘ
輌 □ ③
／ヽヽ
ヽ・
、．、、．
︲
︲︲
/
、
´
´…
、、
ヽ
Ot√
∼
｀国 L:ミ
、
'play'
︲
η ｔ
ｅ“丘
Ｏ □
Map 21: Distribution of 'PlaY'

Chong Dialect MaPs / 78
Isara Choosri
'roo「
:肌
Mrap22t Distribution of 'roof"

Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics)/ 79
｀
ヽ
′ ‐
キ・∼
///″
，
メ／
・
七メ ´
ノ
ヽ
声︰・
仇
︱，ヽ
□ m。 ?7.h
、ノ′
1
●
ｉ
・０
＼ヽ
，ヽ︱′ 一
０鋼
´
・
ヽ..、
ヽ
、
、
ヽ
j O.i?d", ・
・
′・・
ザ
ノ
／・
(
︲︲︲ｉｔ
′
Enc? ?ib
\ i^
，１′
ヽ
｀
＼、
_ガハ、
1 umc? ?ih
´
″
、
″
／
'\,
-__..r'
"'-z\ tr.#i,r,
\1
!-(
E-lz
,| r't
＼ \\
I
ヽ
\'.'.r-^. -./
ヽ
ヽ 1\ ar.,
ヽ I \-.'
/./\ ´｀‐
a:i
\-. /｀
ご
1\ ヽ
7ugly?
Od?d。 :
□ m97?島
Bes● Intps used L=o宙 hthe pml“ iolt

陥 h撻 ol Ethmingubic Map PЮ ict
Map 23: Distribution of 6ugly'

5.3.3 Breathy Voice and Aspiration
Maps 24-30 show the distribution of some words that are in the third register
(breathy voice). I already discussed this feature in section 4.3.4 ofChapter 4. We may
see that the co-occurrence of breathy voice and aspiration is found in the northern vil-
lages, and conversely in the southern and eastern ones. However, this issue is still un-
settled and should be further investigated what factors that influence such phenomena. I
present these maps to show some traces for those who might want to verify this distinc-
tion in the future. As I mentione( earlier, native Chong speakers seem not take this issue
as salient enough for distinguishing their dialects when they talked about geographical
variations in Chong language.

M.A. (Linguistics) / 8l
︵
閣
︶

一

﹄﹁

・
ヽ
ヽ
＼・
′
メ、
︲
、
●︱●
・
・， ″
Map 24: Distribution of 'alcohol'

´
、
、、
、
、

／
︲
，
，︲
︲
︲∫
ノ
″
＼
′
一︲′ 、
ヽだ
′
︰︸ｉ
︲ヽノ
・
︲ヽ
ヽ
・
， ′
′
ｆヽ︲
．
ゝ＼
、
′
′
﹁′ヽ
・︲、
・
、
ヽ；、
，
′
一
´
．帆眈 ¨¨
´
′
．
Fac ofC}rad.Studies,Mahidol Univ.
︵
“
一
、
ヽ
・
ヽ
、
ヽ
ｒ、
ヽ
′
ノ
／

¨

〓
、︲
ゝ
﹁︲
，
／︲
ヽ
︲︲︲
、
ヽ，
′
ｒ
／
″
ヽ
・ヽ ⋮
⋮
︲
ヽ，，，り
′′
ジ
オ／．
ヽ
102
ン
一︰
ヽ・ ´
ノ
︶
′
′
∼
‘ ・
・
，・・ヽ／ヽ
・
・・′′″
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
102
７
ｒ
／
／
″︰

″

‘

・
ヽ

ヽ

・︰

︲

︲

・︰

・‘

／
′

︲

メ
′

′一一

″

︲
脚
︲

，
ヽ

脚
ヽ′

中
¨

‘
ヽ

︵ ∼
﹃
一
一
︲
・
﹃

ヽ
´
︶
４
ヽゃ
ヽ
‰
、
ヽ・
，
ヽ′

メ
喝
′・
ヽ
ｔｔ
、
、
・
ヽ
、も
、
、．／
、′〆ヽ
ヽ、．
１︼
'drunk7
0JⅧ
口卸
lCr2
Map 25: Distribution of 'drunk'

１
１，．
′′
︵
ノ
閣
ｒ
／
︺
／・
︶
′
／
・
一
・
ヽ
／
﹄
︲１１．

ヽ
´／

／
一ヽ
へ

ヽ
・′ ﹂ ι
ヽ
′

／・
ヽ
，

、
′
／

ノ／

′

︲ヽ

ヽ
!"*l'/"

、、
tl

へ
．

( +
，
︲
^dun
ty'u'
ヽ
、
・
．
ヽ
．
、
、
.,:
,p.u,
"-.--.ri .._.--_., o.
ヽ
\-/' 'i r'au oy'u"
、
、、
．．
′︼
!
／
一
′
t
ｒ
j
／
・
@1aa
ヽ
′ ︲ヽ︲︲︲︰ ′
、
，
．
．、
I
、﹂
\ up*o
，
ヽ
ヽ
r*,
ヽ
´
´
\
″
′メ
メ
´
′
嚇灯
\rr
ヽ
t
＼
\
、
、ハ
、
、
\
、
√ ヽ
、
ヽｒ ′ ′
′
メ
， ′
″・
ヽ
′ｒ
﹁
t
，‘ ，
︼
一﹂
︲・
ヽ
ヽ
︲
︲，
ｔ
一
tmonringt
ofaa
trpBa
vi& tb pmisrion
rtic MqProicl.
Map 26: Distribution of 'morning'

ト
tpersont
能:P/Ⅲ
M:ap27: Distribution of 'Person'

M.A. (Linguistics) /85
オヽ︲
′︲、
ヽ︲
︲
ヽ
タ
ヽ
回こw
①一，
□ ClW
o cew
t珊
メ
ヽ
ヽ
Map 28: Distribution of 'souP'

′
ヽヽ
＼
ヽ、
一一ヽ ′ ′′′′ ヽヽ
ヽｉ
ヽ︲︰
︲´
・
ヽヽ
﹄
可帆
、
〆ヽ１，、，
、．．
‰¨¨ 、
、
輛％
・
＼＼
ヽ
Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Uruv.
へ
‰ ＼、
０
︲ ′ ′
ノ
／１
′ ヽメメヽヽヽ，
、
ヽ︲イ
〆ヽ︱ノ
／
／
︲ヽ
／
一
ノＦ
ヽヽ
・
ヽ，一
一
・
ヽ﹀
、
、
、ヽ
、′
／
″ 、
一
﹁一
︺︺
一
・
，
ヽ、
、 ′
ト
︶
喝、、
一
♂ 匈蜘
① ︲ヽ
﹂
﹂３０ □
Map 29: Distribution of 'see'

ｔ
ηｒ
′＼．ｒｌゝ
，
/ノ
回輌/″
ヽ
回ぬ
′ ・
′
″
´
´′
″
ン
ヽ
計
﹁鈍
がｔ鴫輌
つ日 ‰ ＼／
﹄σく崎
¨ 鳴
︺ヽ
、
∼
、
ヽ
︵ミ
０い
︸
一
¨︲・
︲
，
ノ・
︲
、
．
︲、
、．
´
ヽ・・
，
ヽ
・⋮︲′′
・
／
／
︲
︲
′
︲′
／′
ヽ
・ｆ
ヽヽ
／／
′ 一
一
′∼
ヽ
︲
，，︲
、︲
／
く・
ヽ
︶
”﹀
Isara Choosri
ヘ
Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 87
﹁
イ
‘
ー
′
´
Ｊ
ノｋ
′，
・ヽ
、、．
´
ｔ、．
‘
・、
．∼
、
1i, --.
,...
[:"*--''
\
〓
I
・・
︲
ヽ
t
ヽヽ
︲メ
(
i Eta&
・
ヽ１
ノ
ヽ
︶﹀
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
｀
・・｀
ヽ、
、、
L、
/ /
1 L、
ノしヽ
‐
・
、
｀Ъ・
、/、、
｀
.マ
/_.´
＼
，
ヽヽ
＼
ヽ．
ヽ
「、
ヽ ′
)ヽ //rク
．
＼
′′
J 、
′
一
ヽ
・・
ン
.
ヽ
(′
・
'water'
O thβ よ
□ ta■
酬迅糧胤胤 1鵠
,
Map 30: Distribution of 'water'

Isara Choosri Chong Dialect MaPs / 88
5.3.5 Vowel height
Maps 31-36 show mutual diference in vowel height such as /r:/ and /o/ in the
v,ord 'ask for' /lg:m/ and /tgun/,lol and /c/ in the word 'liver' ilornl and llc'n/, ltl nd
/e/ in the word 'fish' /qi.?:w/ and lm!lw/,liJ and lel in the word'sit' /kij/ and lkej/'
Such distinction does not differ in a continuous manner as in other categories. But, the
diflerence appears to occurs here and there. Anyway, one need to investigate deeper into
the comparative Chong lexicon in order to find whether there is any systematic explana-
tion of the difference. However, I do present some examples of this variation in word
maps in Chapter 5 in order that interested researchers might find it worthwhile to ftnd
more explanations.
,ヽ

一

［¨
﹄

マ

ハ
ヽヽ
，
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
fort
し
＜／
″
／

ヽ、
・︰
ヽ
コノ
／ノ
” ヽ

、、
ヽ
!te.rn
Otq:m
task
″
′

＼
″
′ ／
１︲︲︲
Map 3l: Distribution of 'ask for'

ノ
′
´
′
″
Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ.
、
´
′ □﹄
¨ ヽ、
ヽ
ヽ

ヽ・
・、
．
、、
ヽ′Ｆ！Ｌ
・
ヽ
ハ
ノ
〆
＼
/だ
l｀ ①
1
ノ
′
1、
///
ン ¨
1' ノ
プ
ノ '
i ′
、、回中
∴ wヽ、
ヽ.li￢ ④ ＼ヽ、
ミ0車 …
｀
、
ノ
′ w
√プ
J＼
i
:｀
ヽ
｀
ヽ』∬ 「 ▼
ヘ中 I'W
｀｀
ヽ
′ ＼
l ヽ.
、 ℃
ヽ
'buy'
04w
□ t'W
mapF
Eヽ蓼ti mpPⅢ
茸
Map 32: Distribution of 'buy'

Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 91
′
i ′
ノ (
1
/
ノ/
ヽ// ¨
t
「十回可
知
。 (
(
f I
｀ °mか
ヽ
° mゞW
￨、
..、
1
ヽ
′
ノ
__.″ .ノ
＼_/＼
、 _´ _… ′
.メ
ヽ、 ′
_へ
Om中
へ
｀
｀
、
Omミ W
｀
″
ヽ、
＼
/
、
ヽ ′
′
′́′
″
、
み〔
nヽ
ヽ
＼ :ア
) ｀｀・｀
′‐ ・・
′ ノ
ヽ
ヽ
ヽ
'Flsh9
8器
u"d Llo wlぬ the pmlno810F
lhmingutic Map P""ct
Map 33: Distribution of 'fish'

八ン

ノ／ゝ。
ヽヽ
︲・一
一

﹄¨

﹀
一

げヽ

①
tflesht
O *wo
tr cg:c
︲
、
、、

”
／
ノ︲
︲
︲・・′
′
ノ
一ヽ、
Map 34: Distribution of 'flesh'

一
″︲
ヽノ
ヽ′
，、
ヽ
of
一
iou
，
、︲
︰ ′
‘
．
﹁ソ、
．′ 、
、りヽ
・︲︲、
ヽ

一・ィ
ダ
・ヽ、
鴫ｃ
¨
回
′だ
・¨ヽ
ヽｒ
db=o● ぬ■o
´

中

一
一

、
赫
︸¨
¨

︸
﹂嘔・
．
﹃
田
ヽ
ヽ、
＼
︵
︰ヽ
４
呻
‘
／
／ Ю 、
、
(■ "map・
ノ′
ノ

¨
¨
¨
ヽ
ヽ︲
・ヽ
′
〆、
ヽ
，
ヽ
・︲ヽ
、
︲
、・
、
．
プ
／ヽ
．
﹂
ｔ。︲
︰
︲
．．︲
′
′‘
メ
´ ＝ヽ′
一
¨
´
〆Ｆ
Isara Choosri
ヽ︲ノ
・ ■．′
ヽヽ
、
︲
、， ′
・・・ｔヽ
メ
、．
．
ヽ、
．．
べ´
Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol υ血 . r_ M.A. (Linguistics) / 93
〆ヽ１／／
ヽ
″
ヽ
︲
︲
ヽ，
ヽ
︲
′
ヽ
ヽ
回 tom
︶
・，
ハ鴫鴫嚇
ヽ
︵ｔ
′
十︵
¨
ヽ
く
ヽ
︲
，
ヽ
一
、
︶
ヽ
︶
ｍ
ヽ
t..、
，
′
ｒ
／︲
ｋ
I
F-------r,
ヽ
／
・
′ ｔｉ︲︲︲，′
、
，
︲，
ヽ
t
、、
ヽ
，・
\-s-
\,-.._./
´
″
一
ノ′
ノ
′
´
ヽ
＼／●■
ハーーメ
′
′′
ヽ
︲
'liver'
Map 35: Distribution of 'liver'

、 ⑪珂
□ koj
/
o kJ
'sit'
ゝ_//´
／
、
、、
︲．／︲︲・・
・・
︱′
ヽ、ノ
Map 36: Distribution of 'sit'

＼ ´
１１ ″
)
｀
(
l
一
ヽ
ヽ
)
「
ヽ
メ
″ 、
％％
″…
〆１ヽＡ
″___7.^″
.″
︻ヽ
一
¨ ・・
︲
﹁︲
ノ︲
︲
．
ヽ
，、
・
︲
．、
＼
ヽｒ，
ヽ
″/′
ノ
ヽ︰︱′ノ・
／ヽ・ヽヽ
・
，
〆ヽ ′／
一
ノ十
︲′︶
ヽ
ｒヽ
ヽ
・ヽ
・︰ヽ
て︶
︶
﹁
Isara Choosri
＼
・ヘ
∫
′
`‐
颯
Fac of Grad Studies,Mahidol Ulllv M.A. (Linguistics) / 95
5.3.6 Treatments of Proto Pearic

Maps 37-39 are not actually based on any particular words like in the case of
Maps 5-36, but they are deduced from the patterns of data distribution in 5.3.1 (Final
Consonant) and 5.3.2. (Consonant Cluster). Considering them in regard to the proto
Pearic *-s and *cr-, I created 3 additional maps based on the different treatments of*-s
and *cr- in Chong dialects. Map 37 is on *-s > /-V, /-hl and Map 38 is on *cr- > /c-l and
/kr-/. While Map 39 combines the two treatments together. we may see that the two-way
difference in Maps 37 and 38 becomes 3-way different in Map 39. This approach by-
passes the 'isogloss' method of map making that is good for approximate presention of
locations, where exact points are not depicted. Isogloss maps are best when they repre-
sent'isogloss bundles'. But in Map 39, I prefer the'point'method because the viewer can
see directly which location conforms to what feature.

(ヽ
回 ■
。 . も t
Ot
O.
0. 、
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′ヽ
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′
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ｔ
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Map 37: Treatment of Proto-Pearic *-s

，
、′
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、
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∼
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Treatment of
Proto-Pearlc
rcr-
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Map 38: Treatment of Proto-Pearic *cr-

Map 39: Treatment of Proto-Pearic *-s and *cr- (Chong dialect continuum)
ヽ／
１ ‘︱、︱
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・ヽ
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、

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け淵ご
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{lvlahilol Ethrchguislic Mq Prcjcct.

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Isara Choosri
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・
ヘ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mand。 l univ M A cingd飩 iC⇒ /99
CHAPTER VI
DISCUSS10N AND CONCLUSION
From the results found in this study, we can reach some generalizations bn Chong
dialects that I will discuss in this chapter. The first generalization is the pattem ofvariances
among Chong dialects that conforms to what dialectologists refer to as a 'dialect continuum'
(Chambers, 1980). The second generalization sheds light onthe historical aspect ofChong
dialects that have developed diferently in different locations. Apart from thal the study results
lead to practical matters such as the decrease ofChong speakers, which has happened un-
evenly in various dialectq and the development ofChong literacy, which is now underway. All
things considered, I reach the conclusion that the 3-way distinction among Chong dialects
…
corresponds both to geographical barriers and to sociolinguistic awareness ofchong speak-
ers. Also, I find that applying GIS to dialect mapping can be useful for the work ofordinary
tinguists looking for a tool capable ofdistributing linguistic variations according to geographical
settings.
6.1 The Asymmetrical Decline of Chong Dialects
Due to disruption ofintergenerational transmissioq the Chong language has become a
threatened one-stage 7 according to Fishman's Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale
(Fisman 191). In existing Chong communities, only the older generation still use Chong with
their peers; the younger parents do not teach Chong to their children. Many communities have
been known as Chong ones in the past but today we will hardly find any Chong speakers
there. We cannot be certain how this process has actually developed. However, the decrease
ofChong population is uneven from area to area. A likely factor is the increasing number of
Thai and Lao settlers in Chong areas, now outnumbering the indigenous Chong. This process
appears to begin from the areas closer to to\i/ns, then proceeds toward the more rural areas
adjacent to the forests.

ヘ

Discussion and Conclusion / 100
Isara Choosri
InMap40,createdflomquestionnairesurveydataoftheMahidolEthnolinguistic
Map Project, we will see the mixture ofpopulation in Chong
villages-each pie chart repre-
We that
village. The size ofpie is determined by the number ofChong speakers'
see
sents a
onlyinsomevillagesofthenorthemareaofthemapareChongspeakersinthemajority.They
in Takhian Thong Proper.
are mostly the speakers ofthe Northern chong dialect living
Poag Narn Ron
EB ]-ao Isan
Ji @ Noihc,rl Khrlcr
Si",|s olPi. cbtls an PrcPonbnal

to *i"rs o! Cbrg PoPulztion-
Map 40: Distribution of Chong Population
Briefly speaking the clrrrent situation shows tlrat chong speakers in the northern com-
munities ofKhao Khitchakut (NC) have better maintained their language than the southern
communities (SC). From a sociolinguistic perspective, the NC dialect has abrighter future
than the SC dialect in maintaining the speakers, whereas the EC dialect is becoming extinct.
6.2 Dialects otChong and ChongLiteracy Development
A few years ago, Chong elders in Takhian Thong Proper (NC) initiated language
revitalization efforts. This started from the making ofChong orthography based on Thai soipt
in cooperation with linguists, led by Prof Suwilai Premsritrat, from Institute oflanguage and
Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol Universiry Later this corrununity group obtained
a
grant for an action research project for revitalizing Chong language from Thailand Research

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mand。 lumv M.A. (Linguistics) / 101
Fund. At present the project includes some local community leaders, academics from Mahidol
Universiry with literacy consultancy from SIL lntemational.

As a part ofthis project, I found that Chong speakers ofTakhian Thong Proper not
only regarded themselves as a distinct group, but they also knew about some ofthe variants
between their dialect and those ofPhluang Proper. I am most acquainted with this area, as it
is here that I started leaming Chong. The location is also the center ofChong language revital-
ilng project whose activities cover allTakhian Thong Proper. So far, I have observd that
speakers from Khlong Phlu and Takhian Thong get allong well during orthography-making
sessions, which means that there is no serious discrepancies in their pronunciation.This
sociolinguistic awareness is in line with my study results. Such awareness is one ofthe reasons
why the NC speakers chose io launch the first phase ofChong language revitalization project
within Takhian Thong Proper, instead ofcovering the whole Khao Kitchakut district.
Tlree years ago, a renowned Chong monk published a booklet that contains Chong
glossaries, based on SC pronunciatioq wdtten in Thai script. It is noticeable that some Chong
speakers in the northem area with whom I discussed the publicatioq regard those words as
'wrongly' written. From my experience working with Chong speakers developing a writing
system, I found that dialect variations that have been are accepted when spoken become
disputable when written forms must be settled, especially as there is no cornmon, standard
dialect.
From a practical point ofview, I regard my study ofChong dialects as a data support
for a literacy program that must take geographical variations into account. Starting from one
dialect at a timg theq we would be able to modify the writing system to accommodate varia-
tions. This is a safer approach as I found that reducing language sounds to written forms can
be a daunting task for native speakers who have only known how to speak the langrrage.
I consider that it is a good idea to start orthography development for a minority lan-
guage, without any writing system and standard dialect, by selectingjust one dialect to begin
with. This will prevent confirsion that may arise from geographical variations because any
group ofspeakers would want their speech to be the standard form ofthewriting system.
ヽ
︵

Discussion and Conclusion / 102
Isara Choosri
6.3 Conclusion
The first one is a proposal'
I have three points to conclude from this thesis study
drawnfromChonglanguagesurveydataandgeographicaldistributionofvariations,fordivid.
Chong (Takhian Thong Proper)' Southem
ing dialects ofChong into three groups: Northem
Nam Ron Proper) The second one is an
Chong @trluang Proper) and Eastem Chong @ong
evaluative account ofthe usefulness and difficulty

ofapplying GIS to linguistic studies' The
dialects ofChong on practical matter
final point is the potential use ofthe knowledge about
such,as Chong literacy development.
6.3.1 Diatects of Chong RemaPPed

What I found from this research on dialects ofChong are
linguistic and geographical
basesforfurtherdividingthemastkeedistinctgroups.Therefore,Isuggestthatthe2-way
distinction'i.e.Chong/caandChonghaapbemodiftedas3-waydistinction,i.e.Northern
Proper) and Eastem Chong (Pong
Chong (Takhian Thong Proper), Southem Chong (Phluang
ハ｀
NamRonProper).Mountainsanddenseforestshadlongseparatedthesegroupsuntilrecent
road communication. Despite
modemization in Thailand that cteared out forests and provided
more or less aware ofsome
infrequent inter-group association, Chong speakers have been
that could be systematically
linguistic variants in other groups. Apart from major differences
are recognized by Chong
mapped, as shown in this paper, there are minor differences that
for understanding the geo-
speakers from village to village. I also find that maps are useful
graphical distribution ofChong language and dialects'
AlthoughtheissueofChongdialectshavebeenaddressedbylinguistsforsevera]pilst
this issue My com-
decades, my thesis research uses a diferent approach to understanding
person. Also, the
parison ofvariations is based on the same set offield dat4 collected by one
I propose as a tlree-way
local views on the dialectal division are taken into account. What
linguistic evidence but relies
distinction ofchong language, therefore, is not solely based on
that what I propose in this
partly on the perception olChong speakers' Thus, I do not claim
thesis is a discovery ofunknownterritory but a report ofwhat Chong people already know but
might not be able to explain with academic principles'

dialects may some-
While I conclude fiom this study that differences between closer
grow greater when we proceed
times be slight, it is interesting to see how such differences
ス

Fac. ofGrad. Studies, Mahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 103
further from the starting point. Such geo-lingistic phenomenon is what maps can best depict.
However, map-making is a distinct discipline requiring a certain skills that linguists are not
trained to master GIS is a handy tool for ordinary linguists working on such geo-linguistic
phenomanon.
6.3.2 GIS Applied to Dialect Mapping: Usefulness and Dilliculties

The applications ofGIS will yield more benefits for linguistic geography research that
involve a wide range ofdata distribution than ones that deal with limited data. To operate any
GIS software always takes time for ordinary linguists, and to obtain electronic base maps
demands considerable costs. However, there are many private and govemment organizations
that provide electronic base maps to be used with GIS software. Two major sources include
the Ministry ofD efense's Krom Phaenthii Thahaon,Royal Thai Survey, and a private firm
Thai Environmental Institute. Therefore, it is not impossible for individual linguists to apply
GIS on their small-scaled research project.

,.i What I leamed from the application of GIS on dialect mapping makes me more con-
fident in the usefulness ofthis technology for tinguistic studies that involve geographical distri-
bution. Moreover, it helps reduce the distance between linguistic analysis ofdata and distribu-
tion ofdata. Linguists who can use GIS will be able to maintain their linguistic geography
database over a long-termed period, capable ofadding editing data, and modify their maps in
a sustainable way. Mth long-term monitoring of data, they may also be able to map the
pattem oflanguage shift in a given language.
The dificulty for ordinary linguists is that GIS software is not so widely in use as other
office software, like word processors and spreadsheets. Appropriate electronic base maps
are essential to obtain before going ahead. Besides, linguists must decide whether it is worth
the extra time required for learning how to use a GIS software. One criterion is whether the
attempted research project will be a sustainable one. Ifone plans to maintainthe map project
in the future, GIS is worth the investment. All in all, the usefulness of GIS application on
linguistic geography far exceeds the difficulties in its application.
6.3.3 Practical Use of Knowledge about Chong Dialects

In our world today, the issue ofminority language revitalization and literacy develop-
一
八

Isara Choosri Discussion and Conclusion / 104
ment fior languages without written system becomes a major interest for both linguists and
communities that own such languages. In many cases, including the Chong langrragg there is
no standard dialect accepted by all speakers. Chong speakers would likely regard their own
dialectas'standard.'Givensuchaconditioqliteracyfacilitatorsneedtoknowwhichdialect
they are worhng wittq and how different it is compared to other dialects. Geographical varia-
tions must be addressed when facilitators move from one Chong dialect to another. Besides,
our current knowledge that the Northem Chong dialect, where a literacy project is under way,
is the biggest one in terms ofspeakerq ensures outside facilitators that their efforts hit the right
target.
A literacy development project for minority language would involve reading materials
production: primers, storybookq posters, etc. Knowledge about Chong dialects will save
time and resources as materials in one dialect could be modffied to flt with other ones. Dictio-
naries could be accepted and commonly used among all Chong speakers ifdialectal variants
are included in them. Practically, my thesis could be regarded as one slice of a complete
-+ picture ofChong dialects that we need to draw in order that literacy efforts in the future will
cover the whole language.
Apart ofreading materials production, Chong language curriculum and trainings of

Chong teachers must not overlook the iszue ifregional dialects. Those involved must be well-
informed ofvariations in the language. The awareness ofregional dialects will nrake leamers of
Chong language more sensitive to variants when they encounter some oftiem. Recording as
many variants as possible will certainly enrich Chong dictionaries to be made and modified in
the funrre.
However, the results ofthis study is not sufficient for taking all regional variants into
account. More work needs to be done in order to draw a more complete picture ofChong
dialects, thus, providing more practical service to Chong speakers developing the language
. revitalization program.
6.4 Suggestions
With some conclusions established from my own study. I would like to suggest that
more studies be done to clarify issues conceming Chong dialects and the Pearic group of
Mon-Khmer languages in Cambodia and Thailand (see 6.4. l). Furthermorg more applica-
.-i

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mandolu血 v M A chguiStiC9/105
tions ofGIS to linguistic geography studies should be done as the technology once mastered
simplifies an otherwise cumbersome work for linguistic geographers (see 6.4.2).
6.4.1 Further Studies on the Pearic Group of Mon-Khmer Sub-family
The most comprehensive work to date on the phonological criteria for dMding Pearic
languages is still the work done by Headley (1985). It provides a guideline for historical
changes within the language group. Howevet the data used in that work had been drawn
from various sources done on different periods oftime. One can further theknowledge on
Pearic languages, set offby linguists like Headley and Martin decades ago, by drawing fresher
data from the field. Moreover, more correspondences ofProto-Pearic forms should be
equally collected in all concemed languages.
Besides, Thai and Khmer influences on dialects ofChong and on Pearic languages in
general, should be addressed so that we can understand more on the Pearic group that is so
closely in contact with the far bigger linguistic super strata. This knowledge will be very useful
when one tries to compare the Pearic languages on both sides of Thailand-Cambodia border.
Another isue that should be addressed is the comparison ofChong registers in vari-
ous dialects. Ifpossible, the study should included other languages within the Pearic group, as
the phenomenon is said to occur in Pearic languages other than Chong too. The outcome of
such study may not only shed light on the question oftonogenetic development, but may also
deal with the question ofhow bilingualism influences change in Chong registers and in other
Pearic languages.
The issue ofChong dialect study can be approached from a sociolinguistic aspect.
We may test about the mutual intelligibility among Chong speakers of diferent dialects. Ide-
ally, mutual intelligibility tests should be done to cover all Pearic langrages, as it is still question-
able whether they are a group ofdialects or languages. The answer should not only be deter-
mined by lexicostatistics. Mutual intelligibility tests should be substantiated in order that we
could be more certain ofthe situation.
6.4.2 Application of GIS on Linguistic Studies
I have repeated many times that powerful GIS software can be used to handle geo-
linguistic phenomenon. Certainly this interfac€ ofGIS and linguistics will greatly benefit the
パ

Isara Choosri Discussion and Conclusion / 106
studies ofdialect geography. Dialect mapping can be done both byusing already published
data and collecting dialect data ourselves. This application will shorten the process ofmapping
by integrating the analysis (grouping) and distribution ofdata into one-stop process. We can
also maintain a large database ofdialects where data entries can be added, edited, re-distrib-
uted, and mapped by ordinary linguists who may not even know how to draw.
Historical-comparative linguistics will also benefit by applying GIS . Rules of changes
within a language group or family can be entered to accompany correspondences grogped
under different locations. Then, we can classifr them according to the frules' they are sub-
jected to. Speaking ofisoglosses, [nes can be drawn and accompanied, again, with rules that
we can classify and symbolize accordingly. With this technique we do not need to draw a line
each time we assign a rule. So, we will integrate and make it a more dynamic process of
analysis and distnbution.
On the GIS platform, sociolinguistic parameters can be considered along side lan-
guage variations in order to probe more deeply the factors that regulate the social use ofa
language. A tanguage that is under threat in one area may be compared to another language
thriving in somewhere else to see what sociolingrristic factors are behind the difference . How-
ever, this will still remain a theoretical opportunity unless we take up the idea and actualize it in
practice.
Geography-related linguistic study such as the study ofgeographical names will also
benefit fiom applying to GIS. This can be done without actually going out to the field. Com-
munity names, topographical names, et ceter4 gathered from published sources can be orga-
nized as databases so that we can see the distribution pattems of'names' under investigation.

Fac ofGrad.Studies,NIlahidol Univ
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- andWangKraphraeChong. M.A. Thesiq FacultyofGraduate Studies,MahidolUni-
versity.
Sujaritlak Deepadung. ( l98l). Phaasaa taang taang nai trakuun Austro-Asiatic. Journal of
Language and Culture. Vol I :2, pp 57 -65 . (in Thai)
Sujaritlak Deepadung. (I 982). Laksana nam siang. Journal oflanguage and Culture. Vol I :
2,pp56-63. (inThai)
Sunee Kamnuansin. (2002). The synta( of an endangered language: a case study ofKasong.
Paper presented to the 8ftInternational Conference on Thai Studies, lanuary 9-12,
2002, at Nakhon Phanonr, Thailand.
Surekha Suphannaphaibun. (1982). Rabop Siang Nai Phaasaa Chong Muu Baan Takhian
Thon& TarnbonTakhianThong AmphurN{akharn. MAThesis, Sinaktrarinthara-wirote
University. (inThai)
Surekha Suphannaphaibun. (1937). A Study ofChong Ethn . Research paper

presented to the Social Science Association ofThailand. (in Thai)
SuwilaiPresirat. (2001). Chong orthography development. Journal oflanguage and Culture.

19.2,5-18. (in Thai)
Suwilai Presirat et al. (2001 ). Ethnolinguistic Maps of Thailand. Research paper presented to
the National Office ofCulture. (in Thai)
Theraphan L. Thongkum. (1992). Aninstrumental study ofChong registers. In Mon-Khmer

Studies in Honour ofHarry Shorto. Edited by J. H. C. S. Davidson. London: School
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Mon-Khmer Studies l. Metnam: The Linguistic Circle of Saigon, pp. 149-163.
Trask, R. L. (1997). A Student's distionary oflanguage and linguistics. London: Amold.
Webber, KarlE. (1976). Ethnographic notes ofthe Chong populationin Chanthaburi province
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Wichian Sittiprapaporn. ( I 997).

Study. M. A. thesis, Faculty of Graduate

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mand。 l univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 111
APPENDIX A
QUESTIONNAIRE

Isara Choosri Appendix A / 112
Number Meanings Pronunciation

1 S時 11
2 cおud
3 9杉 Ou
4 no"
5 ゞar
6 wind
7 Jll
lighhing
thunder ■1子 ol
mist Ч
"On
niSlt na,inll
12 mom[ng
lcar 丁
14
mrth
mud lt alt
餡 nd
"Ч
silver 1,II
mounlaid t刊 1
一
ｍ
river bank
lVOOd
trce 輌■l“
jungle
lcaf
bark 可ЯDnl」
u10m llコ ]ll
nOwcr ooo(lI)
fruit m00
)
ûい
seed ●●∩
sap or(dul0
nl
ツｑ
grass
thatch ndrnr
banara nイ oυ
mttan
腱 t rhln'n
40 bird
‐
Ⅵ ng un
Feathcr ヽ■lln
Jll
44 e“
^

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 113

tail
話J(inつ
●
ｍ
lЮ m
dog llN l
bark(v) ll1 1
ИN
chicken
duck 1刊 ∩
eei rinrlnn
mb
shrimp ホ
turtle nl
snake ゞ
mt ,'コ
rabbit n,多 mlo
dvct 賞渕n
monkey
dcef nolo
ミ
`′
64 b6rkinB deer
65 trger m
bear
`:I∩
bura10
一
η
cattic
elephaol 髯1,
elephanltusk r(fir)
ll■ 0"
勢 10n ulnt ol
spider 11"。
lll
louse lll,
77 ny(.) :l"n11■
ant
悶・
bcc
leech
waterleech
eye
lt
toolh

Isara Choosri Appendix A/ 114
〓“
Ю llair ll
"",刊
ncck
shoulder lliバ
chest rrlron
ll"
h“ rt 一
“
belly イ。
￨
intestine 1イ
一
剛
liver
hand
"
1∞ 10"
foot :柿
hcc 1191刊
'
gll.1
1∝ hi8h
QlF
106 blood ● 00
107 bonc niじ Qn

ハ
108 lllll
1∞ wound
nesll ll10
i刊 m
"a“
0'1'彰
live ■Ⅵ
01稿 )
die
SICk
brEathe rro'lt
hear 1繭 u
ll
“
Rpeak p
120 ask
ask for
﹁い
口 ll
W∝ p :0。 lll
laugh l101'■
"
lll lJ0
rin, rrlr
130 eat(rice) nllイ ]η
elt (sth. else) else

一
‘ａ
dink

Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / 115
drunk
vomit ollnuu
couSh
＾
ｍ
dunk
knoド :
ull
●
“
an.id
1“
an剪
ashamed
143 sleep lol (nn'r)
144 dMln
145 :
balhc
147
148 stand
＾
ｎ
walk
150
ハ
‘¨
clirnb
154 2,酬 1
n。、
v
In“
ぶuil
lolrn.l
・
﹃・
hidc
●ｍ ●
1∞ buv
ｍ
push
gl、 c 11
164 rake
一
■
keep riuinu
、
vash
●
鄭一ｍ
launder
170
9in, 11n, i!
i74 bRIk
broken apan mn, tin, fmooni
‐●
ゞnb

ヽ
Isara Choosri Appendix A / 116
177 di8 つ
リ
“
1" n,
180 squce7e ill,o●
pesDn
dlli。
・”
184 father
ci〕 ild nn
lltt● band
"0
慟 Fe
eldersibling
190 youdgersibling イ0、
I Q
192
yol
rlce neld
ヘ
plaut
ha est lnm
nail rmdrr
199 b■ n
2∞ dce(unhusked) tt,lun0n
h∬ kcd● ce { rarr
202 h(61)
203 husk
i衝
204 cooked rice 51う
205 ∞ llol
“ n30
206 mll
“ｎ
207 salty
208 sveet ll,1●
2∞ cllili llin
― k 1(而イ1。 )
“￨,」
● 11ふ 1■ m
mup
■rc
rl_00d 11`
bum
n2●
nぶ 11 蜀6]
pillar
ヽ 220 o)F llぅ onl

ヽ
Fac ofGrad Studies,Mahdol Univ MA(Lhguittics)/117
Ю luln
"
222 諄 h
village n{rhl
224 価 mer
On":
ぃ bow lltill=
227 spotr
228 slloot
229 鮨 ll
230 baskct o:nfr

drulll noo,
●
ｍ
価 iFe
morlar
234 pestle mn
235
‘側
m“
Illi,
ヽvo mo
240 」lrce n∩ 渕
Four ″
rlvc iFn
‘ｎ
244
245 eighl ruin
イ1
＾
ｍ
ten
hundred
249 Jl mo"コ n
250 many
1111
●ｎ
small
long (space)
254 long(time)
smooth lШ
ulick
259 Ⅲ de
black
rcd
whitc 、n●
へ 264 Green 1ヽ￨￨

Isara Choosri AppendixA/118
′山
Ыuc
丼 ‖ぃv ll100ヽ
d, ‖糸
■et 1100
269
‘ｎ
270 tull(mntainer)
diny rmri:n
sharp
273
hot 祐
"
cold :υ ■,ll■ 12
277 800d ∩
bad
279 dd(pemn)
﹁
ｍ
280 decp
lll"Oltntt
different
イ■
28
284 Far ina
G“
=
right-side
287 len― sidc イ1」

llere
289
290 alat llll
293 who?
294 what? o:l:

●
ｍ
295 輛 ll
1lov? odrl:?
Got
︲ｎ
donot
299 あ、
3∞ Not yet お11

・
ｍ
berOre
mer
"n,
303 already イ9
“

Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / I 19
APPENDIX B
CHONG BASIC VOCABULARY

AppendixB/ 120
一一。。
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￨
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＆ ↑●Ｅ ↑０日０鍼 “ｏこ
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Appendix B / 122
¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ¨００ ∞０一 ∞ヽ
・コ ´ ﹁・・﹁〓
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日 ●８
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ＥＯ也ＥＯコ日０壺日●コ﹄豊寸゛べ
133
日０コ日０コＥＯコ日︱コ
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31
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135
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Fac.ofGrad Studies,Ⅳ Iahidol Univ. M.A. (Linguistics) / 139
B10GRAPⅡ Y
NttE M■ Isara Choosri

DATE OF BIRTH 9 Fcbrllary 1969
PLACE OF BIRTH Phetchaburi,Thailand

INSTITUTIONS ATTENDED ThammasatlUniversity, 1987- 199 I :
Bachelor of Arts (English Language

; and Literafure)
Mahidol University, 1998 - 2002:

Master of Arts (Linguistics)
SCHOLARSHIP This thesis is supported in part by the Ministry of
University Affair and Faculty of Graduate
´
Studies, Mahidol University in the aca

demic year of 2000-2001.University Affair
and Faculty ofGraduate Studies, Mahidol Uni
versity in the academic year of 2000-2001.
HOPIE ADDRESS 2 Soi 6, Pho Ka Rong Road, ThaRap Sub-district,
Muang District, Phetchaburi Province
76000. Tel. 0-3242-6596.

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2 1 」

MAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT

ISIBN 974-04‐ 1453-2

PIAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

il..'P;;i il;iiui p,.r.'i*,, prln.

Faculty olGraduate Studies

Copyright by Mahidol University

MAPPING DIALECTS OF CHONG IN CHANTHABURI

was submitted tOtheFacultyOfGraduate Studies,Mahidol Ulliversity

for the degree of Master of Arts cinguistics)

Copyright by Mahidol University

Assoc Prof Sujaritlak Deepadung, my co'advisor, gave me valuable comments for

Copyright by Mahidol University

4136585 LCLGnl : MAJOR:LINGUISTICS;M.A.

I propOse that Martinis category ofChong′ o,shOuld be regarded as com―

Addionall■ appし hgGISto ddectmapメ ngCOddbeuse島 lforthework of

Copyright by Mahidol University

136585 LCLGノ R4 :α l剛 1]γ l:nl■ lanani;ag。 3J。 (01■ 1■ lani)

6α ,彫 Tal:::閃 ■lol■ lγ o16■ dl■ 11■ 嶺γ愉前lη ll:n]● 」宙Ч n漁 ギ

イ,彫 u ll al,窟 ■:■ g00gl窟 働f y'o 寄lo:o窟 ■oollnf91'創 1イ 1■ nlulγ l窟 働子::群 っ

市絢:a■ oづ lnlυ 16■ Юヾ

(1985)ngF■ ol弱 11欄 oun」 aヾ ■ laJヾ 11∩ nlぞ u窟 弥

>/c‐ /1■ nη υlγ o1614:И lo ll'ol幻 ヾ

RUflつ 1lU:剛 119■ 0く ぶⅦ∩nl・ lγ 001l14つ ■3J10

l,0,8010%0ヾ 剛ONaη lヾ nlり 1儲 lan,9]測 dll17Jヾ 16iO.1ヾ Q￡ gl■ 9子

Copyright by Mahidol University

2.2 Chong and Kasong(Chong OfTrat) 10

2.4 Studies ofChong Language 17

2.5 A Sketch ofChongPhonology 19

2.6E)ialects ofChong:the State ofKnowledge 24

Copyright by Mahidol University

CHAPコ 田tIV RESIILTS OF DIALECT SllRVEY

4.5 Lingllistic ChangeswithnChongDidects 52

Copyright by Mahidol University

Copyright by Mahidol University

Copyright by Mahidol University

MAP 24: Distribution of 'alcohol'

MAP 25: Distribution of'drunk'

NIAP 26: Distribution of 'moming'

MAP27: Distribution of 'person'

MAP 28: Distribution of'soup'

MAP29: Distribution of 'see'

MAP30: Distribution of'wate/

MAP31: Distribution of 'ask for'

NIIAP 33: Distribution of'fish'

NIAP 34: Distribution of'flesh'

MAP35: Distribution of 'liver'

MAP36: Distribution of'sit'

NIAP 37: Treatment ofProto Pearic *-s

MAP38: Treatment ofProto Pearic *cr-

MAP39: Treatment ofProtoPearic *-s and *cr- (ChongDialect Continuum)

MAP40: Distribution of Chong Population

Copyright by Mahidol University

Fac.ofGrad.Studies,Mahidol Univ M.A. (Linguistics) / I

Map 1: The Pearic Area

Copyright by Mahidol University

.,. r'""{- t}st

The zoom-in map shows

Map 2: Chanthaburi,s Administrative Areas

Copyright by Mahidol University

Fac. of Grad. Studies, Mahidol Univ.

I started learning chong in late l99g with speakers from

6α ,彫 Tal:::閃 ■lol■ lγ o16■ dl■ 11■ 嶺γ愉前lη ll:n]● 」宙Ч n漁ギ

イ,彫 u ll al,窟 ■:■ g00gl窟働f y'o 寄lo:o窟 ■oollnf91'創 1イ 1■ nlulγ l窟働子::群っ

(1985)ngF■ ol弱 11欄 oun」 aヾ ■ laJヾ 11∩ nlぞ u窟弥

>/c‐ /1■ nη υlγ o1614:И lo ll'ol幻ヾ

RUflつ 1lU:剛 119■ 0くぶⅦ∩nl・ lγ 001l14つ ■3J10

l,0,8010%0ヾ剛ONaη lヾ nlり 1儲 lan,9]測 dll17Jヾ 16iO.1ヾ Q￡ gl■ 9子

CHAPコ田tIV RESIILTS OF DIALECT SllRVEY

MAP39: Treatment ofProtoPearic -s and cr- (ChongDialect Continuum)