What is listening?

Which activity involves the most amount of listening? Students spend 20 percent of all school
related hours just listening. If television watching and one-half of conversations are included,
students spend approximately 50 percent of their waking hours just listening. For those hours
spent in the classroom, the amount of listening time can be almost 100 percent. Look at your
own activities, especially those related to college. Are most of your activities focused around
listening, especially in the classroom?

If you ask a group of students to give a one word description of listening, some would
say hearing; however, hearing is physical. Listening is following and understanding the
sound---it is hearing with a purpose. Good listening is built on three basic skills: attitude,
attention, and adjustment. These skills are known collectively as triple-A listening.

Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain.
Listening leads to the understanding of facts and ideas. But listening takes attention, or
sticking to the task at hand in spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the
focusing of your thoughts upon one particular problem. A person who incorporates
listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a method of
responding to another that encourages communication.

Listening is a very important skill, especially for tutors. Many tutors tend to talk too much
during a tutorial session. This defeats the purpose of tutoring, which is to allow students
to learn by discussion. Rather than turning the session into a mini-lecture, tutors must
actively listen and encourage their students to participate and become active learners.
Giving a student your full attention is sometimes difficult because you start to run out of
time, or you find yourself thinking about your next question; however, the time you
spend actively listening to your student will result in a quality tutoring session.

Poor Listening Habits and Good Listening Habits

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Poor Listening
Poor Listeners... Good Listeners...
Habits
Criticize the speaker's voice, Realize that a lecture is not a
Criticizing a clothes, or looks. Therefore, popularity contest. Good listeners
speaker they decide that the speaker look for the ideas being presented,
won`t say anything important. not for things to criticize.

become so involved in Listen with the mind, not the

disagreeing with something the
Finding fault with
speaker states that they stop
the speaker
listening to the remainder of the
lecture
emotions. Good listeners jot down
something they disagree with to ask
the speaker later, and then go on
listening.

Use little distractions --

someone coughing, a pencil Filter out distractions and
Allowing yourself
dropping, the door opening and concentrate on what the speaker is
to be distracted
closing -- as an excuse to stop saying.
listening.

Understand that speakers talk about

Look at the speaker but don't what they think is most important.
Faking attention listen. They expect to get the Good listeners know that a good
material from the textbook later. lecture may not contain the same
information as the textbook.

Outline the lecture in detail. The

Forcing every Adjust their style of note-taking to
listener is so concerned with
lecture into one the speaker's topic and method of
organization that he misses the
format organization.
content.

Want to see how the facts and

Only want the facts. They
Listening only for
consider everything else to be
facts
only the speaker's opinion.
examples support the speaker's
ideas and arguments. Good
listeners know that facts are
important, because they support
ideas.

Think it is too difficult to follow Want to learn something new and try
Listening to only the speaker's complicated ideas to understand the speaker's point. A
the easy material and logic.A poor listener wants good listener is not afraid of difficult,
entertainment, not education. technical, or complicated ideas.

Listen closely for information that

Calling a subject Decide a lecture is going to be
can be important and useful, even
boring dull and "turn out" the speaker.
when a lecture is dull.

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 Get upset at words which
trigger certain emotions -- Hear these same words. When they
Overreacting to
words such as communist, do, they listen very carefully. A good
"push button"
income tax, Hitler or abortion. listener tries to understand the
emotional words
Emotion begins and listening speaker's point of view.
ends.

Use any extra time or pauses in the

Move along lazily with the
lecture to reflect on the speaker's
speaker even though thinking is
Wasting thought message. They think about what the
faster than speaking. A poor
speed speaker is saying, summarize the
listener daydreams and falls
main points, and think about the
behind.
next points.

Types of Listening

Different situations require different types of listening. We may listen to obtain

information, improve a relationship, gain appreciation for
something, make discriminations, or engage in a critical
evaluation.

While certain skills are basic and necessary for all types of
listening (receiving, attending, and understanding), each
type requires some special skills.

Informative Listening

Informative listening is the name we give to the situation

where the listener’s primary concern is to understand the
message. Listeners are successful insofar as the meaning
they assign to messages is as close as possible to that which the sender intended.

Informative listening, or listening to understand, is found in all areas of our lives. Much
of our learning comes from informative listening. For example, we listen to lectures or
instructions from teachers—and what we learn depends on how well we listen. In the
workplace, we listen to understand new practices or procedures—and how well we
perform depends on how well we listen. We listen to instructions, briefings, reports,
and speeches; if we listen poorly, we aren’t equipped with the information we
need.

There are three key variables related to informative listening. Knowing these variables
can help you begin to improve your informative listening skills; that is, you will become
increasingly successful in understanding what the speaker means.

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1. Vocabulary. The precise relationship between vocabulary and listening has never
been determined, but it is clear that increasing your vocabulary will increase your
potential for better understanding. And it’s never too late to improve your vocabulary.
Having a genuine interest in words and language, making a conscious effort to learn
new words, breaking down unfamiliar words into their component parts—all these things
will help you improve your vocabulary.

2. Concentration. Concentration is difficult. You can remember times when another

person was not concentrating on what you were saying—and you probably can
remember times when you were not concentrating on something that someone was
saying to you.

Some years ago my oldest daughter, Teri, interrupted my reading of the newspaper to
ask, “Is it OK if I take your car over to a friend’s house to spend the night? I’ll be home
before you go to work in the morning.” Without concentrating on what she was asking, I
said, “Sure, go ahead.” Several minutes later, I realized what she had said. She was not
coming home that night, and I had to leave the house earlier than usual the next
morning. I had to drive from Montgomery to Mobile, where I was to give a speech—and
all my notes and visual aids were in my automobile. Fortunately for me, Teri had left the
telephone number of her friend, and I was able to retrieve my automobile.

There are many reasons people don’t concentrate when listening. Sometimes listeners
try to divide their attention between two competing stimuli. At other times, listeners are
preoccupied with something other than the speaker of the moment. Sometimes listeners
are too ego-involved, or too concerned with their own needs to concentrate on the
message being delivered. Or perhaps they lack curiosity, energy, or interest. Many
people simply have not learned to concentrate while listening. Others just refuse to
discipline themselves, lacking the motivation to accept responsibility for good listening.
Concentration requires discipline, motivation, and acceptance of responsibility.

3. Memory. Memory is an especially crucial variable to informative listening; you cannot

process information without bringing memory into play. More specifically, memory helps
your informative listening in three ways.

a. It allows you to recall experiences and information necessary to function in the world
around you. In other words, without memory you would have no knowledge bank.

b. It establishes expectations concerning what you will encounter. You would be unable
to drive in heavy traffic, react to new situations, or make common decisions in life
without memory of your past experiences.

c. It allows you to understand what others say. Without simple memory of the meaning
of words, you could not communicate with anyone else. Without memory of concepts
and ideas, you could not understand the meaning of messages.

Relationship Listening

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The purpose of relationship listening is either to help an individual or to improve the
relationship between people. Therapeutic listening is a special type of relationship
listening. Therapeutic listening brings to mind situations where counselors, medical
personnel, or other professionals allow a troubled person to talk through a problem. But
it can also be used when you listen to friends or acquaintances and allow them to “get
things off their chests.” Although relationship listening requires you to listen for
information, the emphasis is on understanding the other person. Three behaviors are
key to effective relationship listening: attending, supporting, and empathizing.

1. Attending. Much has been said about the importance of “paying attention,” or
“attending” behavior. In relationship listening, attending behaviors indicate that the
listener is focusing on the speaker. Nonverbal cues are crucial in relationship listening;
that is; your nonverbal behavior indicates that you are attending to the speaker— or that
you aren’t!

Eye contact is one of the most important attending behaviors. Looking appropriately and
comfortably at the speaker sends a message that is different from that sent by a
frequent shift of gaze, staring, or looking around the room. Body positioning
communicates acceptance or lack of it. Leaning forward, toward the speaker,
demonstrates interest; leaning away communicates lack of interest. Head nods, smiles,
frowns, and vocalized cues such as “uh huh,” “I see,” or “yes”—all are positive attending
behaviors. A pleasant tone of voice, gentle touching, and concern for the other person’s
comfort are other attending behaviors.

2. Supporting. Many responses have a negative or non-supportive effect; for example,

interrupting the speaker, changing the subject, turning the conversation toward yourself,
and demonstrating a lack of concern for the other person. Giving advice, attempting to
manipulate the conversation, or indicating that you consider yourself superior are other
behaviors that will have an adverse effect on the relationship.

Sometimes the best response is silence. The speaker may need a “sounding board,”
not a “resounding board.” Wise relationship listeners know when to talk and when to just
listen—and they generally listen more than they talk.

Three characteristics describe supportive listeners: (1) discretion—being careful about

what they say and do; (2) belief—expressing confidence in the ability of the other
person; and (3) patience—being willing to give others the time they need to express
themselves adequately.

3. Empathizing. What is empathy? It is not sympathy, which is a feeling for or about

another. Nor is it apathy, which is a lack of feeling. Empathy is feeling and thinking with
another person. The caring, empathic listener is able to go into the world of another—to
see as the other sees, hear as the other hears, and feel as the other feels.

Obviously, the person who has had more experience and lived longer stands a better
chance of being an effective empathic listener. The person who has never been
divorced, lost a child to death, been bankrupt, or lost a job may have a more difficult
time relating to people with these problems than one who has experienced such things.
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Risk is involved with being an empathic relationship listener. You cannot be an effective
empathic listener without becoming involved, which sometimes means learning more
than you really want to know. But commanders can’t command effectively, bosses can’t
supervise skillfully, and individuals can’t relate interpersonally without empathy.
Abraham Lincoln is reported to have said, “I feel sorry for the man who cannot feel the
stripes upon the back of another.” Truly, those who cannot feel with another person are
at a disadvantage in understanding that person.

Empathic behavior can be learned. First, you must learn as much as you can about the
other person. Second, you must accept the other person—even if you can’t accept
some aspects of that person’s behavior. Third, you must have the desire to be an
empathic listener. And you must remember that empathy is crucial to effective
relationship listening.

Appreciative Listening

Appreciative listening includes listening to music for enjoyment, to speakers because

you like their style, to your choices in theater, television, radio, or film. It is the response
of the listener, not the source of the message that defines appreciative listening. That
which provides appreciative listening for one person may provide something else for
another. For example, hard rock music is not a source of appreciative listening for me. I
would rather listen to gospel, country, jazz, or the “golden oldies.”

The quality of appreciative listening depends in large part on three factors: presentation,
perception, and previous experience.

1. Presentation. I just mentioned that I prefer gospel music to hard rock. But I don’t
enjoy all gospels. For example, I don’t enjoy gospel music when it is presented in a
“glitzy” setting—or when it is performed by someone who fails to demonstrate an
understanding of the music’s meaning. (I might add that I don’t usually enjoy gospel
when it is off-key or poorly done—but there are exceptions, such as the time I heard a
103-year-old man sing “Amazing Grace.” Never have I enjoyed it more!)

I enjoy gospel music when I hear it in the little churches of rural Alabama. I also enjoy it
when it is presented in the large church I attend in Montgomery. I also very much enjoy
presentations of gospel music on radio, on television, or in concert by well-known
performers who understand its meaning.

I enjoy hearing good speakers, speakers whom I admire, and speakers who have
expertise. I frequently attend lectures at Air University by speakers who have all three of
these characteristics. Among the speakers I have heard there recently: General Charles
“Chuck” Horner, the air component commander of Desert Storm—a war dominated by
airpower; Deputy Secretary of Defense, Dr John White; former Chairman of the Joint
Chiefs of Staff, General Colin Powell; and US Ambassador to the UN, Jeanne
Kirkpatrick. I have heard many other outstanding speakers at Air University, of course—
these four simply came to mind readily as examples of speakers who had all three of
the characteristics mentioned above: all were good speakers; all had my admiration;
and all had a great deal of expertise.
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Presentation encompasses many factors: the medium, the setting, the style and
personality of the presenter, to name just a few. Sometimes it is our perception of the
presentation, rather than the actual presentation, that most influences our listening
pleasure or displeasure. Perception is an important factor in appreciative listening.

2. Perception. For years, I did not care to listen to jazz music. I had always believed that
people like me—from a conservative rural Midwestern background—wouldn’t like jazz.
Then I started to work for a new boss—a general officer who enjoyed jazz. I admired
him very much. My mind was now open to listen to jazz. My perception was changing,
and I began to enjoy jazz music.

Expectations play a large role in perception. If I attend a

concert under duress with no expectation of enjoying the
music (perhaps my wife insists that I attend, or my position
in the community makes it the thing to do), I may be
pleasantly surprised. But I stand a lot better chance of
enjoying the concert if I expect to enjoy it.

Perceptions—and the expectations that drive them—have

their basis in attitudes. Our attitudes determine how we
react to, and interact with, the world around us. There was
a time, not many years ago, when I did not want a personal
computer (PC) in my office. I did not want to even be around a PC. I did not enjoy
working with computers.

Six years ago, I wrote a book called Speaking Effectively: A Guide for Air Force
Speakers.* The book you are now reading is a companion volume to that one. I wrote
the first book in longhand; I’m composing this one on my PC. Fortunately for me, my
attitude toward computers has changed. If my attitude had changed six years sooner, I
could have written the earlier book in less time—and saved both time and effort for the
publisher.

Perceptions influence all areas of our lives. Certainly, they are crucial determinants as
to whether or not we enjoy or appreciate the things we listen to. Obviously, perceptions
also determine what we listen to in the first place. As we said earlier, listening is
selective.

3. Previous experience. The discussion of perception makes it clear that previous

experience influences whether we enjoy listening to something. In some cases, we
enjoy listening to things because we are experts in the area. Sometimes, however,
expertise or previous experience prevents us from enjoying a presentation because we
are too sensitive to imperfections. Previous experience plays a large role in appreciative
listening.

Many people enjoy the sounds of large-city traffic. Perhaps their growing up in a large
city was a happy experience for them. The blare of horns honking, the sound of roaring
engines accelerating, even the shrill shriek of sirens piercing the air—all these things
may remind them of pleasant times in their lives. They appreciate hearing these sounds.
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Others, having grown up on a farm or in a small town, have learned to enjoy the sounds
of nature. For them, a walk in the country produces sounds of enjoyment: the rustle of
leaves in the breeze, the song of a robin, the babble of a brook.

Usually, if we associate a sound or other experience with pleasant memories, then we

appreciate or enjoy it. However, if the sound or experience is associated with
unpleasant memories, we probably will not appreciate or enjoy it.

But we can change! Let’s return to the example of how I

learned to enjoy listening to jazz. I did not enjoy jazz music
when I first heard it. Then I worked for a man who enjoyed
it. More than once when we were TDY, I sat with him in the
evenings listening to jazz combos or jazz pianists . . . and I
learned to like jazz. We should not shut our minds to the
fact that we can learn to like, enjoy, and appreciate new
and different things. We can learn to be better appreciative
listeners.

Critical Listening

The ability to listen critically is essential in a democracy. On the job, in the community,
at service clubs, in places of worship, in the family—there is practically no place you can
go where critical listening is unimportant. Politicians, the media, salesmen, advocates of
policies and procedures, and our own financial, emotional, intellectual, physical, and
spiritual needs require us to place a premium on critical listening and the thinking that
accompanies it.

The subject of critical listening deserves much more attention than we can afford it here.
But there are three things to keep in mind. These three things were outlined by Aristotle,
the classical Greek rhetorician, more than 2,000 years ago in his treatise, The
Rhetoric.* They are as follows: ethos, or speaker credibility; logos, or logical arguments;
and pathos, or psychological appeals.

1. Ethos. Credibility of the speaker is important. The two critical factors of speaker
credibility are expertness and trustworthiness. A speaker may be expert or competent
and still not be trustworthy. For example, an autocratic dictator of a certain third world
country might be an expert on the question of his country’s possession of nuclear arms;
but I would not trust him to tell me. On the other hand a person might be trustworthy, but
not be an expert on the subject. I trust my best friend; he would tell me the truth about
nuclear arms in that third world country, if he knew and I asked him. But his information
would be of questionable validity since he is simply not an expert in such things.

When listening to a message that requires a critical judgment or response, ask yourself,
“Is the speaker a credible source, one who is both an expert on the subject and one
who can be trusted to be honest, unbiased, and straightforward?” Remember that a
person may have personality or charisma. But these do not take the place of credibility.
A person may even be highly competent and an expert in one area and simply not be
informed in another.
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Returning to the example of speakers at Air University, I trust General Horner. He is an
expert on the use of airpower, and he is trustworthy. I listen intently when he speaks on
the subject. But I would not expect him to be an expert on buying used cars, knitting, or
nutrition. He may be an expert on any or all of these things, but I would want to “check it
out” before I put too much stock in his ideas on these subjects.

Effective critical listening requires careful judgment about the expertness and
trustworthiness of the speaker. In fact, ethos or speaker credibility may be the most
important single factor in critical listening and thinking. However, ethos without logos is
not enough.

2. Logos. Even speakers with high ethos often make errors in logic, not by intention,
but by accident, carelessness, inattention to detail, or lack of analysis. Critical listeners
have a right to expect well supported arguments from speakers, arguments that contain
both true propositions and valid inferences or conclusions. When evaluating arguments,
listeners should ask several questions about the proposition or statements made:

a. Are the statements true?

b. Are the data the best that can be obtained?

c. Are the sources of the data known to the listeners? In other words do listeners know
where the information came from?

d. Is the data accurately portrayed?

e. Is the data representative? That is, would all the data, or at least a preponderance of
it show the same thing?

The above questions may all be answered to your satisfaction, yet the logic may be
faulty. For perhaps the data do not lead to or justify the inferences or conclusions
drawn. Listeners should ask themselves the following questions:

a. Is the conclusion a certainty or are exceptions possible?

b. Were all cause-effect relationships established beyond doubt?

c. Does the data justify the inference drawn or the conclusion given?

d. Does the inference or conclusion “follow” from the data, or is there a non sequitur,
which means literally, “it does not necessarily follow”?

e. Is there evidence of strong logical thinking by the speaker?*

Both ethos and logos are crucial elements of critical listening. But reliance on just these
two elements without consideration of pathos would be akin to attempting to sit on a
three-legged stool with one leg missing. Pathos is the third leg.

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3. Pathos. The psychological or emotional element of communication is often
misunderstood and misused. Simply said, speakers often use psychological appeals to
gain an emotional response from listeners. Effective critical listeners carefully determine
the focus of the speaker’s message.

Speakers may appeal to any one or several needs, desires, or values that are important
to us including: adventure, thrift, curiosity, fear, creativity, companionship, guilt,
independence, loyalty, power, pride, sympathy, altruism. There are many others, of
course; the list is a long one.

There are several questions critical listeners should ask themselves when assessing the
pathos element:

a. Is the speaker attempting to manipulate rather than persuade me?

b. What is the speaker’s intent?

c. Is the speaker combining logos with pathos?

d. Am I responding merely to the pathos?

e. Next week or next year will I be satisfied with the decision I am making today?

Effective critical listening depends on the listener keeping all three elements of the
message in the analysis and in perspective: ethos, or source credibility; logos, or logical
argument; and pathos, or psychological appeals.

Discriminative Listening

The final type of listening is discriminative listening. It may be the most important type,
for it is basic to the other four. By being sensitive to changes in the speaker’s rate,
volume, force, pitch, and emphasis, the informative listener can detect even nuances of
difference in meaning. By sensing the impact of certain responses, such as “uh huh,” or
“I see,” relationship listening can be strengthened. Detection of differences between
sounds made by certain instruments in the orchestra, or parts sung by the a cappella
vocal group, enhances appreciative listening. Finally, sensitivity to pauses, and other
vocal and nonverbal cues, allows critical listeners to more accurately judge not only the
speaker’s message, but his intentions as well.

Obviously, many people have good discriminatory listening ability in some areas but not
in others. Our middle daughter, Nanette, has always been very adept at picking up
minute differences in a person’s voice that might signal feelings. She has a gift for
discriminating and applying what she hears to relationship listening. But her ability to
discriminate among the different sounds that come from an automobile engine is
practically nil. One weekend she pulled into the driveway, fan belt squealing. I said,

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“Nanette, can’t you hear that? You’re wearing out a belt. You’re lucky you got home.”
“Oh that,” she said. “I wondered what that was. I had no idea.”

Although discriminative listening cuts across the other four types of listening, there are
three things to consider about this type of listening.

1. Hearing ability. Obviously, people who lack the ability to hear well will have greater
difficulty in discriminating among sounds. Often this problem is more acute for some
frequencies, or pitches, than others. For example, a person may be less able to
discriminate when the sound is coming from a bass voice than from a higher pitched
one.

2. Awareness of sound structure. Native speakers become quite proficient at

recognizing vowel and consonant sounds that do or do not appear at the beginning,
middle, or end of words. For example, a listener might hear “this sandal” when what the
speaker said was “this handle”; but since English words do not begin with “sb,” one
would not mistake “this bean” for “this beans.”

Attention to the sound structure of the language will lead to more proficient
discriminatory listening. A person who pays attention to sound structure would
recognize that a rapidly spoken “Idrankitfirst” could mean either “I drank it first” or “I’d
rank it first.” Recognition of the two meanings would cause the listener to seek
clarification.*

8. Critical Listening Skills Factors for Managers

Of all the key management activities that you need in your toolkit, the communication
skills you need are the most important. Most managers feel that this is all about what
they say, yet it's clear from research that listening is much more important.

1. Full Attention Required - If one of your employees comes up to you discuss a

problem or query, you should ideally give them your full attention. Keeping aside your
own work for a little while, because its important for any person working under you to
feel that you are available for them, any time.

2. No Interruptions - When listening to someone be careful to not interrupt them while

they are talking. It is a sign that you are not giving them proper attention. Wait for a
pause in the sentence for any interjection or comments. Even then, allowing a silence
for them to gather their thoughts, is a really valuable exercise and often produces the
most fruitful results.

3. Encourage Them! - Make them feel comfortable and ensure they know that they

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have your undivided attention. Smile occasionally. Lean in. If you have a grip on the
topic of conversation, ask questions, - showing that you are interested in the
conversation - and them as individuals! If you are not clear about something that is said
feel free to ask for elaboration or explanation.

4. Recall is Good - If you are fully involved in the conversation, you will also tend to
maintain a good memory of it, which will be handy for future reference. If, for example,
your employee discusses a problem with you to seek your advice, a follow up to the
conversation would mean a lot to them.

5. It's a Motivator Too - Your great listening skills also helps to motivate your people
perform to their best. Realistically speaking if your employees are happy and feel
important and fulfilled in their work, then tangible rewards like pay raises, bonuses etc.
take a back seat. Supporting the organization that shows they care (through your
excellent listening skills!) becomes their top priority. By involving them in the working of
the company as much as possible, it provides them with a clear view of what lies ahead
in terms of company plans, future aims and goals.

6. All Ideas are Valued - If one of your employees gives you a suggestion in a meeting
or otherwise, encourage them. If you don’t like their idea don’t dismiss it off-handedly.
Explore with them where there may be flaws. Your personal experience should feed into
the success of the team as a whole. Always listen encouragingly to their ideas and
make sure that you compliment them on their enthusiasm and positive participation.

7. See the Value - Informal communication within the office is an excellent way to collect
feedback about the way things are going - policies, ideas, plans, and relationships even.
Not only can what you hear around the place have a great value in terms of
'intelligence', but if you start to get creative, you will seek out feedback from teams away
from your own. For example, you might be able to find out how the sales department
feel about the impact your admin team have on their side of the business, and use that
knowledge to make focused improvements yourself.

8. Don't Forget 'Virtual' - When we are talking about communication, it does not
necessarily refer to face-to-face communication. Memos, emails, phone calls, video
calls, letters etc are all important in your behaviors. Whenever you have contact from
someone on your team, make sure you acknowledge it as soon as you can at least –
even if you are going to take time to reply to it.

DISCUSSION
If you looking to develop a functional, productive team, it is important to make your employees
feel that they are an indispensable part of it.

Putting your listening skills to optimum use when you are communicating with the people
working under you can truly make the difference.

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