Submitted by: Amir Hamza

Submitted to: Mr. Muhammad Zakir

Course Code: 8610

Assignment No: 02

Roll No: CA632345

Program: B.ed 1.5 Years

Q.1 Discuss Erikson's theory of socio-emotional development.

Answer:

According to Erikson, the socialization process consists of eight phases – the “eight stages of
man.” His eight stages of man were formulated, not through experimental work, but through
wide-ranging experience in psychotherapy, including extensive experience with children and
adolescents from low – as well as upper – and middle – social classes. Each stage is regarded by
Erikson as a “psychosocial crisis,” which arises and demands resolution before the next stage can
be satisfactorily negotiated. These stages are conceived in an almost architectural sense:
satisfactory learning and resolution of each crisis is necessary if the child is to manage the next
and subsequent ones satisfactorily, just as the foundation of a house is essential to the first floor,
which in turn must be structurally sound to support and the second story, and so on. [CLICK
HERE for more details on how to follow and encourage your child’s or teen’s social
development] Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development 1. Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic
Mistrust (Hope) Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years
of life. The child, well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic
optimism. Badly handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. 2. Learning Autonomy Versus
Shame (Will) The second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood,
probably between about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The “well – parented”
child emerges from this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud
rather than ashamed. Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self –
possession, initiative, and independence but, at least for children in the early part of this
psychosocial crisis, includes stormy self – will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For
example, one sees may 2 year olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from
holding their hands as they cross the street. Also, the sound of “NO” rings through the house or
the grocery store. 3. Learning Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose) Erikson believes that this third
psychosocial crisis occurs during what he calls the “play age,” or the later preschool years (from
about 3½ to, in the United States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily
developing child learns: (1) to imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts,
including fantasy (2) to cooperate with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by
guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on
adults and (4) is restricted both in the development of play skills and in imagination. 4. Industry
Versus Inferiority (Competence) Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled,
for better or worse, during what he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly
including some of junior high school. Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of
life: (1) relating with peers according to rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be
elaborately structured by rules and may demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3)
mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic. Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-
discipline increases yearly. The child who, because of his successive and successful resolutions
of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting, autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily
enough to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame – and
guilt-filled child will experience defeat and inferiority. 5. Learning Identity Versus Identity
Diffusion (Fidelity) During the fifth psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to
about 20) the child, now an adolescent, learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the
question of “Who am I?” But even the best – adjusted of adolescents experiences some role
identity diffusion: most boys and probably most girls experiment with minor delinquency;
rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster, and so on. Erikson believes that during
successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is developed; the young person acquires
self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-doubt. He comes to experiment with
different – usually constructive – roles rather than adopting a “negative identity” (such as
delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves, rather than being “paralyzed”
by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In later adolescence, clear sexual
identity – manhood or womanhood – is established. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to
inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals (socially congruent and desirable, in the case
of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that, in our culture, adolescence affords a
“psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and upper-class American children. They
do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment, trying various roles, and thus hopefully
find the one most suitable for them. 6. Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation (Love) The successful
young adult, for the first time, can experience true intimacy – the sort of intimacy that makes
possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring friendship. 7. Learning Generativity Versus
Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the
sense of marriage and parenthood, and in the sense of working productively and creatively. 8.
Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) If the other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully
resolved, the mature adult develops the peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is
independent and dares the new. He works hard, has found a well – defined role in life, and has
developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret,
or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates – his children, his work, or his hobbies. If
one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not been resolved, he may view himself and
his life with disgust and despair. These eight stages of man, or the psychosocial crises, are
plausible and insightful descriptions of how personality develops but at present they are
descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and tentative knowledge of just what sort of
environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus distrust, or clear personal identity
versus diffusion. Helping the child through the various stages and the positive learning that
should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any worried parent or teacher knows.
Search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts for much of the research in the field
of child development. Socialization, then is a learning – teaching process that, when successful,
results in the human organism’s moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to
its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with independent creativity.

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development

Learning Basic Trust Versus Basic Mistrust (Hope)

Chronologically, this is the period of infancy through the first one or two years of life. The child,
well – handled, nurtured, and loved, develops trust and security and a basic optimism. Badly
handled, he becomes insecure and mistrustful. 2. Learning Autonomy Versus Shame (Will) The
second psychosocial crisis, Erikson believes, occurs during early childhood, probably between
about 18 months or 2 years and 3½ to 4 years of age. The “well – parented” child emerges from
this stage sure of himself, elated with his new found control, and proud rather than ashamed.
Autonomy is not, however, entirely synonymous with assured self – possession, initiative, and
independence but, at least for children in the early part of this psychosocial crisis, includes
stormy self – will, tantrums, stubbornness, and negativism. For example, one sees may 2 year
olds resolutely folding their arms to prevent their mothers from holding their hands as they cross
the street. Also, the sound of “NO” rings through the house or the grocery store. 3. Learning
Initiative Versus Guilt (Purpose) Erikson believes that this third psychosocial crisis occurs
during what he calls the “play age,” or the later preschool years (from about 3½ to, in the United
States culture, entry into formal school). During it, the healthily developing child learns: (1) to
imagine, to broaden his skills through active play of all sorts, including fantasy (2) to cooperate
with others (3) to lead as well as to follow. Immobilized by guilt, he is: (1) fearful (2) hangs on
the fringes of groups (3) continues to depend unduly on adults and (4) is restricted both in the
development of play skills and in imagination. 4. Industry Versus Inferiority (Competence)
Erikson believes that the fourth psychosocial crisis is handled, for better or worse, during what
he calls the “school age,” presumably up to and possibly including some of junior high school.
Here the child learns to master the more formal skills of life: (1) relating with peers according to
rules (2) progressing from free play to play that may be elaborately structured by rules and may
demand formal teamwork, such as baseball and (3) mastering social studies, reading, arithmetic.
Homework is a necessity, and the need for self-discipline increases yearly. The child who,
because of his successive and successful resolutions of earlier psychosocial crisis, is trusting,
autonomous, and full of initiative will learn easily enough to be industrious. However, the
mistrusting child will doubt the future. The shame – and guilt-filled child will experience defeat
and inferiority. 5. Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion (Fidelity) During the fifth
psychosocial crisis (adolescence, from about 13 or 14 to about 20) the child, now an adolescent,
learns how to answer satisfactorily and happily the question of “Who am I?” But even the best –
adjusted of adolescents experiences some role identity diffusion: most boys and probably most
girls experiment with minor delinquency; rebellion flourishes; self – doubts flood the youngster,
and so on. Erikson believes that during successful early adolescence, mature time perspective is
developed; the young person acquires self-certainty as opposed to self-consciousness and self-
doubt. He comes to experiment with different – usually constructive – roles rather than adopting
a “negative identity” (such as delinquency). He actually anticipates achievement, and achieves,
rather than being “paralyzed” by feelings of inferiority or by an inadequate time perspective. In
later adolescence, clear sexual identity – manhood or womanhood – is established. The
adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him), and gradually develops a set of ideals
(socially congruent and desirable, in the case of the successful adolescent). Erikson believes that,
in our culture, adolescence affords a “psychosocial moratorium,” particularly for middle – and
upper-class American children. They do not yet have to “play for keeps,” but can experiment,
trying various roles, and thus hopefully find the one most suitable for them. 6. Learning Intimacy
Versus Isolation (Love) The successful young adult, for the first time, can experience true
intimacy – the sort of intimacy that makes possible good marriage or a genuine and enduring
friendship. 7. Learning Generativity Versus Self-Absorption (Care) In adulthood, the
psychosocial crisis demands generativity, both in the sense of marriage and parenthood, and in
the sense of working productively and creatively. 8. Integrity Versus Despair (Wisdom) If the
other seven psychosocial crisis have been successfully resolved, the mature adult develops the
peak of adjustment; integrity. He trusts, he is independent and dares the new. He works hard, has
found a well – defined role in life, and has developed a self-concept with which he is happy. He
can be intimate without strain, guilt, regret, or lack of realism; and he is proud of what he creates
– his children, his work, or his hobbies. If one or more of the earlier psychosocial crises have not
been resolved, he may view himself and his life with disgust and despair. These eight stages of
man, or the psychosocial crises, are plausible and insightful descriptions of how personality
develops but at present they are descriptions only. We possess at best rudimentary and tentative
knowledge of just what sort of environment will result, for example, in traits of trust versus
distrust, or clear personal identity versus diffusion. Helping the child through the various stages
and the positive learning that should accompany them is a complex and difficult task, as any
worried parent or teacher knows. Search for the best ways of accomplishing this task accounts
for much of the research in the field of child development. Socialization, then is a learning –
teaching process that, when successful, results in the human organism’s moving from its infant
state of helpless but total egocentricity to its ideal adult state of sensible conformity coupled with
independent creativity.

Q. 2 Discuss the characteristics of learners at kindergarten level relating to morality. Also

suggest the activities to develop morality at this level.

Answer:

As children move into the school years, their lives expand to include a larger number and range
of peers and (eventually) of the community as a whole. The change leads to conventional
morality, which are beliefs based on what this larger array of people agree on—hence
Kohlberg’s use of the term “conventional.” At first, in Stage 3, the child’s reference group are
immediate peers, so Stage 3 is sometimes called the ethics of peer opinion. If peers believe, for
example, that it is morally good to behave politely with as many people as possible, then the
child is likely to agree with the group and to regard politeness as not merely an arbitrary social
convention, but a moral “good.” This approach to moral belief is a bit more stable than the
approach in Stage 2, because the child is taking into account the reactions not just of one other
person, but of many. But it can still lead astray if the group settles on beliefs that adults consider
morally wrong, like “Shop lifting for candy bars is fun and desirable.”

Eventually, as the child becomes a youth and the social world expands even more, he or she
acquires even larger numbers of peers and friends. He or she is therefore more likely to
encounter disagreements about ethical issues and beliefs. Resolving the complexities lead to
Stage 4, the ethics of law and order, in which the young person increasingly frames moral
beliefs in terms of what the majority of society believes. Now, an action is morally good if it is
legal or at least customarily approved by most people, including people whom the youth does not
know personally. This attitude leads to an even more stable set of principles than in the previous
stage, though it is still not immune from ethical mistakes. A community or society may agree, for
example, that people of a certain race should be treated with deliberate disrespect, or that a
factory owner is entitled to dump waste water into a commonly shared lake or river. To develop
ethical principles that reliably avoid mistakes like these require further stages of moral
development.

As a person becomes able to think abstractly (or “formally,” in Piaget’s sense), ethical beliefs
shift from acceptance of what the community does believe to the process by which community
beliefs are formed. The new focus constitutes Stage 5, the ethics of social contract. Now an
action, belief, or practice is morally good if it has been created through fair, democratic
processes that respect the rights of the people affected. Consider, for example, the laws in some
areas that require motorcyclists to wear helmets. In what sense are the laws about this behavior
ethical? Was it created by consulting with and gaining the consent of the relevant people? Were
cyclists consulted and did they give consent? Or how about doctors or the cyclists’ families?
Reasonable, thoughtful individuals disagree about how thoroughly and fairly
these consultation processes should be. In focusing on the processes by which the law was
created, however, individuals are thinking according to Stage 5, the ethics of social contract,
regardless of the position they take about wearing helmets. In this sense, beliefs on both sides of
a debate about an issue can sometimes be morally sound even if they contradict each other.

Paying attention to due process certainly seems like it should help to avoid mindless conformity
to conventional moral beliefs. As an ethical strategy, though, it too can sometimes fail. The
problem is that an ethics of social contract places more faith in democratic process than the
process sometimes deserves, and does not pay enough attention to the content of what gets
decided. In principle (and occasionally in practice), a society could decide democratically to kill
off every member of a racial minority, for example, but would deciding this by due process make
it ethical? The realization that ethical means can sometimes serve unethical ends leads some
individuals toward Stage 6, the ethics of self-chosen, universal principles. At this final stage,
the morally good action is based on personally held principles that apply both to the person’s
immediate life as well as to the larger community and society. The universal principles may
include a belief in democratic due process (Stage 5 ethics), but also other principles, such as a
belief in the dignity of all human life or the sacredness of the natural environment. At Stage 6,
the universal principles will guide a person’s beliefs even if the principles mean disagreeing
occasionally with what is customary (Stage 4) or even with what is legal (Stage 5).

As logical as they sound, Kohlberg’s stages of moral justice are not sufficient for understanding
the development of moral beliefs. To see why, suppose that you have a student who asks for an
extension of the deadline for an assignment. The justice orientation of Kohlberg’s theory would
prompt you to consider issues of whether granting the request is fair. Would the late student be
able to put more effort into the assignment than other students? Would the extension place a
difficult demand on you, since you would have less time to mark the assignments? These are
important considerations related to the rights of students and the teacher. In addition to these,
however, are considerations having to do with the responsibilities that you and the requesting
student have for each other and for others. Does the student have a valid personal reason (illness,
death in the family, etc.) for the assignment being late? Will the assignment lose its educational
value if the student has to turn it in prematurely? These latter questions have less to do with
fairness and rights, and more to do with taking care of and responsibility for students. They
require a framework different from Kohlberg’s to be understood fully.

One such framework has been developed by Carol Gilligan, whose ideas center on a morality of
care, or system of beliefs about human responsibilities, care, and consideration for others.
Gilligan proposed three moral positions that represent different extents or breadth of ethical care.
Unlike Kohlberg, Piaget, or Erikson, she does not claim that the positions form a strictly
developmental sequence, but only that they can be ranked hierarchically according to their depth
or subtlety.

Q. 3 What is language? Briefly discuss the components of a language.

Introduction:

Every language is different. In English, an adjective comes before a noun (“red house”), whereas
in Spanish, the adjective comes after (“casa [house] roja [red].”) In German, you can put noun
after noun together to form giant compound words; in Chinese, the pitch of your voice
determines the meaning of your words; in American Sign Language, you can convey full,
grammatical sentences with tense and aspect by moving your hands and face. But all languages
have structural underpinnings that make them logical for the people who speak and understand
them.

Shelby Mitchusson performs an ASL translation of “Lose Yourself” by Eminem. ASL and other
sign languages have all the same structural underpinnings that spoken languages do.
Five major components of the structure of language are phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, syntax,
and context. These pieces all work together to create meaningful communication among
individuals.

Phonemes

A phoneme is the basic unit of phonology. It is the smallest unit of sound that may cause a
change of meaning within a language, but that doesn’t have meaning by itself. For example, in
the words “bake” and “brake,” only one phoneme has been altered, but a change in meaning has
been triggered. The phoneme /r/ has no meaning on its own, but by appearing in the word it has
completely changed the word’s meaning!

Phonemes correspond to the sounds of the alphabet, although there is not always a one-to-one
relationship between a letter and a phoneme (the sound made when you say the word). For
example, the word “dog” has three phonemes: /d/, /o/, and / g /. However, the word “shape,”
despite having five letters, has only three phonemes: /sh/, /long-a/, and /p/. The English language
has approximately 45 different phonemes, which correspond to letters or combinations of letters.
Through the process of segmentation, a phoneme can have a particular pronunciation in one
word and a slightly different pronunciation in another.

Morphemes

Morphemes, the basic unit of morphology, are the smallest meaningful unit of language. Thus, a
morpheme is a series of phonemes that has a special meaning. If a morpheme is altered in any
way, the entire meaning of the word can be changed. Some morphemes are individual words
(such as “eat” or “water”). These are known as free morphemes because they can exist on their
own. Other morphemes are prefixes, suffixes, or other linguistic pieces that aren’t full words on
their own but do affect meaning (such as  the “-s” at the end of “cats” or the “re-” at the
beginning of “redo.”) Because these morphemes must be attached to another word to have
meaning, they are called bound morphemes.

Within the category of bound morphemes, there are two additional subtypes: derivational and
inflectional. Derivational morphemes change the meaning or part of speech of a word when they
are used together. For example, the word “sad” changes from an adjective to a noun when “-
ness” (sadness) is added to it. “Action” changes in meaning when the morpheme “re-” is added
to it, creating the word “reaction.” Inflectional morphemes modify either the tense of a verb or
the number value of a noun; for example, when you add an “-s” to “cat,” the number of cats
changes from one to more than one.

Lexemes
Lexemes are the set of inflected forms taken by a single word. For example, members of the
lexeme RUN include “run” (the uninflected form), “running” (inflected form), and “ran.” This
lexeme excludes “runner (a derived term—it has a derivational morpheme attached).

Another way to think about lexemes is that they are the set of words that would be included
under one entry in the dictionary—”running” and “ran” would be found under “run,” but
“runner” would not.

Syntax

Syntax is a set of rules for constructing full sentences out of words and phrases. Every language
has a different set of syntactic rules, but all languages have some form of syntax. In English, the
smallest form of a sentence is a noun phrase (which might just be a noun or a pronoun) and a
verb phrase (which may be a single verb). Adjectives and adverbs can be added to the sentence
to provide further meaning. Word order matters in English, although in some languages, order is
of less importance. For example, the English sentences “The baby ate the carrot” and “The carrot
ate the baby” do not mean the same thing, even though they contain the exact same words. In
languages like Finnish, word order doesn’t matter for general meaning—different word orders
are used to emphasize different parts of the sentence.

Context

Context is how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning.
Context includes tone of voice, body language, and the words being used. Depending on how a
person says something, holds his or her body, or emphasizes certain points of a sentence, a
variety of different messages can be conveyed. For example, the word “awesome,” when said
with a big smile, means the person is excited about a situation. “Awesome,” said with crossed
arms, rolled eyes, and a sarcastic tone, means the person is not thrilled with the situation.

Q. 4 Explain the laws of learning and their application in our local settings.

Answer:

1) Law of Readiness

This law states that learning can only take place when a student is ready to learn. When students
feel ready, they learn more effectively and with greater satisfaction than when not ready.

It is your job as an instructional designer to create an eLearning course that helps create this
readiness to learn. This can be done by:

 Hook the learners before they ever begin the course. This can be done via a pre-work
activity or a short video introducing the content. By creating anticipation, you are
 building learner excitement and motivating them before they ever even access the
content.

 Let students know why it is important to learn a subject and what can they expect from
the course. By sharing with the learners what they will learn, you are already motivating
the students to meet standards set forth. Be very clear about how the content will be
organized and lay out the expected outcomes. This removes some anxiety and begins to
get the learners excited about accomplishing tasks set forth. 

By designing a course that is not only interesting, but gives the student a measurable sense of
what can be accomplished, and why, you have followed this law!

2) Law of Exercise

This law is simple. The more a person practices something, the better he or she is able to retain
that knowledge.  

Remember back in grade school when the teacher would have you write spelling words three
times each and then use them in a sentence? Your teacher was practicing this law.

Part two of this law states that knowledge not used becomes weakened and disappears from
memory. "Use it or lose it" isn't just a random saying: when it comes to learning, it is completely
accurate.Your eLearning design should take this into account and provide learners the
opportunity to use new information so that it sticks. This means repeating the information,
applying it immediately, or connecting the new information to existing knowledge.

During the eLearning course provide multiple opportunities for students to go over the material.
Add practice problems, mini-quizzes, knowledge checks, summaries and any other kind of
review to help achieve this goal. Also, create short, but repetitive exercises immediately after a
training course. The constant “recall” leaves a mark and will increase your learner's retention
levels significantly.

3) Law of Effect

In simple terms, this law states three things:

 Learning is strengthened when associated with a pleasant or satisfying feeling. Learning

is more likely to happen again in the future.

 Learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling, becoming less likely

for learning to occur again in the future. Learners will try to avoid it. 

 Learning occurs when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.
Therefore, we can say students are more likely to learn when they feel satisfied or are rewarded
for learning, rather than punished for not learning. They need to feel good in order to retain
motivation.

You can accomplish this by:

 Creating an eLearning course that includes rewards for completing portions of the course.

 Incorporate Q&A’s, discussion forums and social media to encourage learners to interact
with instructors and within each other.  By using these social tools, you are inspiring
empathy and creativity as opposed to passive listening. This allows learners to engage
more, retain more and overall get more from your courses. 

 It feels good to achieve something. You should provide feedback to learners regularly
about their progress, what they have mastered, and if they have met certain goals.
Providing this information will motivate learners as they progress through the course.

 Spark the right emotions in the learner. If you can connect with learners from the outset –
establishing the need for a particular eLearning course, taking them through the course
and also, connecting post learning. Not only will you have more rates of completion but
also would have enabled a good learning experience.

4) Law of Primacy

Think back to the time when it was proven that the Earth was round and not flat. The concept
was nearly impossible for the majority of those alive to accept.  This is because once a person
learns something, it is almost impossible to tell them that it is actually different. That is the law
of primacy. 

Your job as an Instructional Designers it to present content in a logical order, step by step,
making sure your audience has learned and is ready to move forward to the next level. Preparing
and following a course curriculum or outline will facilitate delivering the subject matter the right
way the first time.

5) Law of Recency

This law reminds us that we remember the most recent (last) material covered. For this reason,
you should make a point of including chapter or unit reviews and building on previous
knowledge. This gives your students the chance to return to earlier material that may have gotten
pushed aside by information near the end of the unit. By creating a review exercise that includes
both the older and newer information, it makes it more likely that all the information will be
remembered.

6) Law of Intensity
The more excitement your eLearning course creates, the more likely it will be
remembered. Creating a hands-on experience, or one that causes the student to feel strong
emotion will make the lesson more easily remembered.

Connect the Course With Real Life. We are all flattered when someone shows an interest in us.
Right? Flatter your learners and make them interested in what you have to say by showing
interest in the goings-on in their lives. The real insights are out there; talk to your audience and
peek into their daily lives to find out what challenges them at the workplace. Then craft real-life
scenarios that reflect their reality and provide the much-needed context that begets attention. 

Here's an idea: Develop problems that place the students in real-life situations where they can
practice the material. If developing a plan for a small business is the goal, create a fictional small
business and allow the students to keep records for the business, including year-end reconciling.
By doing the actual work, the students will see how each part of what they have learned relates
to the others, and to real-life situations.

The more you can make eLearning into a personalized experience, the more learners will take
away it. Humans tend to remember events when they find them relevant and when they’re either
doing something that has an intrinsically motivational element.

Q. 5 Discuss provision of education for slow learners and handicapped children.

Answer:

The educational provisions for children with a learning disability will help such children to
improve and sometimes overcome their learning disability to a certain extent. First of all the
child should be identified on whether he/she has a specific learning disability and the type of
lemming disability the child has, needs to be defined.

Identification of Learning Disabled Children

Identification of the learning Disabled children may be done namely in two ways.

1. Employing Non-testing Devices: In non-testing devices, we may include techniques like

observation, interview, rating scale, check-list, etc. (Informal Assessment)

2. Employing Testing Devices: In testing devices, we may include standardizing diagnostic

test, ability tests, achievement tests, daily  assessment system etc. (Formal Assessment)

The Educational Provisions for Children with Learning Disability

In general educational provisions for Children with Learning Disabled include the following:
 1. Provisions of Specialized schools or Classes: Learning  Disabled children cannot be
taught along with other students as they suffer from severe learning deficiencies. Hence,
there should be special schools or at least separate classes for them where they can be
taught by through special methods on the same curriculum with greater care and
attention.

2. Provision of Special Remedial and Educational Program: Here, first the learning

difficulty is identified i.e. the type and amount of it. Accordingly, a special remedial and
educational program may be then adapted to rectify it. E.g. if the deficiency of the child
is related to the neural disorder. We can follow remedial programs. Getman’s Visuo-
Motor program etc. or if their deficiency is related to psycho-linguistic ability, we can
follow a program like Witmer’s Psycho-Educational etc

3. Improving the Existing Environmental Set-Up: Many of the learning difficulties of

children are caused by the improper negative factors present in their physical, social and
educational environment. The measures expected from the parents, members of the
family, teachers, school authorities and society to improve the existing environmental set-
up can be summarized as follows:

o Great care should be taken by the parents and teachers to pick-up proper methods of
learning and Communication

o Efforts should be made to provide proper facilities in the school according to the needs,
interest and abilities of these children. Stress should be made both on theory as well as on
the practical field

o In case of severe learning disability, the child should be placed in a fulltime special
learning setting under the guidance of specially trained teachers.

o The teachers should not lose patience as these children are essentially slow-learners and
under-achievers. They should be accepted with all their weaknesses and deficiencies.

o With the help of men and material resources available, the learning disabled should be
helped in overcoming their deficits in skills like memory, spelling, handwriting, verbal
expressions and mathematical abilities etc

Specialized Approaches or Techniques for Helping the Children with Learning Disability:

Several specific techniques have been evolved through researches while working with the
Learning Disabled Children. They are:

1. Behavioural Approach: In this approach, attempts are made to modify the behaviour of
the Learning Disabled by reorganizing the environmental conditions, providing
 opportunities for modifications In behaviour and properly re-imposing their change
behaviour.

2. Psychoanalytical Approach: In this approach, attempts are made to find out the root
cause of this learning deficiency. Accordingly, a remedial program is planned.

3. Individualized Instructional Approach: This approach advocates the use of small

groups or even individuals for helping them rectify their learning deficiencies.

4. Self-instructional Approach: In this approach, Learning, Disable children are required

to adopt self-learning and self-improvement measures for treating their learning
deficiencies. For this purpose, remedial programs like computer-assisted Instruction,
Teaching Machines, Instructional CDs, Tape recorder etc can be used.

5. Multisensory Approach: In this approach, Learning Disabled children are taught by

appealing to their multiple senses, visual, auditory, touch, smell and taste etc.

6. Technological Approach: Advanced technology is used for providing remedial

programs for the Learning Disabled. Some example is video- disc instructions, computer-
assisted instruction, Audiotape and tape recorder-etc.