Activating Prior Learning

Directions:
Topic 1: Data gathering and Organizing data, representing data using
graphs and charts, interpreting organized data
Time Allotment:

Learning Objectives

Upon the completion of this topic, you are expected to:

 Define data and statistics.
 Explain the difference between a population and a sample.
 Describe four basic methods of sampling.
 Classify the levels of measurement or scale of measure
 Construct a frequency distribution for a data set.
 Draw a stem and leaf plot for a data set.

Presentation of Content

Statistics Data –

are measurements or observations that are gathered for an event under study.

Statistics is the branch of mathematics that involves collecting, organizing, summarizing, and
presenting data and drawing general conclusions from that data.

Two Divisions of Statistics

A. Descriptive Statistics involves the collection, presentation of numerical data gathered

in order to describe them.

B. Inferential Statistics refers to the making of conclusions about the population based on
the study of sample.

Populations and Samples

When statistical studies are performed, we usually begin by identifying the population for the
study. A population is group of objects or individual with common observable
characteristics (i.e. all colleges in the United States). More often than not, it’s not realistic to
gather data from every member of a population. A sample is a part or representative
subgroup or subset of a population.

Independent and Independent variables

In statistics, variables can also be classified as either independent or independent variable.

Independent variables are the predictor of certain phenomena while dependent variables are
data being predicted. Example of this is identifying the factors that may affect student’s
performance. If we enumerate the factors of having good grade, it could be study habits, family
background, civil status, learning style, dialect, teachers’ strategies of teaching and many more.
The grade or student’s performance is the dependent variable in the problem while the factors
enumerated are all independent variables.

Discrete and Continuous Variables

The data gathered is called discrete if the variable take a finite number of values while
continuous if the variable take an unlimited number of values. Example is number of trees is
discrete since the possible answer of the variable is 1, 2, 3…or any whole number. For
continuous, weight. It can be answered as 45.5 kg, 46.7 kg, 67.1 kg,… Meaning, values have
excess or between two whole numbers or decimal/ fraction.

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

Quantitative data are data gathered from measurement (i.e. height, weight,
temperature,…)while qualitative are those taken from attributes or respondents (i.e. color, taste,
palatability, skin complexion, ethnicity,…).

Level of Measurement or Scale of Measure

Variables in Statistics are the characteristics common to all the respondents/subjects but they
differ from one another. These can be classified, measured, or labeled I different ways.
Example of this is height. Let say, the population under study are the first year students. All of
first year students have height but they do not have the same height.

1. Nominal Variables. Variables which can be classified into two or more categories are
called nominal variables. Examples of this are sex, civil status, religion, ethnicity, etc.

Nominal variables can be classified as:

a. Real nominal when the variables are classified in naturally occurring attribute.
Example of this is sex. Upon birth, the baby can be a male or a female we like it or not.
Another is nationality. If you are born in the Philippines, then your nationality is
Filipino.

b. Artificial Nominal when the variables are classified based on “man-made” or

“researcher-made” attributes following a certain rule. Meaning there is a certain
standard set by someone. Example is grade. You “pass” the midterm exam if you get a
score of 25 and above but “failed” if you got a score lower than 25.

2. Ordinal Variables. Ordinal variables are those grouped according to rank or order of
categories. The terms less than or greater than in this type has meaning. For instance,
winning in a declamation contest is better than the second prize winner. Military rank,
ranking of winners in a pageant, honor roll in class are examples of this type.

3. Interval Variables. Interval data are data wherein not only ordering or ranking of the
observations is possible but also arithmetic differences between them are meaningful.
In this type of variable, addition and subtraction have meaning. The zero point of the
interval scale is arbitrary and does not reflect an absence of the attribute. Suppose a
student got zero in a test in English. Does it mean that the student has absolutely no
knowledge of English? Or that he/she does not know anything in English? It is doubtful
whether such an explanation is acceptable.
 4. Ratio Variables. They refer to a variable where equality of ratio or proportion has
meaning. In this type of scale, the zero point is not arbitrary but indicates total absence
of the property measured. One example of ratio is force. One can speak of force which
is twice the other or of the absence of force to a certain object being measured. Zero
kelvin is a meaningful concept. In fact, all concepts in the natural sciences fall as ratio
while social sciences most variables are classified as nominal, ordinal or interval.

Why study the type of data/variables?

It is very important to understand the different type of data so that researchers will
interpret data properly and the appropriate statistics used.

Sampling Methods We will study four basic sampling methods:

1. In order to obtain a random sample, each subject of the population must have an equal
chance of being selected.
2. A systematic sample is taken by numbering each member of the population and then
selecting every kth member, where k is a natural number (i.e. the researcher let the group
count and all members whose numbers are multiples of 5 can be the respondents of the
study). When using systematic sampling, it’s important that the starting number is selected at
random.
3. When a population is divided into groups where the members of each group have similar
characteristics and members from each group are chosen at random, the result is called a
stratified sample.

4. When an existing group of subjects that represent the population is used for a sample, it is
called a cluster.

EXAMPLE 1 Choosing a Sample

A student in an education class is given an assignment to find out how late typical students at
his campus stay up to study. He decides to stop by the union before his 9 A.M. class and ask
everyone sitting at a table how late they were up studying the night before.

(a) What method of sampling is he using?

(b) Do you think he’s likely to get a representative sample?

SOLUTION

(a) Since he is choosing all students in a particular place at a particular time, he has chosen a
cluster sample.

(b) The sample is unlikely to be representative. Since he’s polling people early in the
morning, those that tend to stay up very late studying are less likely to be included in the
sample.

Data Collection Methods: General Categories

 Data collection methods fall into four general categories:

A census is where every member of a population is surveyed.

1. A census is a survey of a whole population. For example, the U.S. Census. Censuses can
be very expensive and time-consuming, if the population is large.
2. A sample survey takes a fraction or part of the population. Sample surveys are cheaper
than censuses, but are not as accurate. Bias can also be an issue.
3. An experiment is a controlled study of a group. Experiments are very common in the
medical fields. The researcher controls how members are placed study groups and which
treatment each group receives. Bias can be a major issue with experiments.
4. An observational study is about the same as an experiment. However, the researcher
does not use control groups or assign treatments.

Note that
Respondents are those with common observable characteristics which can answer to
the question/information directly to the researcher (i.e. students, fishers, farmers, gays, etc.).
If the source of the data could not respond to your question verbally, it is called subject (i.e.
fish, trees, plants, etc.) To further explains this, if you want to ask/gather what is your
height? The farmer can answer you immediately. So farmer is considered respondent. But if
you ask the same question to a fish, then definitely, the fish couldn’t answer you instead you
observe the fish or use measuring instrument to gather the height of the fish. Then the fish is
considered subject.

What is the best of the Data Collection Methods?

There is no one “best” data collection method. Each method has its pros and cons. Which one
you choose depends on what kind of data you have (i.e. qualitative data or quantitative data)
and which pros/cons are important for your study.

In general, the following data collection methods work for qualitative research:
 Document review.
 In depth interviews.
 Observation methods.

Quantitative research data collection methods, which tends to rely on random samples,
include:

 Surveys with closed-ended questions.

 Clinical trials/experiments.
 Extracting data from computer and information systems.
 Observing, counting and recording events that are well defined (for example, counting
the number of people who come into a restaurant).

What is Data Collection?

Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing specific information to

proffer solutions to relevant questions and evaluate the results. It focuses on finding out all
there is to a particular subject matter. Data is collected to be further subjected to hypothesis
testing which seeks to explain a phenomenon.

Hypothesis testing eliminates assumptions while making a proposition from the basis of
reason.

For collectors of data, there is a range of outcomes for which the data is collected. But the
key purpose for which data is collected is to put a researcher in a vantage position to make
predictions about future probabilities and trends.

The core forms in which data can be collected are primary and secondary data. While the
former is collected by a researcher through first-hand sources, the latter is collected by an
individual other than the user.

Types of Data Collection

Before broaching the subject of the various types of data collection. It is pertinent to note that
data collection in itself falls under two broad categories; Primary data collection and
secondary data collection.

Primary Data Collection

Primary data collection by definition is the gathering of raw data collected at the source. It is
a process of collecting the original data collected by a researcher for a specific research
purpose. It could be further analyzed into two segments; qualitative research and quantitative
data collection methods.

 Qualitative Research Method

The qualitative research methods of data collection does not involve the collection of data
that involves numbers or a need to be deduced through a mathematical calculation, rather it is
based on the non-quantifiable elements like the feeling or emotion of the researcher. An
example of such a method is an open-ended questionnaire.

 Quantitative Method

Quantitative methods are presented in numbers and require a mathematical calculation to

deduce. An example would be the use of a questionnaire with close-ended questions to arrive
at figures to be calculated Mathematically. Also, methods of correlation and regression,
mean, mode and median.

Secondary Data Collection

Secondary data collection, on the other hand, is referred to as the gathering of second-hand
data collected by an individual who is not the original user. It is the process of collecting data
that is already existing, be it already published books, journals and/or online portals, radio,
television, from certain office. When a researcher wants to gather grade of students, just refer
to the Registrar’s office; if legal registration or information required by the government, the
Philippine Statistics Authority, Professional Regulation Commission, Land Transportation
Office can be a possible source of data. In terms of ease, it is much less expensive and easier
to collect.

Your choice between Primary data collection and secondary data collection depend on the
nature, scope and area of your research as well as its aims and objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF DATA COLLECTION

There are a bunch of underlying reasons for collecting data, especially for a researcher.
Walking you through them, here are a few reasons;

 Integrity of The Research

A key reason for collecting data, be it through quantitative or qualitative methods is to ensure
that the integrity of the research question is indeed maintained.

 Reduce the likelihood of errors

The correct use of appropriate data collection of methods reduces the likelihood of errors
consistent with the results.

 Decision Making

To minimize the risk of errors in decision making, it is important that accurate data is
collected so that the researcher doesn't make uninformed decisions.

 Save Cost and Time

Data collection saves the researcher time and funds that would otherwise be misspent without
a deeper understanding of the topic or subject matter.

 To support a need for a new idea, change and/or innovation

To prove the need for a change in the norm or the introduction of new information that will
be widely accepted, it is important to collect data as evidence to support these claims.

What is a Data Collection Tool?

Data collection tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data, such as a paper
questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies, Checklists, Interviews,
Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all tools used to collect data.

It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in
different ways and for different purposes. The objective behind data collection is to capture
quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing and credible
answers to the questions that have been posed.
Here are 7 top data collection methods and tools for Academic, Opinion or Product
Research

The following are the top 7 data collection methods for Academic, Opinion-based or product
research. Also discussed in detail is the nature, pros and cons of each one. At the end of this
segment, you will be best informed about which method best suits your research.

A. INTERVIEW

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole purpose of
collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of different types
namely; Structured, Semi-structured and unstructured with each having a slight variation
from the other.

Use this interview consent form template to let interviewee give you consent to use data
gotten from your interviews for investigative research purpose.

 Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In

terms of depth, it is surface level and is usually completed within a short period. For
speed and efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it lacks depth.
 Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist several key questions
which cover the scope of the areas to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for
the researcher to explore the subject matter.
 Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to
collect a wide range of information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is
the freedom it gives a researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is
more time-consuming.

Pros

 In-depth information
 Freedom of flexibility
 Accurate data.
 When the questions raised to gather data is in English, the interviewer/researcher can
rephrase the question or transform the English language into the dialect which can be
understood by the interviewee/respondents.

Cons

 Time-consuming
 Expensive to collect.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Interviews?

For collecting data through interviews, here are a few tools you can use to easily collect data.

 Audio Recorder
An audio recorder is used for recording sound on disc, tape, or film. Audio information can
meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as provide alternatives to print data
collection tools.

 Digital Camera

An advantage of a digital camera is that it can be used for transmitting those images to a
monitor screen when the need arises.

 Camcorder

A camcorder is used for collecting data through interviews. It provides a combination of both
an audio recorder and a video camera. The data provided is qualitative in nature and allows
the respondents to answer questions asked exhaustively. If you need to collect sensitive
information during an interview, a camcorder might not work for you as you would need to
maintain your subject’s privacy.

B. QUESTIONNAIRES

This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of questions
and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to. Questionnaires are
designed to collect data from a group.

For clarity, it is important to note that a questionnaire isn't a survey, rather it forms a part of
it. A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods,
including a questionnaire.

On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale,
and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of the research.

Pros

 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.

 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
 Relatively inexpensive.

Cons

 Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.

 Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data.
 Questions might be left unanswered.
 Respondents may have a hidden agenda.
 Not all questions can be analyzed easily.
What are the best Data Collection Tools for Questionnaire?

 Paper Questionnaire

A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions and/or

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Mostly designed for
statistical analysis of the responses, they can also be used as a form of data collection.

C. REPORTING

By definition, data reporting is the process of gathering and submitting data to be further
subjected to analysis. The key aspect of data reporting is reporting accurate data because of
inaccurate data reporting leads to uninformed decision making.

Pros

 Informed decision making.

 Easily accessible.

Cons

 Self-reported answers may be exaggerated.

 The results may be affected by bias.
 Respondents may be too shy to give out all the details.
 Inaccurate reports will lead to uninformed decisions.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Reporting?

Reporting tools enable you to extract and present data in charts, tables, and other
visualizations so users can find useful information. You could source data for reporting from
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO) reports, newspapers, website articles, hospital
records.

 NGO Reports

Contained in NGO reports is an in-depth and comprehensive report on the activities carried
out by the NGO, covering areas such as business and human rights. The information
contained in these reports are research-specific and forms an acceptable academic base
towards collecting data. NGOs often focus on development projects which are organized to
promote particular causes.

 Newspapers

Newspaper data are relatively easy to collect and are sometimes the only continuously
available source of event data. Even though there is a problem of bias in newspaper data, it is
still a valid tool in collecting data for Reporting.

 Website Articles
Gathering and using data contained in website articles is also another tool for data collection.
Collecting data from web articles is a quicker and less expensive data collection Two major
disadvantages of using this data reporting method are biases inherent in the data collection
process and possible security/confidentiality concerns.

 Hospital Care records

Health care involves a diverse set of public and private data collection systems, including
health surveys, administrative enrollment and billing records, and medical records, used by
various entities, including hospitals, CHCs, physicians, and health plans. The data provided is
clear, unbiased and accurate, but must be obtained under the legal means as medical data is
kept with the strictest regulations.

D. EXISTING DATA

This is the introduction of new investigative questions in addition to/other than the ones
originally used when the data was initially gathered. It involves adding measurement to a
study or research. An example would be sourcing data from an archive.

Pros

 Accuracy is very high.

 Easily accessible information.

Cons

 Problems with evaluation.

 Difficulty in understanding.

What are the Best Data Collection Tools for Existing Data?

The concept of Existing data means that data is collected from existing sources to investigate
research questions other than those for which the data were originally gathered. Tools to
collect existing data include:

 Research Journals - Unlike newspapers and magazines, research journals are

intended for an academic or technical audience, not general readers. A journal is a
scholarly publication containing articles written by researchers, professors, and other
experts.
 Surveys - A survey is a data collection tool for gathering information from a sample
population, with the intention of generalizing the results to a larger population.
Surveys have a variety of purposes and can be carried out in many ways depending on
the objectives to be achieved.

D. OBSERVATION

This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered through

observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or as a complete
participant. This method is a key base of formulating a hypothesis.
Pros

 Easy to administer.
 There subsists a greater accuracy with results.
 It is a universally accepted practice.
 It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to administer a report.
 It is appropriate for certain situations.

Cons

 Some phenomena aren’t open to observation.

 It cannot be relied upon.
 Bias may arise.
 It is expensive to administer.
 Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Observation?

Observation involves the active acquisition of information from a primary source.

Observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of scientific
instruments. The best tools for Observation are:

 Checklists - state specific criteria, allow users to gather information and make
judgments about what they should know in relation to the outcomes. They offer
systematic ways of collecting data about specific behaviors, knowledge, and skills.
 Direct observation - This is an observational study method of collecting evaluative
information. The evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment
without altering that environment.

E. FOCUS GROUPS

The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical based data, this data
collection method focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary category
for data based on the feelings and opinions of the respondents. This research involves asking
open-ended questions to a group of individuals usually ranging from 6-10 people, to provide
feedback.

Pros

 Information obtained is usually very detailed.

 Cost-effective when compared to one-on-one interviews.
 It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.

Cons

 Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject matter.

 Bias might still be evident.
 Requires interviewer training
 The researcher has very little control over the outcome.
 A few vocal voices can drown out the rest.
  Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Focus Groups?

A focus group is a data collection method that is tightly facilitated and structured around a set
of questions. The purpose of the meeting is to extract from the participants' detailed responses
to these questions. The best tools for tackling Focus groups are:

 Two-Way - One group watches another group answer the questions posed by the
moderator. After listening to what the other group has to offer, the group that listens
are able to facilitate more discussion and could potentially draw different conclusions.
 Dueling-Moderator - There are two moderators who play the devil’s advocate. The
main positive of the dueling-moderator focus group is to facilitate new ideas by
introducing new ways of thinking and varying viewpoints.

F. COMBINATION RESEARCH

This method of data collection encompasses the use of innovative methods to enhance
participation to both individuals and groups. Also under the primary category, it is a
combination of Interviews and Focus Groups while collecting qualitative data. This method is
key when addressing sensitive subjects.

Pros

 Encourage participants to give responses.

 It stimulates a deeper connection between participants.
 The relative anonymity of respondents increases participation.
 It improves the richness of the data collected.

Cons

 It costs the most out of all the top 7.

 It's the most time-consuming.

What are the best Data Collection Tools for Combination Research?

The Combination Research method involves two or more data collection methods, for
instance, interviews as well as questionnaires or a combination of semi-structured telephone
interviews and focus groups. The best tools for combination research are:

 Online Survey - The two tools combined here are online interviews and the use of
questionnaires. This is a questionnaire that the target audience can complete over the
Internet. It is timely, effective and efficient. Especially since the data to be collected is
quantitative in nature.
 Dual-Moderator - The two tools combined here are focus groups and structured
questionnaires. The structured questioners give a direction as to where the research is
headed while two moderators take charge of proceedings. Whilst one ensures the
focus group session progresses smoothly, the other makes sure that the topics in
question are all covered. Dual-moderator focus groups typically result in a more
productive session and essentially leads to an optimum collection of data.
WHAT IS DATA ORGANIZATION?
A process organizing collected factual material commonly accepted in the scientific
community as necessary to validate research findings.

“Research data is data that is collected, observed, or created, for purposes of analysis to
produce original research results” (Boston University Libraries, n.d.a).

WAYS OF ORGANIZING DATA IN RESEARCH

1. Frequency Distribution Table
2. Stem and Leaf Diagram
3. Chart

1. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE To construct a frequency table, We use the

following steps
1. Construct a table with three columns. Then in the first column, write down all of the data
values in ascending order.
2. To complete the second column, go through the list of data values and place one tally mark
at the appropriate place in the second column for every data value. When the fifth tally is
reached for a mark, draw a diagonal line through the first four tally marks. We continue this
process until all data values in the list are tallied.
3. Count the number of tally marks for each data value and write it in the third column.
A. CATEGORICAL/ UNGROUP - Determine the order to list the categories then total the
number of occurrences of each category.

Example: The following data represents the scores of 10 students

8 6 4 5 8 8 9 10 10 6

Construct a table with three columns. The first column shows what is being arranged in
ascending order (i.e. the scores). The lowest mark is 4. So, start from 4 in the first column as
shown below. The second column is Tally, third is frequency.

B. GROUP - It refers to data being organized into groups known as classes. GUIDELINES
1. Use between 5 – 20 classes
2. Classes are mutually exclusive
3. Include all classes even if the frequency is zero
4. Use the same width for all classes
5. Use convenient numbers for the class limit
6. The sum of the frequency must total the data set
7. Have enough classes for all the data
8. Remember to use 0 if the class has no data, don’t leave it blank.
The following data represents

the ages of 20 respondents

21 26 18 45 32 41 42 22 28 26 33 20 26 44 46 21 24 36 39 30

1. Determine the highest and lowest value and then compute the Range:
Range = Highest value- Lowest value,
Range = 46 - 18 = 28.
2. Decide how many numbers of classes you want to have.
Example: 5 Classes
3. Compute the Class width or class interval
i = Class Interval = Range/# of Classes
= 28/5 = 5.6 or 6
4. Lower class limit (Smallest number of each class) and upper class limit (largest number of
each class)
Example:
LCL = 18(the smallest number in the data) ,24,30,36,42
UCL = 23,29,35,41,47
5. Class Boundaries – The number that separates the classes from one another by Subtracting
.5 to Lower limit and add .5 to upper limit of each class.
Example:
(LL) 18 - .5 = 17.5 (Class Boundary) and
(UP) 23 + .5 = 23.5 (Class Boundary)

we proceed as follows:

The table above is a frequency distribution in downward manner. The first class limit (18-
23) is listed on the first row.

The data can also be written in upward manner. That is, the lowest class limit (18-23) is
not found on the first row instead, it is written on the last row upward.

Age Tally Frequency

42-47 IIII 4
36-41 II 2
30-35 III 3
24-29 IIII-I 6
18-23 IIII 5

2. STEM AND LEAF DIAGRAM A method used to organize statistical data that helps
us to see values according to their size, so we can order them accordingly.
In a stem-and-leaf diagram, each data value is split into a stem and a leaf.
The leaf is the last digit to the right.
 The stem is the remaining digits to the left.
For the number 243, the stem is 24 and the leaf is 3.

Example: The following data represents the science test scores for the third grading period
(out of 100%):

97 92 77 82 96 75 68 80 79 96
21 34 55 84 87 68 87 88 97 81

3. GRAPH OR CHART Graphs or charts condense large amounts of information into

easy-to-understand formats that clearly and effectively communicate important points.

TYPES OF CHART
a. Bar Chart
b. Pie Chart
c. Line Chart
d. Histogram

A. Bar chart is composed of discrete bars that represent different categories of data. The
length or height of the bar is equal to the quantity within that category of data. Bar graphs

are best used to compare values across categories. Example: The following data represents
Peters’ Grades in Science subject for 1st – 4th quarter.
B. Pie chart is a circular chart used to compare parts of the whole. It is divided into sectors
that are equal in size to the quantity represented. Example: The following data represent
the monthly household expenses of Rich family.
C. Line chart displays the relationship between two types of information, such as number of

school personnel trained by year. They are useful in illustrating trends over time. Example:
The following data shows daily temperature in Luna, La Union, recorded for 5 days in
Degrees Celsius

D. Histogram has connected bars that display the frequency or proportion of cases that fall
within defined intervals or columns. The bars on the histogram can be of varying width
and typically display continuous data. Example: The following data represents the number
of respondents aged 8-55 who are disabled.

Note that…
A bar chart is different from histogram. Bar chart has equal spaces between bars while
histogram has no space between bars. In terms of data presented, bar chart represents
discrete data while histogram represents continuous data.

E. Scatter-Plot Diagram. Scatter-Plot is a type of plot or mathematical diagram using

Cartesian Coordinate plane to display values for typically two variables.

Example:
The local ice cream shop keeps track of how much ice cream they sell versus the noon
temperature on that day. Here are their figure in the last 12 days.
The data above can be presented in scatterplot like shown below.
 Note that…
Line graphs are like Scatter plots in that they record individual data values as marks on the
graph. They both represents correlation/ association between variables. The difference is that
a line is created connecting each data point together. In this way, the local change from point
to point can be seen.
F. Cartogram is a map in which some thematic mapping variable- such as travel time,
population or election –is substituted for a land area or distance. The geometry or space of
the map is distorted, sometimes extremely, in order to convey the information of these
alternate variables.
Example of cartogram is shown below presenting the distribution of global population.
Each of the 15, 266 pixels represents the home country of 500,000 people- cartogram made
by Max Roser for Our World in Data.

G. Pictograph is the presentation of data using images. Pictographs represent the frequency
of data while using symbols or images that are relevant to the data. This is one of the
simplest ways to represent statistical data. And reading a pictograph is made extremely
easy as well.
GUIDELINES FOR FORMATTING CHARTS
1. Keep it simple and avoid flashy special effects. Present only essential information.
Avoid using gratuitous options in graphical software programs, such as three-
dimensional bars, that confuse the reader. If the graph or chart is too complex, it will
not clearly communicate the important points.
2. Title your graph or chart clearly to convey the purpose. The title provides the reader
with the overall message you are conveying.
3. Specify the units of measurement on the x and y-axis. Years, number of participants
trained, and type of school personnel are examples of labels for units of measurement.
4. Label each part of the chart or graph. You may need a legend if there is too much
information to label each part of the chart or graph. Use different colors or variations in
patterns to help the reader distinguish categories and understand your graph or chart.