C

HAPT
ERONE
I
NTRODUC
TION
L
ear
ningObj
ect
ives
Att
heendoft
hisc
hapt
er,s
tudent
sar
eexpec
tedt
o:
1
.Def
ineandu
nder
stand meani
ngofr
esear
ch;
2
.Ident
ifyt
hequ
ali
ti
esofagoodr
esear
cherand
.P
3 i
npoi
ntt
hec
har
act
eri
sti
csofgoodr
esear
ch
4.Mot
ivat
ionofdoi
ngr
esear
ch
.I
5 dent
ify
ingt
het
ypesofr
esear
ch
.S
6 howt
hes
yst
emat
icpr
oces
sofr
esear
ch
1
.1.Meani
ngofRes
ear
ch
Res
ear
chi
smos
tfr
equ
ent
lyu
sed t
ermi
nol
ogyi
n di
ffer
entac
ademi
cand bu
sines
sins
tit
uti
ons
.
Res
ear
chasc
ons
ciou
sandc
reat
ivehu
manac
tivi
tyi
nvol
vesdi
scover
ingandl
ear
ningnew t
hings
.
Wher
ether
eisapr
obl
em t
her
eisal
way
sar
esear
ch.I
tisanes
sent
ialt
oolf
oru
nde
rst
andi
ngt
he
event
sands
tru
ctu
resoft
hes
oci
alwor
ld.Res
ear
chc
anmeandi
ffer
entt
hingst
odi
ffer
entpeopl
e.
P
eopl
ehavedef
ined r
esear
ch di
ffer
ent
lyac
cor
ding t
othei
rper
cept
ion.Her
eunderwewi
l
lsee
di
ffer
entdef
ini
ti
onsandper
cept
ionsofi
ndi
vidu
alsabou
tres
ear
ch
Res
ear
chc
ommonl
yref
erst
oas
ear
chf
orknowl
edge.S
ome peopl
econs
iderr
esear
ch as a
movementf
rom knownt
ounknown.I
tisi
ndeedavoy
ageofknowl
edge.F
ors
omepeopl
eont
he
ot
herhandr
esear
chi
mpl
i
esanar
tofs
cient
ifi
cinves
tigat
iont
othes
tat
eofnat
ureorphenomenon.
Au
thor
sar
einc
reas
ingl
yaddi
ngnewnamesanddef
ini
ti
onf
ordi
ffer
entki
ndsofr
esear
ch.However
,
t
oavoi
dconf
usi
onandu
nnec
ess
aryc
umber
somenes
sletu
sconf
ineou
rsel
vest
othedef
ini
ti
onsof
r
ese
arc
hgi
venbys
elec
tedau
thor
s.
T
hewor
dcompos
esoft
wowor
ds;Re+S
ear
ch=Res
ear
ch.Remeansagai
nandagai
n,s
ear
chmeans
t
ofi
ndou
tsomet
hing.T
her
efor
e,r
ese
arc
hdef
inedast
hepr
oces
sin whi
cha per
son obs
erves
phenomenaagai
nandagai
nandc
oll
ect
sdat
aandanal
ysest
hens
/hedr
awsc
onc
lus
ion.
 T
hemos
tcompr
ehens
ivedef
ini
ti
on ofr
esear
chc
omesf
rom Kl
ops
teg.Ac
cor
ding t m;
o hi
'
‘Res
ear
chi
sor
igi
nalandc
reat
ivei
ntel
l
ect
ualac
tivi
ty,c
arr
iedou
tint
hel
abor
ator
y,t
he
l
i
brar
yori
nthef
iel
dwhi
chendeavor
stodi
scovernew f
act
sandt
oappr
iseandi
nter
pret
t
hem pr
oper
lyi
nthel
i
ghtofpr
evi
ousknowl
edge.Wi
thc
ons
tant
lyi
ncr
eas
ingu
nder
standi
ng,
i
trevi
sespr
evi
ous
lyac
cept
edc
onc
lus
ion,t
heor
iesandl
aws
,andmakesnewappl
i
cat
ionofi
ts
f
indi
ngs
.Whet
heri
tseekst
oext
endknowl
edgef
ori
tsowns
akeort
oac
hiever
esu
ltswi
th

1
 s
pec
ifi
cec
onomi
cors
oci
alval
ue,i
tsr
ais
ond’
êtr
eisi
tsc
ont
ribu
tiont
ohu
manwel
far
e.
 Res
ear
chi
sadi
l
igents
ear
ch,s
tudi
ousi
nqu
iry,i
nves
tigat
ionorexper
iment
ati
onai
medatt
he
di
scover
yofnewf
act
sandf
indi
ngs
;or
,br
oadl
y,i
tmayr
elat
etoanys
ubj
ectofi
nqu
irywi
th
r
egar
dtoc
oll
ect
ion of i
nfor
mat
ion,i
nter
pret
ati
on of f
act
s,and r
evi
si
on of exi
sti
ng
t
heor
iesorl
awsi
nthel
i
ghtofnewf
act
sorevi
denc
e.
 Amor
eac
ademi
cappr
oac
htot
hequ
est
ionof‘
whati
sres
ear
ch’r
esu
ltsi
namor
ecompl
ex
ans
wer
.Fu
ndament
all
y,r
esear
chi
sunder
takeni
nor
dert
oenhanc
eou
rknowl
edgeofwhat
weal
readyknow;t
oext
endou
rknowl
edgeabou
tas
pec
tsofei
thert
hewor
ldofwhi
chwe
knowver
yli
ttl
eornot
hingatal
l
,andt
oenabl
eust
obet
teru
nder
standt
hewor
ldwel
i
vei
n.
Wi
tht
hedi
scover
yofnew f
act
s,ol
dconc
lus
ionsort
heor
iesmayei
therber
ejec
tedormodi
fi
ed.
T
her
efor
e,r
esear
chi
snec
ess
aryt
oexami
net
heext
entofval
i
dit
yoft
heol
dconc
lus
ionsort
ofi
nd
ou
tsomenewf
act
sandgener
ali
zat
ionsi
nconnec
tionwi
tht
heexi
sti
ngones
.Thu
s,i
tpu
rpor
tst
ogi
ve
a ne
w di
rec
tion and a new i
nsi
ghti
ntot
he exi
sti
ng pr
obl
em.I
n a pr
ogr
ess
ive s
cienc
e,t
he
gener
ali
zat
ionsmaynothol
dwel
lbey
ondac
ert
aint
ime-
per
iod.Wi
tht
hepas
sageoft
ime,t
hef
act
s
mayc
hange;t
hepr
obl
em i
tsel
fmayu
nde
rgoc
hangeands
othec
onc
ept
.Thu
s,ac
ons
tants
ear
chand
r
ese
arc
h bec
omees
sent
ialt
o know t
heexac
ttr
uth.T
her
esear
ch mayes
tabl
i
sh new empi
ri
cal
gener
ali
zat
ionsandf
als
ifyt
heol
dones
.Thu
s,newt
heor
iesar
econs
tru
cted.

Res
ear
ch mu
stbe bas
ed on s
ome pr
obl
ems or on s
ome f
act
s.I
nqu
isi
ti
venes
s/c
uri
osi
ty and
di
ssat
isf
act
ionar
ethet
womai
nbu
il
dingbl
ocksofanyr
esear
ch.S
cient
ifi
cres
ear
chr
eli
esont
he
appl
i
cat
ion of s
cient
ifi
c met
hods and har
nes
sing c
uri
osi
ty.T
hisr
esear
ch pr
ovi
des s
cient
ifi
c
i
nfor
mat
ionandt
heor
iesf
ort
heexpl
anat
ionofnat
ureandpr
oper
tiesoft
hewor
ldar
oundu
s.

1
.2.Whyi
sRes
ear
chC
ondu
cted?
Res
ear
chi
scondu
ctedf
oranu
mberofr
eas
ons
,whi
chi
ntu
rndependont
heobj
ect
ivesofany
par
tic
ular‘
res
ear
chpr
obl
em’
.Ofc
our
se,t
her
ear
epar
tic
ularr
eas
onsf
oru
nder
taki
ngr
esear
chat
var
iou
slevel
stodi
scovers
ome
thi
ngne
w.Res
ear
chc
anbet
ofi
ndou
tsomet
hingwedonotal
ready
knowort
oenhanc
eou
runder
standi
ngofphenomenat
hatweal
readyknows
omet
hingabou
t.I
nthe
bu
sines
sar
ena,however
,res
ear
cht
endst
obeu
nder
takeni
nor
dert
oac
hieveoneormor
eoft
he
f
oll
owi
ngobj
ect
ives
:

2
  T
ogai
nac
ompet
iti
veadvant
age.
 T
otes
tnewpr
odu
ctsands
ervi
ces
.
 T
osol
veamanagement
/or
gani
zat
ionalpr
obl
em.
 T
opr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionwhi
chmayhel
ptoavoi
dfu
tur
ebu
sines
spr
obl
ems
.
 T
ofor
ecas
tfu
tur
esal
es.
 T
obet
teru
nder
stands
hif
tsi
ncons
umerat
tit
udesandt
ast
es.
 T
oenhanc
epr
ofi
tabi
l
ity
.
 T
oredu
ceoper
ati
onalc
ost
s.
 T
oenabl
emanagementt
opr
ior
iti
zes
trat
egi
copt
ionsf
ort
hef
utu
re.

Onec
oul
dgoonandonwi
tht
hisl
i
standwear
esu
ret
haty
ouc
anaddt
oit
.Themai
npoi
nt,
however
,ist
hatr
esear
ch(
in what
eve
rbu
sines
sorpu
bli
csec
toror
gani
zat
ion)i
sal
way
s
u
nder
takenf
orac
learpu
rpos
e—t
ost
rengt
henanor
gani
zat
ion’
sabi
l
ityt
omeett
hedemands
oft
hef
utu
re.

1
.3.Mot
ivesofDoi
ngRes
ear
ch
Res
ear
chi
snotat
rou
ble-
freedu
tyr
athe
riti
sti
mec
ons
umi
ng,t
ires
omeandexpens
iveu
nder
taki
ng.
Des
pit
ethes
eal
ldi
ffi
cul
ti
es,manypeopl
ees
pec
ial
l
yinac
ademi
cins
tit
utewou
ldl
i
ket
ocar
ryou
t
r
ese
arc
hatl
eas
tonc
eint
hei
rli
fe.Whatar
ethepos
sibl
emot
ivesofi
ndi
vidu
alst
ounder
take
r
ese
arc
hwor
k?
Thepos
sibl
emot
ivesf
ordoi
ngr
esear
chc
anbeei
theroneorac
ombi
nat
ionoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 Des
iret
o getdegr
ee wi
thi
tsc
ons
equ
ent
ialbenef
it: T
he gr
adu
ate and pos
tgr
adu
ate
s
tudent
sli
key
ouar
erequ
iredt
ocar
ryou
tres
ear
chpr
ojec
tasapar
tialf
ulf
il
lmentt
oobt
ain
t
hei
rmas
terandP
h.D.Degr
ee.Res
ear
chi
sther
efor
e,apr
erequ
isi
tet
ocompl
etet
hei
rst
udy
.
 Des
iret
ogetr
espec
tandpr
omot
ion(
toownr
espec
tins
oci
ety:
.Inac
ademi
candr
esear
ch
i
nst
itu
tionspu
bli
cat
ioni
scr
uci
alf
orpr
omot
ionandac
ademi
cr Pu
ank.“ bl
i
shorper
ish”i
sa
phr
asec
ommonl
yus
edi
nexper
ienc
edandwel
l
-es
tabl
i
shedac
ademi
cins
tit
utes
.Thi
simpl
i
es
ani
ndi
vidu
als
hou
ldc
arr
you
tar
esear
chac
tivi
tyandpu
bli
shhi
sfi
ndi
ngsi
nsc
ient
ifi
cor
i
nter
nat
ionalj
our
nali
nor
dert
ogetr
espec
tandac
ademi
crank.I
fnott
hei
ndi
vidu
alwi
l
l
"
per
ish"meani
ngnopr
omot
ionorac
ademi
crankandhenc
enor
espec
tispos
sibl
efort
hat
i
ndi
vidu
ali
ntheac
ademi
cenvi
ronment
 Des
iret
ofac
eac
hal
l
engei
nsol
ving t
heu
nsol
vedpr
obl
em: C
onc
ern overapar
tic
ular
pr
obl
em i
nit
iat
esar
esear
cher
.

3
  Des
iret
ogeti
ntel
l
ect
ualj
oyofdoi
ngs
omec
reat
ivewor
k: Doi
ngorpar
tic
ipat
ioni
nsome
c
reat
iveac
tivi
tywi
l
lgi
ves
omepr
ofes
sionals
ati
sfac
tiont
omanyi
ndi
vidu
als
.Res
ear
chwi
l
l
gi
vet
hisoppor
tuni
ty.
 Di
rec
tiveofgover
nment
:Gover
nments
omet
imesgi
vesdi
rec
tivest
oit
sempl
oye
est
ocar
ry
ou
tapar
tic
ulars
tudyandi
nves
tigat
ionf
orbet
terdec
isi
on-
maki
nggr
ound.I
deal
l
yanypol
i
cy
bef
orei
mpl
ement
ati
onr
equ
ires
det
ails
tudyandanal
ysi
sofi
tsi
mpac
tondi
ffer
entpar
tsof
t
hes
oci
ety
.
 Empl
oyment c
ondi
ti
on:S
ome empl
oyer
sset as c
rit
eri
a at l
eas
t one pu
bli
cat
ion i
n
i
nter
nat
ionalj
our
nal
.
T
hepu
rpos
eofr
esear
chi
stou
nfol
d/di
spl
ayt
het
rut
hbys
yst
emat
icmet
hods
.Itmayi
nvol
vet
he
mani
pul
ati
onofc
onc
ept
sors
ymbol
sinor
dert
ocor
rec
torver
ifyt
heexi
sti
ngknowl
edgeor
i
deass
othatanoper
ati
onalgener
ali
zat
ionmaybemadei
nthes
hapeofat
heor
y.Ar
esear
ch
mayai
m att
hef
oll
owi
ngt
hings
:
T
ofi
ndnewgener
ali
zat
ionswi
thol
ddat
a
T
oknowol
dconc
lus
ionswi
thnewdat
a
T
oat
temptt
oreac
hmor
econc
lus
ionsf
rom t
hes
ames
etofdat
a
T
opu
tfor
war
danent
irel
yor
igi
nali
deaort
heor
y,ort
odi
scoveranu
nexpl
oredhor
izon
ofknowl
edge
T
ofi
ndort
ores
olvec
ont
radi
cti
onsexi
sti
ngi
nthear
eaofs
tudy
.
Anyr
esear
chhast
hreemaj
orc
omponent
s.T
hes
ear
epr
obl
em,evi
denc
eandc
onc
lus
ions
.If
oneoft
het
hreec
omponent
sar
elac
king,t
her
esear
chi
snotc
ompl
ete.

1
.4.C
har
act
eri
sti
cs/C
rit
eri
aforagoodRes
ear
ch
Des
pit
ethec
ons
ider
abl
evar
iat
ionbet
weendi
ffer
entar
easofr
esear
chi
nter
msoft
heor
ies
ofs
cienc
e,t
radi
ti
onsandway
sofwor
king,wewou
ldar
guet
hatqu
est
ionsc
onc
erni
nggood
r
ese
arc
hpr
act
icec
anbedi
scu
ssedi
nameani
ngf
ulmannerac
ros
sdi
sci
pli
nar
yandf
acu
lty
bou
ndar
ies
.Thedemandf
orqu
ali
tyi
nres
ear
chc
an bebr
oken down i
ntoa nu
mberof
gener
alpr
inc
ipl
est
hatar
ewi
del
yrec
ogni
zedwi
thi
nther
esear
chc
ommu
nit
y.What
evermay
bet
het
ypeofr
esear
chwor
ksands
tudi
es,onet
hingt
hati
simpor
tanti
sthatt
heyal
lmeet
ont
hec
ommongr
oundofs
cient
ifi
cmet
hodempl
oyedbyt
hem.Oneexpec
tthes
cient
ifi
c
r
ese
arc
htos
ati
sfyt
hef
oll
owi
ngc
rit
eri
a-
1
.Thepr
ocedu
raldes
ignoft
her
esear
chs
hou
ldbec
aref
ull
ypl
annedt
oyi
el
dres
ult
sthatar
e
asobj
ect
iveaspos
sibl
e.
2
.Thepu
rpos
eoft
her
esear
chs
hou
ldbec
lear
lydef
inedandc
ommonc
onc
ept
sbeu
sed.
3
.Ther
esear
chers
hou
ldr
epor
twi
thc
ompl
etefranknes
s,f
lawsi
npr
ocedu
raldes
ignand
4
 es
timat
ethei
ref
fec
tsu
pont
hef
indi
ngs
4.T
heanal
ysi
sofdat
ashou
ldbeadequ
atet
oreveali
tss
igni
fi
canc
eandt
hemet
hodsof
anal
ysi
sus
eds
hou
ldbeappr
opr
iat
e.T
heval
i
dit
yandr
eli
abi
l
ityoft
hedat
ashou
ldbe
c
hec
kedc
aref
ull
y.
5
.Conc
lus
ions
hou
ldbec
onf
inedt
othos
eju
sti
fi
edbyt
hedat
aoft
her
esear
chandl
i
mit
edt
o
t
hos
eforwhi
cht
hedat
apr
ovi
deanadequ
atebas
is.
6
.Gr
eatc
onf
idenc
einr
esear
chi
swar
rant
edi
fther
esear
cheri
sexper
ienc
ed,hasagood
r
epu
tat
ioni
nres
ear
chandi
saper
sonofi
ntegr
ity
.

1
.5.T
ypesofRes
ear
ch
Gener
all
y,r
esear
chc
anbec
las
sif
iedbas
edont
hef
oll
owi
ngt
rai
ts:
I
.On t
hebas
isoft
heou
tcomeoft
her
esear
ch:Whet
hert
her
esear
cht
riest
osol
vea
par
tic
ularpr
obl
em ormakesagener
alc
ont
ribu
tiont
otheknowl
edge,r
esear
chc
anbe
a)F
undament
alRes
ear
ch:
F
undament
alr
esear
chi
sal
soc
all
edac
ademi
corbas
icorpu
rer
esear
ch.S
uchr
esear
chi
s
ai
medati
nves
tigat
ingors
ear
chf
ornewpr
inc
ipl
esandl
aws
.Iti
smai
nlyc
onc
ernedwi
th
gener
ali
zat
ionandf
ormu
lat
ionofat
heor
y.F
undament
alr
esear
chi
sor
gani
zedonl
yfor
t
heat
tai
nmentofknowl
edgeandt
rut
h.Wi
thc
hangeoft
imeands
pac
e,i
tisnec
ess
ary
t
omakeac
hangei
nthef
undament
alpr
inc
ipl
esi
never
ybr
anc
hofs
cienc
e;t
hus
,thi
s
t
ypeofr
esear
chal
sover
ifi
est
heol
des
tabl
i
shedt
heor
ies
,pr
inc
ipl
esandl
aws
.
I
ngener
al,f
undament
alr
esear
chi
sconc
ernedwi
tht
het
heor
eti
calas
pec
tofs
cienc
e.I
n
ot
herwor
ds,i
tst
udi
est
hel
awsofnat
ure,wi
thou
torr
egar
dles
soft
hei
mmedi
ate
appl
i
cat
ionofi
tsf
indi
ngs
.
Exampl
e:T
her
elat
ions
hipbet
weenc
rimeandec
onomi
cst
atu
sisanexampl
eofpu
re
(
academi
c)r
esear
ch.
 Dar
winT
heor
yofEvol
uti
on
 Newt
on’
sLawofMot
ion
 Ei
nst
einT
heor
yofRel
ati
vit
y
b)Appl
i
edr
esear
ch
Ar
esear
chai
medatf
indi
ngas
olu
tionf
orani
mmedi
atepr
obl
em f
aci
ngas
oci
ety
,a
gr
oup ori
ndu
str
y(bu
sines
sor
gani
zat
ion).Ei
theri
ndi
vidu
alsorgr
oupsofdec
isi
on-
maker
soreven pol
i
cymaker
swou
ldu
set
her
esu
ltsofs
uchr
esear
ch.Whi
l
epu
re
r
esear
chdi
scover
spr
inc
ipl
esandl
aws
,appl
i
edr
esear
chdi
scover
sthei
rappl
i
cat
ioni
n
s
olvi
ngs
omes
oci
al,ec
onomi
coranyot
herpr
obl
ems
.
Exampl
e
5
  T
hei
mpr
ovementofs
afet
yint
hewor
kingpl
ace
 T
her
edu
cti
onofwas
tagei
nthewor
kingpl
acesi
sexampl
eofappl
i
edr
esear
ch.
I
I.Ont
hebas
isoft
hepu
rpos
e(T
her
eas
onwhyar
esear
chi
scondu
cted)i
tcanbe-
a)Expl
orat
oryr
esear
ch(
Pil
otS
urvey
)
I
tisal
soc
all
edpr
eli
minar
yres
ear
ch.Asi
tsnamei
mpl
i
ed,s
uchr
esear
chi
sai
medat
di
scover
ing,i
dent
ify
ingandf
ormu
lat
ingar
esear
chpr
obl
em andhy
pot
hes
is.When
t
her
ear
efewornos
tudi
est
hatc
anber
efer
red,s
uchr
esear
chi
sneeded.
b)Des
cri
pti
veRes
ear
ch
T
hemai
npu
rpos
eofs
uchr
esear
chi
sdes
cri
pti
onoft
hes
tat
eofnat
ureoraf
fai
rs,asi
t
exi
stsatpr
esent
.Ins
oci
als
cienc
eandbu
sines
sres
ear
ch,weof
tenu
set
het
erm ex-
pos
t
f
act
ores
ear
chf
ordes
cri
pti
ver
ese
arc
h.T
hemai
nchar
act
eri
sti
cofs
uchr
esear
chi
sthat
t
her
esear
cherhasnoc
ont
rolove
rthevar
iabl
es;hec
anonl
yrepor
twhathashappened
orwhati
shappeni
ng.
Exampl
e
 Whati
stheabs
ent
eer
atei
napar
tic
ularof
fic
e?
 Whati
sthequ
ali
fi
cat
ionofdi
ffer
entgr
oupsofempl
oyment
?
 F
requ
enc
yofs
hoppi
ng
 P
ref
erenc
esofpeopl
e
Ex-
pos
tfac
tos
tudi
esal
soi
ncl
udeat
tempt
sbyr
esear
cher
stodi
scoverc
aus
est
hou
gh
t
heyc
annotc
ont
rolt
hevar
iabl
es.
c
)Anal
yti
cres
ear
ch
Anal
yti
calr
esear
chont
heot
herhand,goesbey
onds
impl
edes
cri
pti
onoft
hes
tat
eofnat
ure.
Whenar
esear
cherenc
ount
ersani
ssu
ethati
sal
readyknownandhaveades
cri
pti
onofi
t,y
ou
maybegi
ntoas
k“why
”thi
ngsar
ethewayt
heyar
e.

Anal
yti
calr
esear
chu
sesf
act
sori
nfor
mat
ional
readyavai
l
abl
e,andanal
yzest
hem t
omakea
c
rit
icaleval
uat
ionoft
hemat
eri
al.Notonl
ydes
cri
bet
hec
har
act
eri
sti
cs,bu
tal
soi
tanal
yzes
andexpl
ainswhyandhow i
thappenedori
shappeni
ng.T
hei
nfor
mat
ionorf
act
sus
edher
e
c
anbeei
therQu
ali
tat
iveorQu
ant
itat
ive.
Exampl
e
 Howc
anwer
edu
cet
henu
mber
sofc
ompl
aint
smadebyc
ust
omer
s?
 Howc
anweexpandt
her
angeofou
rser
vic
es?

6
  Howc
anwei
mpr
ovet
hedel
i
ver
yti
mesofou
rpr
odu
cts
?

d)Pr
edi
cti
ver
esear
ch
S
uchr
esear
chgoesbey
ondexpl
aini
ngwhyandhowt
hingshappened.I
tpr
edi
cts(
for
ecas
t)t
he
pos
sibl
e(pr
obabi
l
ityofhappeni
ngs
imi
l
ars
itu
ati
oni
not
herpl
aces
.Itt
riest
oexpl
ainabou
tthe
pr
obabi
l
ityofhappeni
ngs
imi
l
art
hingi
nthef
utu
re.
Exampl
e
 Howwou
ldani
ncr
eas
eini
nter
estr
ateaf
fec
tou
rpr
ofi
tmar
gin?
 Whatt
ypeofpac
kagi
ngwi
l
limpr
ovet
hes
alesofou
rpr
odu
cts
?

I
II
.Ont
hebas
isoft
hedat
aty
peofr
esear
ch:T
hati
s,bas
edondat
aus
edi
nther
esear
ch
pr
oces
sres
ear
chc
anbe:
a)Qu
ali
tat
iver
esear
ch:
Suc
hres
ear
chi
sappl
i
cabl
eforphenomenont
hatc
annotbe
expr
ess
edi
nter
msofqu
ant
ity
.Thi
ngsr
elat
edt
oqu
ali
tyandki
nd.Res
ear
chdes
ignedt
o
f
indou
thowpeopl
efeelorwhatt
heyt
hinkabou
tapar
tic
ulars
ubj
ectori
nst
itu
tioni
san
exampl
eofs
uchr
esear
ch.
b)Qu
ant
itat
iver
esear
ch:Qu
ant
itat
iver
esear
chont
heot
herhandi
sconc
ernedwi
th
qu
ant
itat
ivephenomenon.I
tisbas
edont
hemeas
urementofqu
ant
ityoramou
nt.I
tis
appl
i
cabl
eforphenomenont
hatc
anbeexpr
ess
edi
nter
m ofqu
ant
ity
.
I
V.Ont
hebas
isoft
heenvi
ronmenti
nwhi
cht
her
esear
chi
scar
riedou
tres
ear
chc
anbe:
a)F
iel
dres
ear
ch
I
tisar
esear
chc
arr
iedou
tint
hef
iel
d.S
uchr
esear
chi
scommoni
nsoc
ials
cienc
e,
agr
icu
ltu
rals
cienc
e,hi
stor
yandar
cheol
ogy
.
b)L
abor
ator
yres
ear
ch
I
tisar
esear
chc
arr
iedou
tint
hel
abor
ator
y.T
hes
ear
ecommonl
yexper
iment
alr
esear
ch.
S
uchr
esear
chesar
ecommon i
n medi
cals
cienc
e,agr
icu
ltu
reandi
n gener
ali
n nat
ural
s
cienc
es
c
)Si
mul
ati
onr
esear
ch
S
uchr
esear
chu
sesmodel
stor
epr
esentt
her
ealwor
ld.S
imu
lat
ioni
scommoni
n
phy
sic
als
cienc
e,ec
onomi
csandmat
hemat
ics
.
C
onc
lus
ionOr
ient
edandDec
isi
onOr
ient
edRes
ear
ch
A.C
onc
lus
ion-
ori
ent
ed r
esear
ch:i
sof
ten der
ived by t
he r
esear
cher
s’c
uri
osi
ty,
i
nter
estandi
ntu
iti
on.I
nthi
sres
ear
ch,t
her
esear
cher
sar
efr
eet
osel
ectt
hei
r
r
esear
chpr
obl
em andmet
hodst
oinves
tigat
eac
cor
dingt
othei
rint
eres
t.I
tai
ms
7
 atmaki
ngc
onc
lus
ionsaf
teri
nves
tigat
ion.T
hist
ypeofr
esear
chc
anbeappl
i
ed
orbas
icr
esear
ch.
B.Dec
isi
on-
ori
ent
edr
esear
ch:t
hist
ypeofr
esear
chi
sint
endedt
obet
hebas
esf
or
dec
isi
on-
maki
ngpr
oces
s.I
nthi
sres
ear
ch,dec
isi
on-
maker
ssel
ectt
hepr
obl
ems
;
t
her
esear
cher
shavenor
ightt
osel
ectt
hei
rres
ear
chpr
obl
ems
;rat
heri
tis
gear
ed t
owar
dss
olvi
ng t
hepr
obl
em ofdec
isi
on-
maker
sand i
tismor
eof
appl
i
edr
esear
ch.S
omet
imes
,ar
esear
cht
opi
cisnots
elec
tedbyt
her
esear
cher
hi
msel
fbu
thast
o be c
hos
en f
rom among t
he gi
ven l
i
stoft
opi
csofan
i
nst
itu
tionwher
ehei
swor
king.
1
.6.S
tepsi
nRes
ear
chPr
oces
s
Al
thou
ght
hel
i
stdoess
trongl
yimpl
yanor
der
ly,s
tep-
by-
steppr
oces
s,i
tisr
aret
hata
r
esear
chpr
ojec
tfol
l
owst
hes
est
epsi
ntheexac
tor
der
.Ac
tual
l
y,r
esear
chpr
act
ice
sar
e
mor
eofani
nter
act
ivepr
oces
swher
ebyar
esear
cher
,bydi
scover
ings
omet
hingi
na
gi
ven s
tep,maymovebac
kwar
dint
hepr
oces
sandbegi
n agai
n atanot
hers
tep.
F
indi
ng s
omenew i
nfor
mat
ion whi
l
ecol
l
ect
ing dat
a,mayc
aus
ether
esear
chert
o
es
tabl
i
shdi
ffer
entr
esear
chobj
ect
ives
.Anygi
venr
esear
chpr
ojec
tmaynoti
nvol
ve
eac
handever
yst
eps
hownabove.T
her
esear
chpr
obl
em c
oul
dber
esol
ved,byr
evi
ewof
as
econdar
ydat
a,t
her
ebyel
i
minat
ingt
heneedt
odet
ermi
neas
ampl
epl
anors
ize.
Whati
simpor
tantf
ory
out
oknow i
sthat
,al
thou
ghal
mos
tever
yres
ear
chpr
ojec
tis
di
ffer
ent
,ther
ear
eenou
ghc
ommonal
i
tiesamongt
hevar
iou
spr
ocedu
resandac
tivi
ti
es
t
oenabl
eust
ospec
ifyt
hebas
ics
tepsoft
her
esear
chpr
oces
s.

S
tep1
:For
mul
atet
heRes
ear
chPr
obl
em
C
leari
dent
ifi
cat
ion oft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em i
sthef
irs
tandf
oremos
tst
epi
nthe
r
esear
ch pr
oces
s.T
her
eismu
cht
rut
htos
ayi
ng “
a pr
obl
em wel
ldef
ined i
shal
f
s
olved.
”Unf
ort
unat
ely
,thi
sismu
cheas
iert
osayt
han t
o do.I
tisal
so known as
def
ini
ng t
hes
tudyqu
est
ion.Re
sear
cht
opi
cs,r
ati
onal
efort
hes
tudyand r
esear
ch
s
itu
ati
onar
esomeoft
hephr
asesu
sedf
ort
hiss
tep.Mor
eover
,whats
hou
ldbeac
hieved
by t
he r
esear
ch has t
o be br
oughtou
taf
ter i
dent
ify
ing t
he r
esear
ch pr
obl
em.
I
dent
ifi
cat
ionofapr
ojec
t/t
opi
cmaybemadebyt
her
esear
cherbyadopt
ingei
therof
t
hef
oll
owi
ngmeans
:
 Byobs
ervat
ion  P
ers
onali
nter
est
 T
heor
yands
cient
ifi
cconc
ept
s  Res
ear
ch and f
inanc
ial s
uppor
t
 P
revi
ousr
esear
ch i
nter
est
8
T
hepr
obl
em def
ini
ti
oni
nvol
ves
:
S
pec
ify
ingt
hes
ympt
oms
I
temi
zi
ngt
hepos
sibl
ecau
sesoft
hes
ympt
oms
S
tep2
:Es
tabl
i
shi
ngRes
ear
chObj
ect
ives
Af
terdef
ini
ngt
hepr
obl
em,r
esear
cher
smu
sts
tat
ether
esear
chobj
ect
ivesc
lear
ly.T
heyar
e
der
ivedf
rom t
hegener
als
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em.T
hei
nves
tigat
orbr
eaksdownt
hepr
obl
em
i
ntos
ever
almanageabl
ecomponent
sands
tat
espec
ifi
cobj
ect
ivesorendss
oughtbyt
hes
tudy
.
Re
sear
chobj
ect
ives
,al
thou
ghr
elat
edt
oandde
ter
minedbyt
hepr
obl
em def
ini
ti
on,ar
esets
o
t
hat
,whenac
hieved,t
heypr
ovi
det
henec
ess
aryi
nfor
mat
iont
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em.Whent
he
i
nfor
mat
ioni
sgat
her
edasar
esu
ltofc
arr
yingou
tthes
eres
ear
chobj
ect
ives
,thepr
obl
em i
s
s
olved.T
heu
nder
lyi
ngas
sumpt
ioni
sthati
ftheobj
ect
ivesar
eac
hieved,t
hedec
isi
onmakerwi
l
l
havet
hei
nfor
mat
ionheors
heneedst
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em.
Maj
orc
har
act
eri
sti
csofobj
ect
ives
:
Obj
ect
ivesmu
stbes
pec
ifi
candc
onc
ret
est
atement
swhi
chappeart
obeac
hievabl
e.
T
heobj
ect
ivess
hou
ldneat
lyf
itt
hes
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em.
T
heobj
ect
ivess
hou
ldnotpr
opos
etodot
hingswher
ethedes
ignoft
hes
tudyi
snot
c
apabl
eofac
hievi
ng.
T
heobj
ect
ivess
hou
ldbes
tat
edi
nthei
rappr
oxi
mat
eor
derofi
mpor
tanc
e.

S
tep3
:Det
ermi
neRes
ear
chDes
ign
T
her
esear
chdes
igni
sapl
ant
hats
pec
ifi
est
hes
our
cesandt
ypesofi
nfor
mat
ion.I
tist
he
ar
rangementofc
ondi
ti
onsf
ort
hec
oll
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
ainamannert
hatai
mst
o
c
ombi
ner
elevanc
etot
her
esear
chpu
rpos
e.I
tisc
onc
ept
uals
tru
ctu
re,pl
anands
trat
egyof
i
nves
tigat
ion wi
thi
nwhi
chr
esear
chi
scondu
cted.T
hepu
rpos
eoft
her
esear
chdes
igni
sto
pr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionf
ort
hec
oll
ect
ionofr
elevantevi
denc
ewi
thmi
nimalexpendi
tur
eofef
for
ts,
t
imeandmoney
.Thedes
ignt
hatgi
vest
hes
mal
l
estexper
iment
aler
rori
sthebes
tdes
ign.T
he
mos
timpor
tantf
eat
uresofar
esear
chdes
igni
ncl
ude:
I
tisapl
ant
hats
pec
ifi
est
hes
our
cesandt
ypesofi
nfor
mat
ionr
elevantt
other
esear
ch
pr
obl
em.
I
tiss
trat
egys
pec
ify
ingwhi
chappr
oac
hwi
l
lbeu
sedf
orgat
her
ingandanal
yzi
ngt
hedat
a.
I
tal
soi
ncl
udest
het
imeandc
ostbu
dget
ssi
ncemos
tst
udi
esar
edoneu
ndert
hes
etwo
c
ons
trai
nts
.
Al
mos
tever
yres
ear
ch pr
ojec
tisdi
ffer
ent
.St
il
l,t
her
e ar
e enou
gh c
ommonal
i
tiesamong
r
esear
chpr
ojec
tst
oenabl
eusc
ategor
izet
hem byt
her
esear
chmet
hodsandpr
ocedu
resu
sedt
o

9
 c
oll
ectandanal
yzedat
a.T
her
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofr
esear
chdes
ign:
Expl
orat
oryr
esear
ch
Des
cri
pti
ver
esear
ch
C
aus
alr
esear
ch
S
tep4-
Prepar
eaRes
ear
chPl
an
Du
ring t
hiss
tep,t
he r
esear
cher pr
epar
es a pl
an f
or c
ondu
cti
ng t
he r
esear
ch ac
tivi
ti
es.
I
dent
ify
ingt
her
esear
chr
espondent
sors
ubj
ect
sort
her
esear
chs
ampl
e,t
hemet
hodspl
anned
f
orc
oll
ect
ing,pr
oces
singandanal
yzi
ngt
hec
oll
ect
eddat
aandt
het
imeandot
herr
esou
rces
ne
eded f
oru
nder
taki
ng t
her
esear
chpr
ojec
tar
ethekeyc
omponent
sofa r
esear
chpl
an.
De
cis
ionsont
he
 Dat
asou
rces
 Res
ear
chappr
oac
hes
 Dat
acol
l
ect
ioni
nst
rument
s
 As
ampl
i
ngpl
an
 Met
hodsofc
ont
act
ingt
hes
tudyr
esponde
nts
 Met
hodsofc
ont
act
ingt
hes
tudyr
esponde
ntsand
 Met
hodsofanal
yzi
ngt
hedat
ami
ghtbeneededwhi
l
epr
epar
ingt
her
esear
chpl
an.
S
tep5
:Condu
ctaL
iter
atu
reRevi
ew
T
hisi
saver
yimpor
tants
tepi
ncondu
cti
nganyr
esear
chpr
ojec
t.Asment
ionedear
li
er,t
hismi
ght
havet
otakepl
aceal
i
ttl
eear
li
eri
nther
esear
chpr
oces
s.T
hel
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ew hast
osu
mmar
ize
andor
gani
zet
hepr
evi
ousr
esear
chf
indi
ngswi
thr
espec
ttot
het
opi
cbei
ngs
tudi
ed.T
hiswi
l
lhel
pin
i
dent
ify
ingt
hegapsandj
ust
ify
ingt
hepr
opos
edr
esear
ch.Whi
l
ecar
ryi
ngou
tthi
srevi
ew,i
tis
nec
ess
aryt
oci
teal
lthel
i
ter
atu
reu
sed.

At
hor
oughi
nves
tigat
ionoft
her
elevantl
i
ter
atu
reont
hes
tudyt
opi
c,t
her
esear
chqu
est
ion,and
t
hemet
hodol
ogyf
oll
owedbyot
her
swhohaves
tudi
edt
hes
ameors
imi
l
arpr
obl
emsi
scal
l
edas
l
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ew.I
thasbeen def
ined as‘
asy
stemat
ic,expl
i
cit
,and r
epr
odu
cibl
emet
hod f
or
i
dent
ify
ing,eval
uat
ing,and i
nter
pret
ing t
he ex
ist
ing body of r
ecor
ded wor
k pr
odu
ced by
r
esear
cher
s,s
chol
arsandpr
act
iti
oner
s’.Revi
ew oft
hel
i
ter
atu
rei
sal
soknownas‘
thepr
oces
s
wher
ebyar
esear
cheri
dent
ifi
esandexami
nesr
esear
chdonebys
chol
arst
hati
srel
evantt
othe
t
opi
cunderi
nves
tigat
ion.

Manydi
ffer
entpu
rpos
eshavebeeni
dent
ifi
edf
ort
hel
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ew.Dens
combe(
1998
)fel
tthat
l
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ewi
sser
vingt
hreef
undament
alpu
rpos
esl
i
stedbel
ow.
1
0
 I
tshowst
hos
ewhor
eadt
her
esear
chf
indi
ngst
hatt
her
esear
cheri
sawar
eoft
heexi
sti
ng
wor
kal
readydoneont
het
opi
c
I
tident
ifi
eswhatt
her
esear
cherbel
i
evesar
ethekeyi
ssu
es,c
ruc
ialqu
est
ions
,and t
he
obvi
ousgapsi
nthef
iel
d
I
tes
tabl
i
shesas
etofgu
idi
ngs
ignst
hatal
l
ow r
eader
stos
eewhi
cht
heor
iesandpr
inc
ipl
es
t
her
esear
cheru
sedt
oshapet
her
esear
chdes
ignandanal
ysi
s
T
hel
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ewi
snoti
ntendedt
obej
ustas
ummar
yoft
hear
tic
lesandbookst
hatwer
eread.
I
tshou
ldnotbeal
i
stofau
thor
swi
thwhom t
her
esear
cheragr
eesordi
sagr
ees
.
S
tep6
:Col
l
ectDat
a
C
oll
ect
ingt
hedat
aneededf
ort
hes
tudyi
sthene
xts
tepi
nther
esear
chpr
oces
s.T
hedat
atobe
c
oll
ect
edhavet
oans
wert
hes
tudyqu
est
ion.T
hedat
acanbeei
therpr
imar
yors
econdar
yorbot
h.
P
rimar
ydat
aar
etheor
igi
naldat
athatt
her
esear
cherc
oll
ect
sfr
om or
igi
nals
our
ces
.Pr
imar
ydat
a
i
ncl
uder
espons
est
oaqu
est
ionnai
reorani
nter
vieworobs
ervat
ionsmadebyt
her
esear
cheru
sing
par
tic
ipant/non-
par
tic
ipantobs
ervat
iont
echni
ques
.Sec
ondar
ydat
aar
edat
athathavebeen
c
oll
ect
edbys
omeoneel
sef
ors
omeot
herpu
rpos
e.S
tat
ist
icalr
epor
tspu
bli
shedbyor
gani
zat
ion,
ar
tic
lesi
npr
ofes
sionalj
our
nal
sandvar
iou
srec
ordsoff
irms
.
S
tep7
:Anal
yzeDat
a
S
omet
ypeofdat
aanal
ysi
sisneededt
ogi
vet
her
aw dat
aanymeani
ng.Dat
aanal
ysi
sinvol
ves
ent
eri
ngdat
aint
ocompu
terf
il
es,i
nspe
cti
ngi
tforer
ror
s,andr
unni
ngt
abu
lat
ionsandvar
iou
s
s
tat
ist
icalt
est
s.
 T
hef
irs
tst
epi
ndat
aanal
ysi
sisdat
acl
eani
ng,whi
chi
sthepr
oces
sbywhi
cht
her
aw dat
a
ar
echec
kedt
over
ifyt
hatt
hedat
ahavebeenc
orr
ect
lyi
npu
ttedf
rom t
hedat
acol
l
ect
ion
f
ormt
othec
ompu
ters
oft
war
epr
ogr
am,l
i
keS
tat
ist
icalP
ackagef
orS
oci
alS
cienc
es(
SPS
S).
 C
odi
ngi
sthenpr
oces
sofas
signi
ngal
lres
pons
ecat
egor
iesanu
mer
icalval
ue;f
orexampl
e,
mal
e=1
,femal
e=2
,ands
oon.
 Ani
mpor
tants
tepi
ndat
aanal
ysi
sisper
for
medbyt
abu
lat
ion,whi
chr
efer
stot
heac
tual
c
ount
ingoft
henu
mberofobs
ervat
ionst
hatf
alli
ntoeac
hpos
sibl
eres
pons
ecat
egor
y.
 F
inal
l
y,avar
iet
yofs
tat
ist
icalt
est
,whi
chi
ncl
udemeans
,fr
equ
enc
ies
,cor
rel
ati
ons
,tr
end
anal
ysi
s,andr
egr
ess
ion,ar
eal
sou
sedt
oanal
yzedat
a.
S
tep8:Pr
epar
eandPr
esentt
heF
inalRes
ear
chRepor
t
Ou
rlas
tst
epi
nther
esear
chpr
oces
sist
opr
epar
eandpr
esentt
hef
inalr
esear
chr
epor
t-oneoft
he
mos
timpor
tantphas
esofr
esear
ch.I
tsi
mpor
tantc
annotbeover
stat
edbec
aus
eiti
sther
epor
t,or
i
tspr
esent
ati
on,t
hatpr
oper
lyc
ommu
nic
atest
hes
tudyr
esu
ltt
othec
li
ent
.Ever
yres
ear
chers
hou
ld
c
onf
erwi
tht
hec
li
entt
odet
ermi
neexac
tlywhati
swant
edi
nther
esear
chr
epor
t.However
,ther
e
1
1
ar
ewi
del
yac
cept
eds
tandar
diz
eds
ect
ionsofamar
ket
ingr
esear
chr
epor
t,s
uchast
hei
ntr
odu
cti
on,
t
hemet
hodol
ogy
,ther
esu
lts
,ands
oon.S
omet
imesr
esear
cher
snotonl
ytu
rni
nawr
itt
enr
esear
ch
r
epor
tbu
ttheyal
somakeanor
alpr
esent
ati
onoft
her
esear
chmet
hodsu
sedt
ocondu
ctt
hes
tudy
aswel
last
her
esear
chf
indi
ngst
othei
rcl
i
ent
.

C
hapt
ert
wo

2
.Def
ini
ngandF
ormu
lat
ionoft
heRes
ear
chPr
obl
em andHy
pot
hes
is

I
nres
ear
chpr
oces
ses
,thef
irs
tst
ephappenst
obei
dent
ify
ingandpr
oper
lydef
ini
ngar
esear
ch
pr
obl
em.T
her
esear
chermu
stf
indanys
oci
al,ec
onomi
c,bu
sines
spr
obl
em andf
ormu
lat
eiti
nto
r
esear
chpr
obl
em.T
hepr
obl
em i
dent
ifi
edi
nit
ial
l
ymaybes
tat
edi
nbr
oadgener
alwayandt
hen
gr
adu
all
ytheambi
gui
tywi
l
lber
esol
ved.

P
robl
em f
ormu
lat
ionf
rom t
her
esear
cherpoi
ntofvi
ewr
epr
esent
str
ans
lat
ingt
hemanager
s’,
s
oci
alandot
herpr
obl
emsi
ntoar
esear
chpr
obl
em.I
nor
dert
hist
ohappen,t
her
esear
cher
mu
stu
nder
standt
heor
igi
nandnat
ureoft
hemanagement(
economi
c,envi
ronment
al,and
et
c.)pr
obl
emsandt
henbeabl
etor
ephr
asei
tint
omeani
ngf
ult
ermsf
rom anal
yti
calpoi
ntof
vi
ew.

Whati
saRes
ear
chpr
obl
em?
1
2
Ar
esear
chpr
obl
em,i
ngener
al,r
efer
stos
omedi
ffi
cul
ty,whi
char
esear
cherf
aces(
exper
ienc
es)
i
nthec
ont
extofbot
hat
heor
eti
calorpr
act
icals
itu
ati
onandwant
stoobt
ainas
olu
tionf
ort
he
s
ame.

C
omponent
soft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em

T
hepr
obl
em c
ons
ist
soft
hef
oll
owi
ngc
omponent
s

1
.Thedec
isi
on-
maker(
whi
chc
anbei
ndi
vidu
al,or
gani
zat
ion,et
c.,
)whohass
omedi
ffi
cul
ti
es
orpr
obl
em.

2
.Ther
emu
stbes
omeobj
ect
ive(
s)t
obeat
tai
nedat
.Ifonewant
snot
hingt
hen,c
annothave
apr
obl
em.T
heobj
ect
iveoft
hede
cis
ion-
makerpr
ovi
desmot
ivat
iont
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em.

Obj
ect
ivec
anbedef
inedf
rom di
ffer
entper
spec
tive

F
rom ec
onomi
cspoi
ntofvi
ew:obj
ect
ivec
anbepr
ofi
tmaxi
miz
ati
on

F
rom Mar
ket
ingvi
ew poi
nt-i
ncr
eas
ingmar
kets
har
e,c
reat
ingpr
odu
cti
mageandpr
est
ige,
i
ncr
eas
ings
ale

F
rom Managementper
spec
tive-obj
ect
ivec
anbemot
ivat
ingwor
ker
sther
ebyi
ncr
eas
elabor
pr
odu
cti
vit
y

F
inanc
e-i
ncr
eas
eret
urnoni
nves
tment

3
.Al
ter
nat
ivec
our
sesofac
tion:T
her
emu
stbeal
ter
nat
ivemeanst
o ac
hievet
hedes
ired
obj
ect
ive.

Exampl
e:t
omaxi
miz
epr
ofi
t,wehavet
hef
oll
owi
ngc
our
sesofac
tions
,

P
rof
it=T
R–T
Cwher
e,T
R=t
otalr
evenu
eandT
C=t
otalc
ostofpr
odu
cti
on.

I
ncr
eas
ingpr
ofi
tcanbeac
hieved

i
. Bykeepi
ngT
Ccons
tantandi
ncr
eas
ingT
R,wher
e,T
R=P
.Q.T
hisagai
ncanbedone
ei
therbyi
ncr
eas
ingpr
ice(
P)andkeepc
ons
tantt
otalou
tpu
t(Q),orbyKeepi
ngpr
ice
c
ons
tantandi
ncr
eas
eQ(
tot
alou
tpu
t)

i
i
. KeepT
Rcons
tantanddec
reas
eTC

I
ncr
eas
emar
kets
har
eimpl
i
esi
ncr
eas
ings
alesr
elat
ivet
oot
herf
irms
.Thes
ecanbeac
hieved
by
;

i
. I
ncr
eas
ingt
otals
aleby
:
 Dec
reas
ingpr
ice,

1
3
  I
ncr
eas
ingqu
ali
ty,

 C
hangi
ngpac
kage,

 Devel
opi
ngnewpr
odu
ctl
i
neandt
hel
i
ke.

4.T
he envi
ronment(
orc
ont
extof t
he pr
obl
em) t
o whi
cht
he di
ffi
cul
ty per
tai
n.T
hes
e
envi
ronment
alf
act
orsc
anbe;

 Gover
nmentr
egu
lat
ion(
exogenou
s)

 P
ric
efac
tor(
Exogenou
sinc
ompe
tit
ivemar
ket
)

 Rat
eofpr
icec
hange,i
nfl
ati
on(
exogenou
s)

 Mar
ketpl
ace(
exogenou
s)

 Res
our
ceavai
l
abi
l
ity(
nat
uralr
esou
rce)

 T
echnol
ogy(
endogenou
s)

 L
evelofedu
cat
ionandt
hel
i
keet
c(endogenou
s)

T
hes
efac
tor
smayi
ndi
vidu
all
yorc
oll
ect
ivel
yaf
fec
ttheou
tcomeoft
hec
our
seofac
tion(
and
mos
toft
het
imet
heyar
eexogenou
soru
ncont
rol
l
edvar
iabl
es).

5
.As
tat
eofdou
btsast
owhi
chc
our
seofac
tioni
sthebes
t.T
hismeanst
hatr
esear
chermu
st
ans
wert
hequ
est
ionc
onc
erni
ngt
her
elat
iveef
fic
ienc
yoft
hepos
sibl
eal
ter
nat
ives
.

2
.1.Def
ini
ngt
hePr
obl
em

De
fini
ngt
her
esear
chpr
obl
em i
scr
uci
alandver
yhar
dpar
tofar
esear
chpr
oces
s.I
tisc
ruc
ial
bec
aus
e,t
hepr
obl
em i
dent
ifi
edwi
l
lpr
ovi
deu
swi
tht
het
opi
coft
hedes
ignedr
esear
chandt
he
obj
ect
iveoft
her
esear
ch.I
tist
hemos
tdi
ffi
cul
tandhar
dpar
toft
her
esear
chs
tudybec
aus
e;
t
her
eisac
aus
eandef
fec
tis
sue.I
tisc
ommonl
ydi
ffi
cul
ttodi
sti
ngu
ishef
fec
tofapr
obl
em
f
rom t
hec
aus
eoft
hepr
obl
em.T
her
esear
chers
hou
ldbec
ert
aint
hatt
hepr
obl
em i
dent
ifi
edi
sa
c
aus
ebu
tnotanef
fec
t.T
her
eisac
ommons
ayi
nres
ear
cht
hat“
Thepr
obl
em c
lear
lys
tat
edi
s
apr
obl
em hal
fsol
ved”
.Thi
ssi
gni
fi
est
hei
mpor
tanc
eofpr
oper
lydef
ini
ngt
hepr
obl
em.A
pr
operdef
ini
ti
onofr
esear
chpr
obl
em wi
l
lenabl
ether
esear
chert
ofi
ndans
wer
stoqu
est
ion
s
uchas
:

 Whatki
ndofdat
aandi
nfor
mat
ionar
erel
evantandneededt
obes
tudi
ed?

 Whatr
elat
ions
hipi
stobeexpl
oredamongvar
iabl
es?

 Whatt
echni
quehast
obeu
sedt
ocol
l
ectandanal
yzedat
a?Ands
ofor
th.
1
4
T
her
efor
e,def
ini
ngar
esear
chpr
obl
em pr
ope
rlyi
sapr
erequ
isi
tef
oranys
tudyandaver
y
i
mpor
tants
tep.Eveni
tismor
ees
sent
ialt
hani
tss
olu
tion.

T
echni
quesi
nvol
vedi
ndef
ini
ngapr
obl
em

T
her
esear
chpr
obl
em s
hou
ldbedef
inedi
nas
yst
emat
icmanner
.Thet
echni
quei
nvol
vedi
n
def
ini
ngar
esear
chpr
obl
em hasanu
mberofs
teps
,whi
chs
hou
ldbeu
ndert
akenoneaf
ter
anot
her
.

. S
i tat
ementofpr
obl
em i
nagener
alway:F
irs
tofal
lthepr
obl
em s
hou
ldbes
tat
edi
na
br
oadgener
alwaykeepi
ngwi
ths
omepr
act
ical
,sc
ient
ifi
candi
ntel
l
ect
uali
nter
est
.Fort
hat
pu
rpos
ether
esear
chermu
sti
mmer
sehi
m/her
sel
fcompl
etel
yint
hes
ubj
ectmat
ter
,whi
ch
he/s
hewi
shest
opos
eapr
obl
em.

I
nsoc
ials
cienc
e,i
tisadvi
sabl
etodos
omef
iel
dobs
ervat
ionand/orpr
eli
minar
ysu
rvey(
pil
ot
s
urvey
).T
hent
her
esear
cherc
anhi
m/her
sel
fst
atet
hepr
obl
em orc
ans
eekgu
idanc
eoft
he
s
ubj
ectexper
t.

. Under
i
i standi
ngt
henat
ureoft
hepr
obl
em:t
henexts
tepi
stou
nder
standc
lear
lyt
henat
ure
andt
heor
igi
noft
hepr
obl
em.T
hebes
twayofu
nder
standi
ngt
hepr
obl
em i
s:

 T
odi
scu
sswi
tht
hos
ewhof
irs
trai
sedt
hepr
obl
em i
nor
dert
oknowhowt
hepr
obl
em
or
igi
nal
l
ycomei
nvi
ew.

 T
odi
scu
ssi
twi
tht
hos
ewhohaveagoodknowl
edgeoft
hepr
obl
em c
onc
ernedor
s
imi
l
arot
herpr
obl
em.

i
i
i. S
urveyi
ngt
heavai
l
abl
eli
ter
atu
re.Al
lavai
l
abl
eli
ter
atu
rec
onc
erni
ngt
hepr
obl
em mu
stbe
s
tudi
edandexami
nedbef
oredef
ini
ngr
esear
chpr
obl
em.T
hismeanst
her
esear
chermu
st
bef
ami
l
iarwi
th:

 T
her
elevantt
heor
yint
hear
ea.

 Repor
tsandr
ecor
dsandot
herl
i
ter
atu
rei
nthec
onc
ernedar
ea

 Revi
ew r
esear
chwor
ksu
nder
takenonr
elat
edpr
obl
em.(
Thi
sisi
mpor
tantes
pec
ial
l
y
t
olear
n whatdat
a and ot
hermat
eri
alhave been u
sed and ar
e avai
l
abl
efor
oper
ati
onalpu
rpos
e)

Knowl
edgeabou
tthes
eal
lwi
l
lhel
pther
esear
chert
onar
rowt
hepr
obl
em and,gener
all
y,s
urvey
l
i
ter
atu
rewi
l
lenabl
eres
ear
chert
oknow:

 I
fther
ear
ecer
tai
ngapi
nthet
heor
y

1
5
  Whet
hert
heexi
sti
ngt
heor
yappl
i
cabl
etot
hepr
obl
em andc
ons
ist
entwi
the
achot
her
.

 Whet
hert
hef
indi
ngsoft
her
esear
chdoordonotf
oll
ow apat
ter
ncons
ist
entwi
th
t
het
heor
eti
calexpec
tat
ion.

 S
tudyonar
elat
edpr
obl
em i
sal
sou
sef
ulf
ori
ndi
cat
ingt
het
ypeofdi
ffi
cul
tyt
hatmay
beenc
ount
eredi
nthepr
esents
tudy
.

i
v. Devel
opi
ng i
deas t
hrou
gh di
scu
ssi
on: Di
scu
ssi
on on a pr
obl
em pr
odu
ces u
sef
ul
i
nfor
mat
ionandvar
iou
snew i
deasc
anbedi
scover
edanddevel
opedt
hrou
ghi
t.T
he
r
esear
chers
hou
lddi
scu
sshi
s/herpr
obl
em wi
thc
oll
eagu
esandot
her
swhohaveenou
gh
exper
ienc
eint
hes
amear
ea.S
uchpr
act
icei
scal
l
ed‘
exper
ienc
esu
rvey
”

P
eopl
ewi
thr
ichexper
ienc
ear
einapos
iti
ont
oshowt
her
esear
cherdi
ffer
entas
pec
tsofhi
s/her
pr
opos
eds
tudyandt
hei
radvi
ceandc
omment
sar
eus
ual
l
yofhi
ghval
ues
.

v. Rephr
asi
ngt
her
esear
chpr
obl
em (
ref
ormu
lat
ionoft
hepr
obl
em):F
inal
l
yther
esear
che
r
att
hiss
tages
hou
ldbeabl
etor
efor
mul
atet
hepr
obl
em t
hathasbeens
tat
edi
nbr
oadand
gener
alwayi
ntowor
kingpr
opos
iti
on.T
her
esear
chers
hou
ldnar
row andbr
eakdownt
he
pr
obl
em i
ntoi
tsc
omponent
s var
iabl
es and r
elat
ions
hip.T
hati
s,pr
obl
em s
hou
ld be
expr
ess
edas
:

a)ar
elat
ions
hipbet
weent
woormor
evar
iabl
e

b)t
hepr
obl
em s
hou
ldbes
tat
edei
theri
nqu
est
ionf
orm orhypot
hes
isf
orm

Qu
est
ion f
orm i
s appr
opr
iat
e mos
tly when t
he r
esear
chi
s des
cri
pti
ve i
n nat
ure.What
i
mpor
tanti
sthatwhen a r
esear
chers
tat
ethepr
obl
em i
n qu
est
ion f
orm,t
hef
ormu
lat
ed
pr
obl
em s
hou
ldbef
reef
rom ambi
gui
tyandt
her
elat
ions
hipamongvar
iabl
ess
hou
ldbec
lear
ly
ex
pres
sed.

Exampl
e:

 Doesar
elat
ions
hipexi
stbet
weeni
ncomeofu
niver
sit
yst
udent
sands
cor
eont
hei
rexams
?

 I
sther
ear
elat
ions
hipbet
weenempl
oyees
'ageandt
hei
rpr
odu
cti
vit
y?

I
naboveexampl
es,t
hes
tudy
’smai
nel
ement
sar
eident
ifi
edi
nreas
onabl
ycl
earf
ashi
on.

T
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
ntsmu
stbec
ons
ider
edwhi
l
eredef
ini
ngt
her
esear
chpr
obl
em:
-

 T
echni
calt
ermsandwor
dsorphr
ases
,wi
ths
pec
ialmeani
ngsu
sedi
nthes
tat
ementof
t
hepr
obl
em,s
hou
ldbec
lear
lydef
ined.

 Bas
icas
sumpt
ionsorpos
tul
ates(
ifany
)rel
ati
ngt
other
esear
chpr
obl
em s
hou
ldbe
16
 c
lear
lydef
ined.

 As
trai
ghtf
orwar
dst
atementoft
heval
ueoft
hei
nves
tigat
ion,(
i.
e.,t
hec
rit
eri
afort
he
s
elec
tionoft
hepr
obl
em)s
hou
ldbepr
ovi
ded.

 T
he s
uit
abi
l
ityoft
he t
ime pe
riod and t
he s
our
cesofdat
a avai
l
abl
e mu
stal
so be
c
ons
ider
edbyt
her
esear
cheri
ndef
ini
ngt
hepr
obl
em.

 T
hes
copeoft
hei
nves
tigat
ionort
hel
i
mit
swi
thi
nwhi
cht
hepr
obl
em i
stobes
tudi
ed
mu
stbement
ionedexpl
i
cit
lyi
ndef
ini
ngt
her
esear
chpr
obl
em.

Eval
uat
ionoft
hepr
obl
em

Bef
oret
hef
inaldec
isi
oni
smadeont
hei
nves
tigat
ionoft
hepr
obl
em,t
hef
eas
ibi
l
ityoft
he
pr
obl
em hast
obet
est
edwi
thr
egar
dtoper
sonals
uit
abi
l
ityoft
her
esear
cherands
oci
alval
ue
oft
hepr
obl
em.I
nshor
t,t
her
esear
chpr
obl
em s
hou
ldbeeval
uat
edi
nter
msoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
c
rit
eri
a.

I
sthepr
obl
em r
esear
chabl
e?

S
omepr
obl
emsc
annotbeef
fec
tivel
ysol
ved t
hrou
gh t
hepr
oces
sofr
esear
ch.P
art
icu
lar
ly,
r
esear
chc
annotpr
ovi
deans
wer
stophi
l
osophi
calandet
hic
alqu
est
ionst
hatdonots
how t
he
r
elat
ions
hipexi
sti
ngbet
weent
woormor
evar
iabl
evi
vidl
y.T
her
efor
e,t
hepr
obl
em mu
stbe
s
tat
edi
nwor
kabl
eres
ear
chqu
est
iont
hatc
anbeans
wer
edempi
ri
cal
l
y.

I
sthepr
obl
em new?

Asmu
ch aspos
sibl
e,t
he r
esear
ch pr
obl
em needst
o be new.One s
hou
ld nott
argethi
s
i
nves
tigat
ion t
othe pr
obl
em t
hat had al
ready been t
hor
oughl
yinves
tigat
ed by ot
her
r
esear
cher
s.T
obes
afef
rom s
uchdu
pli
cat
ion,t
her
esear
cherhast
ogot
hrou
ght
her
ecor
dof
pr
evi
ouss
tudi
esi
nagi
venf
iel
d.Howe
ver
,ther
ear
eti
meswher
ebyapr
obl
em t
hathasbeen
i
nves
tigat
edi
nthepas
tcou
ldbewor
thyofs
tudy
.Ar
esear
chermayr
epeatas
tudywhenhe
want
stove
rif
yit
sconc
lus
ion ort
oext
endt
heval
i
dit
yofi
tsf
indi
ngsi
nsi
tuat
ion ent
irel
y
di
ffer
entf
rom t
hepr
evi
ousone.

I
sthepr
obl
em s
igni
fi
cant
?

T
hequ
est
ion ofs
igni
fi
canc
eoft
hepr
obl
em u
sual
l
yrel
atest
owhatar
esear
cherhopest
o
ac
compl
i
shi
napar
tic
ulars
tudy
.Whati
shi
s/herpu
rpos
einu
nder
taki
ngt
osol
vet
hepar
tic
ular
pr
obl
em he/s
hehasc
hos
en?Whatne
w knowl
edgedoeshe/s
hehopest
oaddt
othes
umt
otal
ofwhati
sknown?Andwhatval
uei
sthi
sknowl
edgel
i
kel
ytohave?Whent
hes
eal
lqu
est
ionsar
e
1
7
ans
wer
edc
lear
lybyt
her
esear
cher
,thepr
obl
em s
hou
ldbec
ons
ider
edf
ori
nves
tigat
ion.

T
her
esear
chers
hou
lds
how t
hatt
hes
tudyi
sli
kel
ytof
il
lthegapsi
ntheexi
sti
ngKnowl
edget
o
hel
pres
olves
omeoft
hei
ncons
ist
enc
iesi
npr
evi
ousr
esear
chort
ohel
pint
her
eint
erpr
etat
ion
oft
heknownf
act
s.T
hef
indi
ngss
hou
ldbec
omeabas
isf
ort
heor
ygener
ali
zat
ion,orpr
inc
ipl
es
ands
hou
ldl
eadt
onewpr
obl
emsf
urt
herr
esear
ch.

I
sthepr
obl
em f
eas
ibl
e?

I
naddi
ti
ont
otheabove-
sti
pul
atedpoi
nts
,thef
eas
ibi
l
ityoft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em s
hou
ldal
sobe
ex
ami
nedf
rom t
hepoi
ntofvi
ewoft
her
esear
cher
’sper
sonalas
pec
tsass
tat
edher
eunder
.

Res
ear
cherC
ompet
enc
e:T
hepr
obl
em s
hou
ldbei
nanar
eai
nwhi
cht
her
esear
cherqu
ali
fi
edand
c
ompet
ent
.Bef
orei
ndu
lgi
ngi
ntoi
nves
tigat
ionoft
hepr
obl
em,t
her
esear
cherhast
omakes
ure
t
hathe/s
hei
swel
lac
quai
ntedwi
tht
heexi
sti
ngt
heor
ies
,conc
ept
sandl
awsr
elat
edt
othe
pr
obl
em.He/s
hemu
stal
sopos
ses
sthenec
ess
arys
kil
l
sandc
ompet
enc
ethatmaybeneededt
o
devel
op,admi
nis
ter
,andi
nter
prett
henec
ess
arydat
agat
her
ingt
ool
s;r
esear
chdes
ignand
s
tat
ist
icalpr
ocedu
ret
hatmayber
equ
iredt
ocar
ryou
tther
esear
cht
hrou
ghi
tsc
ompl
eti
on.

I
nter
estandent
hus
ias
m:T
her
esear
cherhast
omakes
uret
hatt
hepr
obl
em r
eal
l
yint
eres
ts
hi
m/her
.He/s
hemu
stal
sobet
rul
yent
hus
ias
ticabou
tthepr
obl
em.

F
inanc
ialc
ons
ider
ati
on:Res
ear
chi
sanexpens
iveendeavou
r,whi
chr
equ
iresagr
eatdealof
moneyt
oinves
t.I
nthi
sregar
d,t
her
esear
chers
hou
ldas
cer
tai
nwhet
herhe/s
hehasnec
ess
ary
f
inanc
ialr
esou
rcest
ocar
ryont
hei
nves
tigat
ionoft
hes
elec
tedpr
obl
em.Anes
timat
eoft
he
ex
pendi
tur
einvol
vedi
nthedat
agat
her
ingequ
ipment
,pr
int
ing,t
ravel
,andc
ler
icalas
sis
tanc
e
t
obes
pec
ifi
ed.F
urt
her
mor
e,t
hepos
sibl
esou
rce
soff
undmu
stbec
ons
ult
edaheadoft
ime.

T
imer
equ
irement
:Res
ear
chs
hou
ldbeu
nder
takenwi
thi
nagi
vens
copeoft
ime,whi
chwas
al
l
ocat
edwi
thc
aref
ulanal
ysi
soft
hepr
evai
l
ings
itu
ati
on.Eac
handever
yac
tivi
tyofar
esear
ch
pr
oces
srequ
irest
ime.P
art
icu
lar
ly,i
tiswor
thwhi
l
etopl
anf
ort
het
imet
hatwi
l
lbeneededf
or
t
hedevel
opmentandadmi
nis
trat
ionoft
ool
s,pr
oces
singandanal
ysi
sofdat
a,andwr
iti
ngof
t
her
esear
chr
epor
t.

Admi
nis
trat
ivec
ons
ider
ati
on:T
her
esear
cherhast
opayt
oal
ladmi
nis
trat
ionmat
ter
sthatar
e
ne
ces
sar
ytobr
inghi
s/hers
tudyt
oit
sfu
lladmi
nis
trat
ivemat
ter
sthatar
enec
ess
aryt
obr
ing
hi
s/hers
tudyt
oit
sfu
llc
ompl
eti
on.I
nthi
sregar
d,t
her
esear
chers
hou
ldc
ons
idert
heki
ndsof
dat
aequ
ipment
,spec
ial
i
zedper
sonnelandadmi
nis
trat
ivef
aci
l
iti
est
hatar
eneededt
ocompl
ete
t
hes
tudys
ucc
ess
ful
l
y.

Hy
pot
hes
is
1
8
Hy
pot
hes
isf
orm i
sempl
oyedwhent
hes
tat
eoft
heexi
sti
ngknowl
edgeandt
heor
yper
mit
s
f
ormu
lat
ionofr
eas
onabl
epr
edi
cti
onabou
tther
elat
ions
hipamongvar
iabl
es.

T
hewor
dhy
pot
hes
isi
sac
ompou
ndoft
wowor
ds,“
hypo”and“
thes
is”
.Hy
pomeans
,underor
bel
owandt
hes
ismeansar
eas
onedt
heor
yorr
ati
onalvi
ewpoi
nt.T
hus
,hy
pot
hes
iswou
ldmean
at
heor
y,whi
chi
snotf
ull
yreas
oned.

Hy
pot
hes
esar
eas
etofs
ugges
tedt
ent
ati
ves
olu
tionofar
esear
chpr
obl
em,whi
chc
anbeor
maynotbear
eals
olu
tion.

Re
sear
ch hy
pot
hes
isdi
ffer
sfr
om r
esear
ch qu
est
ion i
nthat
,hy
pot
hes
isbot
hindi
cat
ethe
qu
est
ion i
ntes
tabl
efor
m and pr
edi
ctt
he nat
ure oft
he ans
wer
.Hy
pot
hes
ispr
opos
esa
r
elat
ions
hipbet
weent
woormor
evar
iabl
es.I
not
herwor
ds,hy
pot
hes
isi
sat
heor
yent
ert
ained
i
nor
dert
ost
udyt
hef
act
sandexami
net
heval
i
dit
yoft
het
heor
y.

Es
tabl
i
shi
ngahy
pot
hes
iss
hou
ldf
oll
owr
ulesl
i
ke:
 T
hevar
iabl
esmu
stbec
lear
lys
pec
ifi
edandmeas
urabl
ebys
omet
echni
quesweknow;

 T
her
elat
ions
hipbet
weent
hem mu
stbes
tat
edpr
eci
sel
y.

I
mpor
tanc
eofHy
pot
hes
is

Awel
l
-gr
oundedhy
pot
hes
ispr
ovi
dest
hef
oll
owi
ngadvant
ages
:-

 Repr
esent
sspec
ifi
cobj
ect
ive,whi
chdet
ermi
net
henat
ureoft
hedat
aneededt
otes
tthe
pr
opos
iti
on.

 Of
ferbas
isf
ors
elec
tingt
hes
ampl
e,t
her
esear
chpr
ocedu
re,andt
hes
tat
ist
icalanal
ysi
s
needed.

 Keepst
hes
tudyr
est
ric
tedi
nsc
opet
her
ebypr
event
ingi
tfr
om bec
omi
ngt
oobr
oad

 S
etsaf
ramewor
kforr
epor
tingt
hec
onc
lus
ionoft
hes
tudy
.

C
rit
eri
aofu
sabl
ehy
pot
hes
es

Hy
pot
hes
esc
anbeu
sef
uli
fandonl
yift
heyar
ecar
efu
ll
yfor
mul
ated.T
her
ear
esever
alc
rit
eri
a
u
sedt
oeval
uat
ehy
pot
hes
is.T
hes
einc
ludet
hef
oll
owi
ng.

 Hy
pot
hes
ess
hou
ldbec
lear
lyandpr
eci
sel
yfor
mul
ated.

 Hy
pot
hes
ess
hou
ldbef
ormu
lat
edi
nsu
chwayt
hat
,theyc
anbet
est
edorver
ifi
ed(
shou
ld
bet
est
abl
e).

 Hy
pot
hes
iss
hou
lds
tat
eexpl
i
cit
lyt
heexpe
ctedr
elat
ions
hipbet
weenvar
iabl
es.

1
9
  Hy
pot
hes
ess
hou
ld bel
i
mit
ed i
nsc
ope,s
pec
ifi
cand s
impl
efort
est
ing and dr
awi
ng
c
onc
lus
ions
.

 Hy
pot
hes
ess
hou
ldbec
ons
ist
entwi
tht
heknownf
act
s(s
hou
ldbegr
oundedi
nawel
l
-
es
tabl
i
shedf
act
s,t
heor
iesorl
aws
).

 Hy
pot
hes
ess
hou
ldbes
tat
edasmu
chaspos
sibl
eins
impl
eter
ms.T
hes
impl
est
atement
hel
pst
ogai
nthef
oll
owi
ngadvant
ages

i
. I
tbec
omeseas
il
yunder
standabl
etoot
her
s(r
eader
s)

i
i
. I
tbec
omeeas
il
ytes
tabl
e

i
i
i. I
tpr
ovi
desabas
isf
orac
learandeas
il
ycompr
ehendedr
epor
tatt
hec
ompl
eti
on
oft
hes
tudy
.

Eexampl
eofHypot
hes
is,

P
oli
ti
calpar
tic
ipat
ion I
ncr
eas
es Wi
thedu
cat
ion

Var
iabl
e one (
dependent
r
elat
ions
hip Var
iabl
etwo (
independent
var
iabl
e.)
var
iabl
e)

T
he r
esu
ltof t
he hy
pot
hes
ist
esti
sthe s
ubs
tanc
e of ou
rconc
lus
ion and expr
ess
ed as
gener
ali
zat
ion.

S
our
cesofRes
ear
chpr
obl
em

T
her
ear
esomei
mpor
tants
our
cesofpr
obl
ems
,whi
char
ehel
pfu
ltoar
esear
cherf
ors
elec
tinga
pr
obl
em.T
hes
einc
ludet
hef
oll
owi
ng

Pr
ofes
sionalexper
ienc
e:Oneoft
hes
our
cesofpr
obl
em f
orbegi
nnerr
esear
cheri
shi
sown
ex
per
ienc
easapr
ofes
sionali
nagi
venf
iel
d.T
heday
-to-
dayobs
ervat
ionoft
hei
nci
denc
esi
sthe
wor
king pl
aceand ou
toft
hewor
king envi
ronment
,whi
chi
ncl
udest
heexper
ienc
eofhi
s
c
oll
eagu
es,t
hei
rat
tit
ude,homeenvi
ronment
,soc
ial
-ec
onomi
cst
atu
sand mot
ivat
ion l
eve
l
pr
ovi
der
ichs
our
cesoft
hepr
obl
em.

I
nfer
enc
efr
om t
heor
y:Ar
esear
chpr
obl
em c
anbeder
ivedf
rom ac
rit
icall
ooki
ntodi
ffer
ent
t
heor
ies
.Inot
herwor
ds,appl
i
cat
ionofs
omegener
alpr
inc
ipl
esi
nvol
vedi
ndi
ffer
entt
heor
iest
o

2
0
s
pec
ifi
csi
tuat
ionmakesani
mpor
tants
tar
tingpoi
ntofr
esear
ch.

T
echnol
ogi
calands
oci
alc
hanges
:Tec
hnol
ogi
calands
oci
alc
hangedi
rec
tlyori
ndi
rec
tlyexer
tsan
i
nfl
uenc
eint
hef
unc
tionofanor
gani
zat
ion.Al
lsu
chc
hangebr
ingsabou
tnew pr
obl
emsf
or
r
esear
ch.F
ori
nst
anc
e,c
hangemayaf
fec
tpol
i
cyi
ssu
esi
nwhi
chc
aset
heymayar
ous
eint
eres
tin
i
nves
tigat
ingnewpol
i
ciesamongt
hepol
i
cyanal
yst
sorot
herc
onc
ernedper
sonal
i
ties
.

T
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
ntsmaybec
ons
ider
edi
nsel
ect
ingar
esear
chpr
obl
em;

 As
ubj
ectt
hati
sover
dones
hou
ldnotbenor
mal
l
ychos
en,f
ori
twi
l
lbeadi
ffi
cul
ttas
kto
t
hrowanynewl
i
ghtt
osu
chac
ase.

 Gover
nment
als
ubj
ect
sshou
ldnotbec
omeac
hoi
ceofanaver
ager
esear
cher
.

 T
oonar
rowort
oovagu
epr
obl
emss
hou
ldbeavoi
ded.

 T
hes
ubj
ects
elec
tedf
orr
esear
chs
hou
ldbef
ami
l
iarandf
eas
ibl
esot
hatt
her
elat
ed
r
esear
chmat
eri
alors
our
ceofr
esear
chi
swi
thi
none’
sreac
h.

 T
hei
mpor
tanc
eoft
hes
ubj
ect
,thequ
ali
fi
cat
ionandt
het
rai
ningofr
esear
cher
,thec
ost
,
t
het
imef
act
orar
ethef
ewpoi
ntst
hatmu
stbec
ons
ider
edi
nsel
ect
ingapr
obl
em.

2
1
 C
HAPT
ERT
HREE
WRI
TINGRES
EARC
HPROPOS
AL

L
ear
ningObj
ect
ives
T
ounder
standhowt
owr
iter
esear
chpr
opos
al
T
oident
ifyel
ement
sandf
ormat
sofr
esear
chpr
opos
al
3
.0.Over
view
T
hepr
epar
ati
on ofar
esear
chpr
opos
ali
san i
mpor
tants
tepi
nther
esear
chpr
oces
s.T
he
pr
opos
ali
scompar
abl
etot
hebl
uepr
intt
hatanar
chi
tec
tpr
epar
esbef
oret
hebi
dsar
eletand
bu
il
dingc
ommenc
es.Whi
l
edevel
opi
ngapr
opos
al,t
her
esear
chermu
sts
eet
her
esear
chpr
oces
s
i
nit
stot
ali
ty.T
her
esear
cher
'smos
timpor
tantt
aski
stoc
onvi
ncet
hathi
spr
opos
ali
swor
th
s
uppor
ting.T
hei
nit
ialdr
aftpr
opos
ali
ssu
bjec
ttomodi
fi
cat
ionsbypeer
sandgr
ant
ors
.Si
nce
good r
esear
ch mu
stc
aref
ull
y be pl
anned and s
yst
emat
ical
l
ycar
ried ou
t,a wel
l
-des
igned
pr
opos
ali
sindeedapr
erequ
isi
tei
nor
dert
oappl
ytof
undi
ngor
gani
zat
ionsanddonoragenc
ies
.
Al
thou
ghmanypot
ent
ials
our
cesofr
esear
chf
undi
ngexi
stt
oan i
ndi
vidu
alr
esear
cher
,for
i
nst
anc
egover
nmentor
gani
zat
ions
,NGOs
,andpr
ivat
eor
gani
zat
ions
,thec
ompet
iti
onf
ors
uch
f
undi
ngi
sexc
eedi
ngl
ytou
gh.Onl
y,wel
l
-conc
eivedandwel
l
-pac
kagedr
esear
chpr
opos
alsar
e
l
i
kel
ytobes
ucc
ess
ful
.

3
.1Whati
sRes
ear
chPr
opos
al?
Ar
esear
ch pr
opos
ali
s a wr
itt
en doc
umentr
equ
est
ing bot
h au
thor
izat
ion and f
unds t
o
u
nder
takeas
pec
ifi
cres
ear
chpr
ojec
t.I
tal
way
sinc
ludesas
tat
ementexpl
aini
ngt
hepu
rpos
eof
t
hes
tudyora def
ini
ti
on oft
hepr
obl
em.I
tsy
stemat
ical
l
you
tli
nest
hepar
tic
ularr
esear
ch
met
hodol
ogyanddet
ail
sthepr
oces
sthatwi
l
lbeu
til
i
zedateac
hst
ageoft
her
esear
chpr
oces
s.

I
nres
ear
chpr
opos
al:

Whati
nfor
mat
ionwi
l
lber
equ
ired?

Whatr
esear
chpr
ocedu
reswi
l
lbei
mpl
ement
ed?Wi
l
lbec
lear
lys
pec
ifi
eds
othatot
her
smay
u
nder
standt
hei
rexac
timpl
i
cat
ions
.

2
2
3
.2F
unc
tionsofRes
ear
chPr
opos
al
Re
sear
chpr
opos
almayf
unc
tionatl
eas
tint
hreeway
s,namel
y,asameansofc
ommu
nic
ati
on,
asapl
anandasac
ont
rac
t.

Pr
opos
alasameansofc
ommu
nic
ati
on:s
ervest
ocommu
nic
atet
hei
nves
tigat
orsr
esear
ch
pl
ant
othos
ewho-
givec
ons
ult
ati
onsandordi
sbu
rsef
und.P
ropos
ali
sthepr
imar
ysou
rceon
whi
cht
hegr
adu
ates
tudent
s’s
eni
ores
say
,thes
isordi
sser
tat
ionc
ommi
tteemu
stbet
he
f
unc
tionof:
 Revi
ew

 C
ons
ult
ati
on

 Andmor
eimpor
tant
ly,appr
ovalf
ori
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
her
esear
chpr
ojec
ts

I
ngener
al,t
hequ
ali
tyofas
sis
tanc
eandt
hepr
obabi
l
ityoff
inanc
ials
uppor
twi
l
lal
ldepend
di
rec
tlyont
hec
lar
ityandj
ust
ifi
cat
ionoft
hepr
opos
al.
Res
ear
chpr
opos
alaspl
an:hel
pst
her
esear
chert
oor
gani
zehi
s/heri
deai
nas
yst
emat
ic
mannerandt
olookf
ors
trengt
hsandf
lows
.As
ucc
ess
fulpr
opos
als
etsou
tthepl
ani
nst
ep-
bys
tepdet
ail
.Thati
s,i
tpr
ovi
desani
nvent
oryofwhatmu
stbedoneandwhi
chmat
eri
als
havet
obec
oll
ect
edasapr
eli
minar
yst
ep.
Gener
all
y,t
heac
cept
abi
l
ityofr
esu
ltsi
sju
dged
exc
lus
ivel
yint
ermsoft
headequ
acyoft
hemet
hodsempl
oyedi
nrec
ordi
ng,anal
yzi
ngand
i
nter
pret
ingt
hedat
aint
hepl
anneds
tudy
.
Pr
opos
alal
sof
unc
tionsasac
ont
rac
t:Ac
ompl
etedpr
opos
alappr
ovedf
orexe
cut
ionand
s
ignedbyal
lmember
soft
hes
pons
ori
ng c
ommi
ttee,c
ons
tit
utea bondofagr
eement
bet
weent
her
esear
cherandt
hatc
ommi
ttee.

An appr
ovedgr
antpr
opos
alr
esu
ltsi
nac
ont
rac
tbet
ween t
hei
nves
tigat
orandof
ten t
he
u
niver
sit
yandf
undi
ngs
our
ces
.Pr
opos
alf
ort
hes
isanddi
sser
tat
ions
hou
ldbei
nfi
nalf
orm pr
ior
t
othec
oll
ect
ionofdat
a.Onc
edoc
umenti
sappr
ovedi
nfi
nalf
orm,nei
thert
hes
tude
ntnort
he
r
espondi
ngf
acu
ltymember
sshou
ldbef
reet
oal
tert
hef
undament
alt
ermsoft
hec
ont
rac
tby
u
nil
ater
aldec
isi
on.
Mor
eoverpr
opos
als
ugges
tst
hedat
anec
ess
aryf
ors
olvi
ngt
hemanagement
qu
est
ionsandhowt
hedat
awi
l
lbegat
her
ed,t
reat
ed,andi
nter
pret
ed.

3
.3Gener
alF
ormat
sandEl
ement
sofPr
opos
al

2
3
T
her
eisnoahar
dandaf
astf
ormati
nsc
ient
ifi
cres
ear
chpr
opos
alwr
iti
ng.I
tvar
iesf
rom one
or
gani
zat
ion t
o anot
herandf
rom onec
ount
ryt
o anot
her
.Someu
niver
sit
iesandf
undi
ng
agenc
iesmakever
yspec
ifi
cdemandf
ort
hef
ormatofpr
opos
als
.Thou
ght
hef
ormatvar
ies
,
t
hees
senc
eexpr
ess
edi
ndi
ffer
entpr
opos
alr
emai
nst
hes
ame.T
her
ear
ecer
tai
nel
ement
sthat
appearasver
yes
sent
ialt
ogor
esear
chwhi
chneedt
ober
efl
ect
edi
nthepr
epar
ati
onoft
he
r
esear
chpr
opos
al.

Gener
alf
ormatandEl
ement
sofPr
opos
al

1
.Thet
itl
eoft
heI
nves
tigat
ion

2
.Abs
trac
t(opt
ional
)

3
.Bac
kgr
oundoft
hes
tudy

4.S
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em/T
heRat
ional
e

5
.Res
ear
chQu
est
ions
/Hy
pot
hes
is

6
.Obj
ect
ivesoft
heS
tudy

7
.Revi
ewoft
heRel
atedL
iter
atu
re

8.S
igni
fi
canc
eoft
heS
tudy

9.Def
ini
ti
onoft
heT
ermsorC
onc
ept
s(opt
ional
)

1
0.Del
i
mit
ati
on/S
copeoft
heS
tudy

1
1.Res
ear
chDes
ignandMet
hodol
ogy
:

 Res
ear
chDes
ign

S
tudy Ar
ea, T
arget P
opu
lat
ion, S
ampl
e S
ize and S
ampl
i
ng
t
echni
ques
:

 Dat
aty
peands
our
ce

 Dat
aGat
her
ingT
ool
s/I
nst
rument
s

 Met
hodofDat
aanal
ysi
s
2
4
 1
2.L
imi
tat
ionoft
heS
tudy(
opt
ional
)

1
3.Or
gani
zat
ionoft
hes
tudy

1
4.Wor
kpl
an(
times
chedu
le)

1
5.C
ost/bu
dgets
chedu
le

1
6.Ref
erenc
es/Bi
bli
ogr
aphy

1
7.Appendi
x

1
.Thet
itl
eoft
heI
nves
tigat
ion
T
het
itl
eoft
her
esear
chs
hou
ldbewor
dedi
nsu
chawayt
hati
tgi
vess
uff
ici
enti
nfor
mat
ion
abou
tthenat
ureoft
hes
tudy
.Ins
elec
tingat
itl
efori
nves
tigat
iont
her
esear
chers
hou
ld
c
ons
idert
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts
:

T
het
itl
eshou
ldbeasexpl
i
citaspos
sibl
eandt
rans
par
ent
,

Noti
ncl
udeu
nsc
ient
ifi
c,ar
gument
ati
ve,emot
ionalorbi
asedt
ermsi
nnat
ure,

T
het
itl
eshou
ldn’
tbet
ool
engt
hy:I
tshou
ldbes
pec
ifi
ctot
hear
eaofs
tudy
.Forexampl
e
t
hef
oll
owi
ngt
opi
cappear
stobel
ong.“
Ast
udyofac
ademi
cac
hievementofc
hil
dreni
n
pas
tor
alr
egi
onswhos
epar
ent
shadpar
tic
ipat
edl
i
ter
acyc
las
sesagai
nstt
hos
ewhos
e
par
ent
sdi
dn’
t”

T
he t
itl
eshou
ldn’
tbe t
oo br
iefort
oo s
hor
t:T
he f
oll
owi
ng s
ent
enc
eist
oo s
hor
t
“
Mar
ket
ingi
nJapan”or“
Unempl
oymenti
nEt
hiopi
a”.

T
het
itl
eofar
esear
chpr
opos
als
hou
lds
tat
eyou
rtopi
cexac
tlyi
nthes
mal
l
estpos
sibl
e

2
5
 nu
mberofwor
ds.

P
uty
ourname,t
he name of y
ourdepar
tment
/fac
ult
y/c
oll
ege,t
he name of y
our
advi
sor
(s)anddat
eofdel
i
ver
yundert
het
itl
e.

2
.Abst
rac
t/Exec
uti
veS
ummar
y

Abs
trac
t/Exec
uti
veS
ummar
yisas
ummar
y,whi
chr
efl
ect
sthewhol
econt
entoft
hepr
opos
al
(
mos
toft
het
imel
esst
han3
00wor
ds).Abs
trac
tshou
ldbec
onc
ise,i
nfor
mat
iveands
hou
ld
pr
ovi
debr
iefi
nfor
mat
ionabou
tthewhol
epr
obl
em t
obei
nves
tigat
ed.

Al
l
owsabu
symanagerors
pons
ort
ounder
standqu
ickl
ythet
hru
stoft
hepr
opos
al.

I
tises
sent
ial
l
yan i
nfor
mat
iveabs
trac
t,gi
ving exec
uti
vest
hec
hanc
eto gr
aspt
he
es
sent
ial
soft
hepr
opos
alwi
thou
thavi
ngt
oreadt
hedet
ail
s.

T
hegoaloft
hes
ummar
yist
osec
ureapos
iti
veeval
uat
ionbyt
heexec
uti
vewhowi
l
lpas
s
t
hepr
opos
alont
othes
taf
fforaf
ulleval
uat
ion.

T
heabs
trac
tofapr
opos
als
hou
ldc
ont
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts
:

T
itl
eort
opi
coft
her
esear
ch

S
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em andobj
ect
ive

Met
hodol
ogyofi
nves
tigat
ion

Expec
tedr
esu
lt(
tent
ati
veonl
yifar
esear
chers
tar
tswi
thaf
ormu
lat
edhy
pot
hes
is.

3
.Bac
kgr
oundoft
hes
tudy

T
hiss
ect
ioni
nres
ear
chpr
opos
als
hou
ldgi
vet
hegener
albac
kgr
oundoft
hes
tudyandneedf
or
2
6
u
nder
taki
ngt
hes
tudy
.Itr
evi
ewst
hepr
evi
ouswor
ktor
evealwhati
sknownont
hes
ubj
ect
.The
i
ntr
odu
cti
ons
hou
ldaddr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngpoi
nts
:

S
uff
ici
entbac
kgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ion t
oal
l
ow t
her
eadert
ounder
standt
hec
ont
extand
s
igni
fi
canc
eoft
hequ
est
iony
ouar
etr
yingt
oaddr
ess
.

P
roperac
knowl
edgementoft
hepr
evi
ouswor
konwhi
chy
ouar
ebu
il
ding.

S
omequ
est
ionst
obeaddr
ess
edi
nthi
spar
tmayi
ncl
ude:
Whatar
ecu
rrentandpr
evi
ouss
tudi
est
hathavebeenmadeont
hei
ssu
est
obes
tudi
ed?

Whati
sthepr
esentgapi
nknowl
edgeandc
urr
entt
rend?

Whatmakeswor
ths
tudy
ing?

Whyhast
hepr
obl
em notbeens
olvedy
et?

Whatdowei
ntendt
ofi
l
lthegapors
olvet
hepr
obl
em?

4.Rat
ional
eandPr
obl
em S
tat
ement

S
tat
ementof t
he pr
obl
em el
abor
ates abou
tthe pr
obl
em u
nderi
nves
tigat
ion. I
tis an
ex
planat
ionoft
het
itl
e.I
tal
soat
tempt
stof
ocu
sonac
leargoal
.Mor
espec
ifi
cal
l
y,s
tat
ement
oft
hepr
obl
em i
star
get
edt
owar
dss
tat
ingt
hebac
kgr
oundf
act
swhi
chj
ust
ifyt
hes
tudyt
obei
n
or
deranddevel
opi
nghy
pot
hes
esorkeyqu
est
ions
,whi
chmays
how t
hedi
rec
tionoft
hewhol
e
ex
erc
ise.
Probl
emsc
anbeder
ivedf
rom t
heor
y,pr
iorr
esear
chr
esu
lts
,orper
sonalobs
ervat
ion
andexper
ienc
e.Ont
heot
herhand,i
tcanbei
dent
ifi
edvi
adi
scu
ssi
onwi
tht
hedec
isi
onmaker
s,
i
nter
viewswi
thi
ndu
str
yexper
tsandanal
ysi
sofs
econdar
ydat
a.I
tcanbeei
theri
nthef
orm of
qu
est
ionsorasadec
lar
ati
ves
tat
eme
nt.S
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em enc
aps
ulat
est
hequ
est
ion
y
ouar
etr
yingt
oans
wer
.Ef
fec
tivepr
obl
em s
tat
ement
sans
wert
hequ
est
ion“
Whydoest
his
r
esear
chneedt
obec
ondu
cted.
”

5
.Researc
hQu
est
ions
/Res
ear
chhy
pot
hes
is
Re
sear
chqu
est
ioni
sac
lears
tat
ementi
nthef
orm ofaqu
est
ionoft
hes
pec
ifi
cis
suet
hata
r
esear
cherwi
shest
oans
weri
nor
dert
oaddr
essar
esear
chpr
obl
em.Ar
esear
chpr
obl
em i
san

2
7
i
ssu
ethatl
endsi
tsel
ftos
yst
emat
ici
nves
tigat
iont
hrou
ghr
esear
ch.Ahy
pot
hes
isi
sat
ent
ati
ve
gener
ali
zat
ion,t
heval
i
dit
yofwhi
chhast
obet
est
ed.
Ahy
pot
hes
is,ati
tsi
nit
ials
tage,maybeani
magi
nedi
deaormer
egu
ess
.Iti
sbas
edont
he
ac
cumu
lat
edpr
evi
ousknowl
edge.I
tismadei
nor
dert
ofi
ndou
tthec
orr
ectexpl
anat
ionofa
phenomenont
hrou
ghi
nves
tigat
ion.Ont
hebas
isoft
hehy
pot
hes
is,f
act
sar
eobs
ervedand
c
oll
ect
ed,whenbyver
ifi
cat
ion,t
hehy
pot
hes
isi
sfou
ndt
obet
rue,at
heor
yisobt
ained.S
ome
r
esear
cher
scons
iderhy
pot
hes
isasu
nnec
ess
arywhi
l
esome ot
her
scons
ideri
tmandat
ory
.
However
,hy
pot
hes
isi
smor
erel
atedt
oar
esear
chpr
obl
em evenmor
ethanr
esear
chobj
ect
ives
.
Re
sear
chpr
obl
em andhy
pot
hes
isar
etwos
idesofac
oin.

6
.Obj
ect
ivesoft
heS
tudy
I
nthi
ssec
tiont
hes
pec
ifi
cac
tivi
ti
est
obeper
for
medar
eli
sted.
Thi
sist
hes
tageofr
ephr
asi
ng
t
hepr
obl
em i
ntooper
ati
onaloranal
yti
calt
ermsi
.e.t
opu
tthepr
obl
em i
nass
pec
ifi
cter
msas
pos
sibl
e.T
hegener
alobj
ect
ivepr
ovi
desas
hor
tst
atementoft
hes
pec
ifi
cgoal
spu
rsu
edbyt
he
r
esear
ch;i
tiss
tat
edi
nas
ingl
epar
agr
aphwhi
l
ethes
pec
ifi
cobj
ect
ivesar
egi
veni
nthef
orm of
l
i
st.T
hel
att
eri
soper
ati
onali
n nat
ure.I
tindi
cat
est
het
ypeofknowl
edget
obepr
odu
ced
au
dienc
est
ober
eac
hed.Mor
eover
,theobj
ect
ivesofar
esear
chpr
ojec
tsu
mmar
izewhati
sto
beac
hievedbyt
hes
tudy
.Obj
ect
ivess
hou
ldbec
los
elyr
elat
edt
othes
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em.

Gener
all
ythi
ssec
tions
hou
ldf
ocu
sont
hepoi
nts
:
Whati
sto beac
hieved byt
hepr
opos
edi
nves
tigat
ion hast
o bes
tat
ed pl
ainl
yand
c
onc
isel
y.

S
hou
ldbet
othepoi
ntandl
ogi
cal
l
yar
ranged

S
hou
ldbes
tat
edi
naf
orm whi
chs
howst
her
elat
ionsbet
weenvar
iabl
es

Mu
stc
lear
lys
tat
ethet
argetoft
her
esear
chac
tivi
ty,i
.e.
,whatki
nd ofr
esu
ltsar
e
expec
tedors
oughtf
rom c
ondu
cti
ngr
esear
ch.

7
.Li
ter
atu
reRevi
ew

L
iter
atu
rer
evi
ew meansl
ocat
ing l
i
ter
atu
rei
n avar
iet
yofs
our
cesr
eadi
ng i
tcar
efu
ll
yand
t
hor
oughl
yor
gani
zi
ngi
tint
othemesal
ongwi
tht
hel
i
neofi
nves
tigat
ion.T
het
heor
eti
caland
empi
ri
calf
ramewor
k,f
rom whi
cht
hepr
obl
em ar
ises
,mu
stbebr
ief
lydes
cri
bed.A br
ief
s
ummar
yofr
elat
eds
tudi
esf
oundi
njou
rnal
s,magaz
ines
,abs
trac
tsandr
epor
tss
hou
ldbe
made.Revi
ewofr
elat
edl
i
ter
atu
re,pr
ovi
desabr
iefover
viewoft
hel
i
ter
atu
reandt
her
esear
ch
28
doneandt
hegapst
hatt
hepr
opos
edr
esear
chi
ntendst
ofi
l
l.I
ntheot
herhand,i
tpr
ovi
des
evi
denc
ethatt
her
esear
cheri
sfami
l
iarwi
thwhati
sal
readyknownandal
sowhati
sunknown
oru
npr
oved.T
heanal
ysi
sofpr
evi
ousr
esear
chel
i
minat
est
hepos
sibi
l
ityofdu
pli
cat
ionofwhat
hasbeendone,ands
erveasabas
isf
orf
ormu
lat
inghy
pot
hes
is.

I
nsear
chi
ngr
elat
edl
i
ter
atu
re,t
her
ese
arc
hers
hou
ldnot
ecer
tai
nimpor
tantel
ement
s:
Repor
tsofs
tudi
esofc
los
elyr
elat
edpr
obl
ems

Des
ignoft
hes
tudy
,inc
ludi
ngpr
ocedu
res

Empl
oyedanddat
agat
her
ingi
nst
rument
sus
ed

P
opu
lat
ionst
hatwer
esampl
edands
ampl
i
ngmet
hodsempl
oyed

Var
iabl
est
hatwer
edef
ined

Ext
raneou
svar
iabl
est
hatc
oul
dhaveaf
fec
tedt
hef
indi
ngs

F
aul
tst
hatc
oul
dhavebeenavoi
ded

Howt
oor
gani
zeal
i
ter
atu
rer
evi
ew
I
ntr
odu
cti
on:def
inet
het
opi
c,t
oget
herwi
thy
ourr
eas
onf
ors
elec
tingt
het
opi
c.
Body
:thi
siswher
eyoudi
scu
ssy
ours
our
ces
.
C
onc
lus
ion:s
ummar
izet
hemaj
orc
ont
ribu
tions
,eval
uat
ing t
hec
urr
entpos
iti
on,and
poi
nti
ngou
tfl
awsi
nmet
hodol
ogy
,gapsi
nther
esear
ch,c
ont
radi
cti
ons
,andar
easf
or
f
urt
hers
tudy
.
8
.Si
gni
fi
canc
eoft
heS
tudy
T
his par
t of t
he pr
opos
als
hou
ldi
ndi
cat
ethe s
igni
fi
canc
e,j
ust
ifi
cat
ion, i
mpor
tanc
e,and
t
hei
ntendedou
tcomesoft
hepr
opos
eds
tudy
.Ther
ear
ethr
eegener
alar
easf
ort
hes
igni
fi
canc
e
and c
ont
ribu
tion of a s
tudy
:to knowl
edge i
nthe ar
ea,t
o pol
i
cyc
ons
ider
ati
onsand t
o
pr
act
iti
oner
s.
Whent
hinki
ngabou
tthes
igni
fi
canc
eofy
ours
tudy
,as
kyou
rsel
fthef
oll
owi
ngqu
est
ions
.
Whatwi
l
lres
ult
smeant
othet
heor
eti
calf
ramewor
kthatf
ramedt
hes
tudy
?
Whats
ugges
tionsf
ors
ubs
equ
entr
esear
char
isef
rom t
hef
indi
ngs
?
Whatwi
l
lther
esu
ltsmeant
othepr
act
ici
ngedu
cat
or?
Wi
l
lres
ult
sinf
luenc
epr
ogr
ams
,met
hods
,and/ori
nter
vent
ions
?
Wi
l
lres
ult
scont
ribu
tet
othes
olu
tionofedu
cat
ionalpr
obl
ems
?
Wi
l
lres
ult
sinf
luenc
eedu
cat
ionalpol
i
cyde
cis
ions
?
2
9
 Whatwi
l
lbei
mpr
ovedorc
hangedasar
esu
ltoft
hepr
opos
edr
esear
ch?
Howwi
l
lres
ult
soft
hes
tudybei
mpl
ement
ed,andwhati
nnovat
ionswi
l
lcomeabou
t?

9.Defi
nit
ionoft
heT
ermsorC
onc
ept
s(opt
ional
)
T
het
echni
calt
ermsorwor
dsandphr
aseshavi
ngs
pec
ialmeani
ngneedt
obedef
ined
ope
rat
ional
l
ybyt
hehel
pofs
pec
ialdi
cti
onar
ies

1
0.Del
i
mit
ati
on/S
copeoft
hes
tudy
De
li
mit
ati
onoft
hes
tudy
addr
ess
eshow as
tudywi
l
lbenar
rowedi
nsc
ope,t
hati
s,how i
tis
bou
nded.T
hisi
sthepl
acet
oexpl
aint
het
hingst
haty
ouar
enotdoi
ngandwhyy
ouhavec
hos
en
nott
odot
hem—t
hel
i
ter
atu
rey
ouwi
l
lnotr
evi
ew (
andwhynot
),t
hepopu
lat
iony
ouar
enot
s
tudy
ing(
andwhynot
),t
hemet
hodol
ogi
calpr
ocedu
resy
ouwi
l
lnotu
se(
andwhyy
ouwi
l
lnot
u
set
hem).L
imi
tyou
rdel
i
mit
ati
onst
othet
hingst
hatar
eadermi
ghtr
eas
onabl
yex
pec
tyout
o
dobu
tthaty
ou,f
orc
lear
lyexpl
aine
dreas
ons
,havedec
idednott
odo.
Gener
all
y,i
tinc
ludes
pe
riodoft
ime,s
ubj
ect
,geogr
aphi
cpl
aceoft
hes
ubj
ect
,di
sci
pli
nesi
nvol
ved,s
ampl
i
ng,andu
nit
ofanal
ysi
s.
1
1.Res
ear
chDes
ignandMet
hodol
ogy
I
nthi
ssec
tiont
hedet
ail
sabou
tsampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
res
,thedat
acol
l
ect
ingt
ool
s,andanal
ysi
sar
e
des
cri
bed.

Res
ear
ch Des
ign:T
he r
esear
ch des
ign t
o be adopt
ed,i
n br
oad t
ermsc
las
sif
ied as
expl
orat
ory
,des
cri
pti
veorc
aus
al,s
hou
ldbes
pec
ifi
ed.Bey
onds
uchabr
oadc
las
sif
icat
ion
s
hou
ldbedet
ail
soft
hei
ndi
vidu
alt
echni
quest
hatwi
l
lbeadopt
edandhowt
heywi
l
lunf
old
and c
onnec
tto eac
hot
her
.Thi
smeanst
hatt
her
eaderwi
l
lcl
ear
lys
eemet
hodsof
c
oll
ect
ing t
hedes
ireddat
a,j
ust
ifi
cat
ion f
ort
hes
emet
hods
,andas
ampl
i
ng pl
an t
o
i
ncl
ude det
ail
sofs
ampl
esi
ze(
s).T
hisappl
i
est
o bot
h qu
ant
itat
ive and qu
ali
tat
ive
appr
oac
hes
.

Popu
lat
ionandS
ampl
i
ngt
echni
ques
:
 Popu
lat
ion:I
nthi
spar
tofr
esear
chpr
opos
al,t
her
esear
chers
hou
lds
tat
etheamou
nt,
t
henat
ureandt
ypesofr
espondent
sinvol
vedi
nthes
tudy
.Ju
sti
fi
cat
ionofhi
s/her
c
hoi
ceofapar
tic
ulart
argetpopu
lat
ioni
srel
evanther
e.S
ampl
esi
ze:
ther
esear
che
r
of
tenc
omesac
ros
sunmanageabl
esi
zeofpopu
lat
ioni
nwhi
chc
asehe/s
hemaybe

3
0
 c
ompel
l
edt
odet
ermi
ner
epr
esent
ati
ves
ampl
esi
ze.
Thes
ampl
esi
zedet
ermi
nat
ioni
s
pu
rel
yst
ati
sti
calac
tivi
ty,whi
chneedss
tat
ist
icalknowl
edge.
Thu
s;t
her
esear
chers
hou
ld
det
ermi
nehi
s/hers
ampl
esi
zebas
edons
tat
ist
icalf
ormu
laormodel
.
S
ampl
i
ng t
echni
ques
:Sampl
i
ng i
sthepr
oces
sofs
elec
ting a s
ampl
esi
zef
rom a
def
ineds
tudypopu
lat
ion.
Ther
esear
cherpr
opos
alhast
ospec
ifyt
heel
ement
sfr
om
whi
cht
hedes
iredi
nfor
mat
ioni
scol
l
ect
edandhow t
hes
eel
ement
sar
esel
ect
ed.
Ther
e
ar
edi
ffer
ents
ampl
i
ngt
echni
ques(
probabi
l
ityandnonpr
obabi
l
ity
).
P
robabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngmet
hodsi
ncl
u S
des(impl
eRandom S
ampl
i
ng,S
yst
emat
ic
S
ampl
i
ng,C
lus
ters
ampl
i
ng,andS
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng),wher
easnonpr
obabi
l
ity
s
ampl
i
ngmet
hodsi
ncl
u C
des(onveni
enc
esampl
i
ng,J
udgments
ampl
i
ng,
Ref
err
als
ampl
i
ng,andQu
otas
ampl
i
ng).T
her
esear
cheri
sexpec
tedt
ocons
ideral
lof
t
hem ands
elec
ttheone,whi
chi
sappr
opr
iat
eforhi
scu
rrents
tudy
.Ju
sti
fi
cat
ionofhi
s
c
hoi
ceofapar
tic
ulars
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
srel
evanther
e.

Dat
aTy
peandS
our
ces
:Int
hiss
ect
ion,t
het
ypeofdat
arequ
iredt
oat
tac
kthepr
obl
em i
s
expl
ained.I
nthi
scas
e,t
her
esear
cherc
anu
sepr
imar
ydat
a,s
econdar
ydat
aorbot
hdat
a
t
ypes
.Thes
our
ceoft
hedat
ashou
ldal
sobes
pec
ifi
ed,t
hati
sther
esear
chers
hou
lds
tat
e
f
romwhom andwher
ethos
edat
aty
peswi
l
lbec
oll
ect
ed.

Met
hods of Dat
aCol
l
ect
ion/Dat
aCol
l
ect
ion T
ool
s:
Ther
e ar
e di
ffer
entpr
imar
y dat
a
c
oll
ect
ionmet
hods
.They ar
e(Qu
est
ionnai
re, I
nter
view, Obs
ervat
ion, Foc
us gr
oup
di
scu
ssi
on).Ac
cor
dingl
y,t
her
esear
cherhast
odevel
opappr
opr
iat
eandr
eli
abl
etool
sor
i
nst
rument
sandf
ull
yawar
eoft
hei
rmer
itsanddemer
its
.Thu
s,t
her
esear
cherpr
opos
al
s
hou
ldexpl
ainandj
ust
ifyhow hi
s/hers
elec
tionofapar
tic
ularmet
hodi
srel
evantand
appr
opr
iat
etohi
sst
udy
.

Dat
aAnal
ysi
sMet
hods
:Int
hiss
ect
ion,onc
ethedat
aisc
oll
ect
edt
her
esear
chers
hou
ld
des
cri
be how t
o or
gani
ze,anal
yze,and i
nter
pretdat
a.T
he det
ail
s of s
tat
ist
ical
t
echni
quess
hou
ld be des
cri
bedi
nthe r
esear
ch pr
opos
al.T
he i
mpor
tants
tat
ist
ical
meas
ures
thatar
eus
edt
osu
mmar
izet
hes
urvey
/res
ear
chdat
aar
e:
 Meas
uresofc
ent
ralt
endenc
yors
tat
ist
icalaver
ages
(mean,medi
an,mode)
 Meas
uresofdi
sper
sion(r
ange,me
andevi
ati
on,ands
tandar
ddevi
ati
on)
 Meas
uresofas
ymmet
ry(
skewnes
s);

3
1
  Meas
uresofr
elat
ions
hip(
cor
rel
ati
on,s
impl
eormu
lti
pler
egr
ess
ions
,ti
mes
eri
es
orl
i
nerpr
ogr
ammi
ngmodel
s).
 Ot
hermet
hods
1
2.L
imi
tat
ionoft
heS
tudy
Al
thou
ghar
esear
chert
rieshi
s/herbes
ttodes
ignhi
s/herr
esear
chaspr
oper
lyaspos
sibl
e,
t
her
ear
eext
ernal
s(u
ncont
rol
l
ed)var
iabl
est
hatc
onf
ronthi
s/heri
nves
tigat
ionandaf
fec
t
hi
s/herc
onc
lus
ion.Al
lres
ear
chpr
ojec
tshavel
i
mit
ati
onsc
aus
edbyavai
l
abi
l
ityofr
ightdat
a,
l
ackofu
ptodat
eli
ter
atu
re,l
ackofc
ooper
ati
on,weaknes
sofmet
hodol
ogy
,ti
me,bu
dget
,
s
sec
uri
ngper
mis
sionf
rom t
heagenc
y/or
gani
zat
iont
ocar
ryou
tthes
tudy
,obt
aini
ngt
he
s
ampl
eandot
heror
gani
zat
ionalc
ons
trai
nts
.Inhi
s/herr
esear
chpr
opos
al,t
her
esear
cher
hast
ospec
ifys
uchf
act
orst
hathi
ndert
heat
tai
nmentofhi
s/herobj
ect
ives
.Su
ch
ant
ici
pat
edr
est
ric
tionsar
eref
err
edasl
i
mit
ati
onsoft
hes
tudy
.Thi
ssec
tions
hou
ldbe
wr
itt
enwi
thgr
eat
car
eandabal
anc
edper
spec
tive.Ont
heot
herhand,
thi
ssec
tions
hou
ld
noter
odet
hei
rconf
idenc
eint
her
esear
choru
ndu
lymi
nimi
zei
tsi
mpor
tanc
e.

1
3.Or
gani
zat
ionoft
hes
tudy
T
hiss
ect
ionexpl
ainst
hec
ompos
iti
onofeac
huni
tint
her
esear
ch.

1
4.Wor
kPl
an(
Budgetoft
ime)
Wor
kpl
ani
sas
chedu
le,c
har
torgr
apht
hats
ummar
izest
hedi
ffer
entc
omponent
sofa
r
esear
chpr
opos
alandhow t
heywi
l
lbei
mpl
ement
ed.I
tisapl
ani
nter
msofnu
mberof
weeksormont
hsandexpec
tedc
ompl
eti
ondat
es.C
ommonl
yres
ear
cherpr
ese
ntsi
tina
t
abl
efor
m.
I
nthewor
kpl
an:
Di
ffer
entc
omponent
s/phas
es/s
tagesoft
hes
tudys
hou
ldbes
tat
ed
Des
cri
pti
onofac
tivi
ti
esi
neac
hphas
e
T
ime r
equ
ired t
o ac
compl
i
sht
he var
iou
sas
pec
tsoft
he s
tudy s
hou
ld al
so be
i
ndi
cat
ed
T
heGant
tchar
t
AGant
tchar
tisapl
anni
ngt
oolt
hatdepi
ctsgr
aphi
cal
l
ytheor
deri
nwhi
chvar
iou
stas
ks
mu
stbec
ompl
etedandt
hedu
rat
ionofeac
hac
tivi
ty.
T
heGant
tchar
tindi
cat
es:

T
het
askst
obeper
for
med;

3
2
 Whoi
sres
pons
ibl
eforeac
htas
k;and

T
het
imeeac
htas
kisexpec
tedt
otake.

1
5.C
ostBu
dgetandF
undi
ng
Mos
tpr
opos
alspu
ttoget
herwi
tht
heexpec
tat
iont
hatf
undi
ngbenec
ess
aryandan
i
temi
zedl
i
stofi
temsneededt
ocar
ryou
tther
esear
chi
sli
stedi
nsomedet
ail
.Bu
dget
i
temsneedt
obequ
ant
itat
ivel
yst
ated.T
hes
ear
eit
emsl
i
ke:

F
iel
dexpens
esf
ordat
acol
l
ect
ion(
Sal
ari
esandwages
),
C
ons
umabl
esu
ppl
i
esexpens
e,
Equ
ipment
sexpens
e,
T
ravelorT
rans
por
tat
ionex
pens
es,
C
ommu
nic
ati
onexpens
e,
P
ubl
i
cat
ionexpens
e,
As
um ofmoneyf
orc
ont
ingenc
ieset
c
1
6.Ref
erenc
es/Bi
bli
ogr
aphy
T
hisi
sas
ect
ionwher
eal
i
stofbooks
,jou
rnal
sandot
herdoc
ument
sisr
efer
red.T
her
esear
cher
s
hou
ldl
i
stal
lref
erenc
emat
eri
alt
hathehasu
sedi
nsel
ect
ingt
hepr
obl
em andwhi
chhemayu
se
du
ringt
hec
ondu
ctoft
hes
tudy
.Al
lwor
ksc
itedi
nthepr
opos
alar
eli
stedei
theral
phabet
ical
l
yor
nu
mer
ical
l
y at t
he end of t
he doc
ument u
sual
l
yunder t
he headi
ng of “
Ref
erenc
es or
Bi
bli
ogr
aphy
”.
T
her
ear
esever
alway
sofmaki
ngc
itat
ionandr
ecor
dingr
efer
enc
esl
i
keAmer
icanP
syc
hol
ogi
st
as
soc
iat
ions
tyl
e(AP
A),Har
var
dsy
ste
m/s
tyl
eandVanc
ouvers
yst
em/s
tyl
e.

A)F
oraj
our
nalpapergi
ve:
 T
henamesoft
heau
thor
s,
 T
hey
earofpu
bli
cat
ion,
 T
het
itl
eoft
hepaper
,
 T
het
itl
eoft
hej
our
nal
,
 T
hevol
umenu
mberoft
hej
our
nal
,
 T
hef
irs
tandl
astpagenu
mber
soft
hepaper
.
Exampl
e:
 Andr
eas
en,A.
R.(
2002
).Mar
ket
ings
oci
almar
ket
ingi
nthes
oci
alc
hangemar
ket
3
3
 pl
ac J
e.ou
rnalofPu
bli
cPol
i
cyandMar
ket
ing,2
1,3
-13
.
B)F
orabookgi
ve:

 T
heau
thor
,

 T
hey
earofpu
bli
cat
ion,
 T
het
itl
e,andt
heedi
ti
onnu
mberi
fther
eisone,
 T
henameoft
hepu
bli
sher
,
Exampl
e:
 Kot
ler
,P.
,Rober
to,N.
,andL
ee,N.(
2 ).S
002 oci
alMar
ket
ing:I
mpr
ovi
ngt
heQu
ali
ty of
nd
L
ife(
2 Ed.
).T
hou
sandOaks
,CA:S
ageP
ubl
i
cat
ion.
C
)Forani
nter
netr
efer
enc
egi
ve:
 T
heau
thoroft
hewebpage,
 T
het
itl
eoft
hei
tem ont
hewebpage,
 T
hedat
ethei
tem waspos
tedont
hewebpage
 T
hedat
ethei
tem wasac
ces
sedf
rom t
hewebpage
 T
hec
ompl
eteandexac
tURL
.
Exampl
e:
UNF
PA,F
ami
l
yPl
anni
ngandt
heEnvi
ronment
:St
abi
l
izi
ngpopu
lat
ionwou
ldhel
psu
stai
n t
he
pl
anet
.NewYor
k:UNF
PA;2
008
.Avai
l
abl
eat
ht
tp:
//www.
unf
pa.
org/r
h/pl
anni
ng/medi
aki
t/doc
s/s
heet
3.pdf
.Ac
ces
sedon1
5 J
anu
ary2
010at
3
:35
.
1
7.Appendi
ces(
Annex)

I
tisnotmandat
oryt
ohavet
hiss
ect
ion.I
fther
esear
chert
hinkst
hathavi
ngt
hiss
ect
ionwi
l
l
i
ncr
eas
ethequ
ali
tyoft
her
esear
chpr
opos
als
/hei
sfr
eet
odos
o.I
nfor
mat
iont
ypespr
ovi
dedi
n
t
hiss
ect
ionar
ethos
eaddi
ti
onaldet
ail
s,whi
char
edi
ffi
cul
ttoac
commodat
ewi
thi
nthes
tandar
d
headi
ngs
.

S
tuf
fst
obei
ncl
udedi
nappendi
x:

 Det
ailqu
est
ionnai
resandi
nter
views
chedu
les

 Det
ail
edexper
iment
aldes
ign(i
nexper
iment
alr
esear
ch)

 Det
ail
eds
tat
ist
icalpr
ocedu
res
  S
ampl
esofr
esear
chmat
eri
als
(chemi
calands
omebi
ologi
calmat
eri
als
)

 S
urveyandot
hergeogr
aphi
cmaps

C
HAPT
ERF
OUR
RES
EARC
HDES
IGN
4.
1Meani
ngofRes
ear
chDes
ign

Re
sear
chdes
igni
sthepl
an,s
tru
ctu
reands
trat
egyofi
nves
tigat
ionc
onc
eiveds
oast
oobt
ain
ans
wer
stor
esear
chqu
est
ionsandt
ocont
rolvar
ianc
e.I
tinc
ludesanou
tli
neofever
ythi
ngt
he
r
esear
cherwi
l
ldoi
ncl
udi
ngwhatobs
ervat
ionst
omake,how t
omaket
hem,andwhatt
ypeof
s
tat
ist
icalanal
ysi
stou
se.Ar
esear
chdes
ign,i
naway
,isas
etofi
nst
ruc
tionst
other
esear
che
r
onhow t
oar
ranget
hec
ondi
ti
onsf
orc
oll
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
ainamanne
rthatwi
l
l
ac
hievet
heobj
ect
ivesoft
hes
tudy
.Inas
ens
e,i
tcanbet
akenasac
ont
rolmec
hani
sm.

T
he f
ormi
dabl
e pr
obl
em t
hatf
oll
ows t
he t
ask of def
ini
ng t
he r
esear
ch pr
obl
em i
sthe
pr
epar
ati
onoft
hedes
ignoft
her
esear
chpr
ojec
t,popu
lar
lyknownast
he“
res
ear
chdes
ign”
.
De
cis
ionsr
egar
dingwhat
,wher
e,whe
n,how mu
ch,bywhatmeansc
onc
erni
ngani
nqu
iryora
r
esear
chs
tudy c
ons
tit
utea r
esear
ch des
ign.“
Ares
ear
ch des
ign i
sthe ar
rangementof
c
ondi
ti
onsf
orc
oll
ect
ionandanal
ysi
sofdat
ainamannert
hatai
mst
ocombi
ner
elevanc
eto
t
her
esear
chpu
rpos
ewi
thec
onomyi
npr
ocedu
re.
”Inf
act
,ther
esear
chdes
igni
sthec
onc
ept
ual
s
tru
ctu
rewi
thi
n whi
chr
esear
chi
scondu
cted;i
tcons
tit
utest
hebl
uepr
intf
ort
hec
oll
ect
ion,
meas
urementand anal
ysi
sof dat
a.Ass
ucht
he des
ign i
ncl
udesan ou
tli
ne ofwhatt
he
r
esear
cherwi
l
ldof
rom wr
iti
ngt
hehy
pot
hes
isandi
tsoper
ati
onali
mpl
i
cat
ionst
othef
inal
anal
ysi
sofdat
a. Mor
eover
,res
ear
chdes
igni
sas
etofadvanc
edec
isi
onst
hatmakeu
pthe
mas
terpl
ans
pec
ify
ingt
hemet
hodsandpr
ocedu
resf
orc
oll
ect
ingandanal
yzi
ngt
heneeded
i
nfor
mat
ion.

4.
2TheS
igni
fi
cantofRes
ear
chDes
ign

T
her
ear
ereas
onst
oju
sti
fyt
hes
igni
fi
cantpl
ayedu
ponr
esear
chdes
ign.F
irs
t,al
thou
ghever
y
r
esear
ch pr
obl
em may s
eem t
otal
l
yuni
que,t
her
e ar
eus
ual
l
y enou
gh s
imi
l
ari
ti
es among
r
esear
chpr
obl
emst
oal
l
owu
stomakes
omedec
isi
ons
,inadvanc
e,ast
othebes
tpl
ant
ous
eto
r
esol
vet
hepr
obl
em.T
hus
,itf
aci
l
itat
est
hes
moot
hsai
l
ingoft
hevar
iou
sres
ear
choper
ati
ons
,
t
her
ebymaki
ngr
esear
chasef
fic
ientaspos
sibl
eyi
el
dingmaxi
mali
nfor
mat
ionwi
thmi
nimal
ex
pendi
tur
eofef
for
t,t
imeandmoney
.Sec
ond,t
her
ear
esomebas
icbu
sines
sres
ear
chdes
igns
t
hatc
an bes
ucc
ess
ful
l
ymat
ched t
o gi
ven r
esear
chpr
obl
ems
.Int
hisway
,theys
ervet
he
r
esear
chermu
chl
i
ket
hebl
uepr
ints
ervest
hebu
il
der
.Int
hisr
egar
d,r
esear
chdes
igns
tandsf
or
advanc
epl
anni
ng oft
hemet
hodst
o beadopt
edf
orc
oll
ect
ing t
her
elevantdat
a and t
he
t
echni
quest
obeu
sedi
nthei
ranal
ysi
s,keepi
ngi
nvi
ew t
heobj
ect
iveoft
her
esear
chandt
he
avai
l
abi
l
ityofs
taf
f,t
imeandmoney
.

T
hemai
npu
rpos
eofar
esear
chdes
igni
stoenabl
ether
esear
chert
oans
werr
esear
chqu
est
ions
asval
i
dly
,obj
ect
ivel
y,ac
cur
atel
yand ec
onomi
cal
l
yaspos
sibl
e.I
n mor
espec
ifi
cter
ms,a
r
esear
chdes
igns
etsu
pthef
ramewor
kforade
quat
etes
tsofr
elat
ions
hipsamongvar
iabl
es.I
n
as
ens
e,i
tindi
cat
eswhatobs
ervat
ionst
omake,how t
omaket
hem,andhow t
oanal
yzet
he
dat
aobt
aine
dfr
om obs
ervat
ions
.Mor
eover
,ades
igns
pec
ifi
eswhatt
ypeofs
tat
ist
icalanal
ysi
s
t
ous
eandc
an even s
ugges
tthepos
sibl
econc
lus
ionst
obedr
awn f
rom t
heanal
ysi
s.Any
r
esear
chpl
ani
sdel
i
ber
atel
yands
pec
ifi
cal
l
yconc
eivedandexec
utedt
obr
ingempi
ri
calevi
denc
e
t
obearont
her
esear
chpr
obl
em.

4.
3Impor
tantc
onc
ept
srel
ati
ngt
ores
ear
chdes
ign

Bef
oredes
cri
bingt
hedi
ffer
entr
esear
chdes
igns
,itwi
l
lbeappr
opr
iat
etoexpl
aint
hevar
iou
s
c
onc
ept
srel
ati
ngt
odes
ignss
othatt
hes
emaybebet
terandeas
il
yunder
stood.

1
.Dependentandi
ndependentvar
iabl
es:Ac
onc
eptwhi
chc
ant
akeondi
ffer
entqu
ant
itat
ive
val
uesi
scal
l
edavar
iabl
e.Ass
ucht
hec
onc
ept
sli
kewei
ght
,hei
ght
,inc
omear
eal
lexampl
esof
var
iabl
es.

I
fonevar
iabl
edependsu
ponori
sac
ons
equ
enc
eoft
heot
hervar
iabl
e,i
tist
ermedasa
dependentvar
iabl
e,andt
hevar
iabl
ethati
sant
ecedentt
othedependentvar
iabl
eist
ermedas
ani
ndependentvar
iabl
e.F
ori
nst
anc
e,i
fwes
ayt
hathei
ghtdependsu
ponage,t
henhei
ghti
sa
dependentvar
iabl
e and age i
san i
ndepende
ntvar
iabl
e.F
urt
her
,ifi
n addi
ti
on t
o bei
ng
dependentu
ponage,hei
ghtal
sodepe
ndsu
pont
hei
ndi
vidu
al’
ssex,t
henhei
ghti
sadependent
var
iabl
eandageands
exar
eindepe
ndentvar
iabl
es.S
imi
l
arl
y,r
eady
madef
il
msandl
ect
ures
ar
eexampl
esofi
ndependentvar
iabl
es,wher
easbehavi
our
alc
hanges
,oc
cur
ringasar
esu
ltof
t
heenvi
ronment
almani
pul
ati
ons
,ar
eexampl
esofdependentvar
iabl
es.

2
.Ext
raneou
svar
iabl
e:I
ndependentvar
iabl
est
hatar
enotr
elat
edt
othepu
rpos
eoft
hes
tudy
,
bu
tmayaf
fec
tthedependentvar
iabl
ear
eter
medasext
raneou
svar
iabl
es.A s
tudymu
st
al
way
sbes
odes
ignedt
hatt
heef
fec
tupont
hedependentvar
iabl
eisat
tri
but
edent
irel
ytot
he
i
ndependentvar
iabl
e(s
),andnott
osomeext
raneou
svar
iabl
eorvar
iabl
es.

3
.Cont
rol
:Onei
mpor
tantc
har
act
eri
sti
cofagoodr
esear
chdes
igni
stomi
nimi
zet
hei
nfl
uenc
e
oref
fec
tofext
raneou
svar
iabl
e(s
).T
het
echni
calt
erm ‘
cont
rol
’isu
sedwhenwedes
ignt
he
s
tudymi
nimi
zi
ngt
heef
fec
tsofext
raneou
sindependentvar
iabl
es.I
nexper
iment
alr
esear
ches
,
t
het
erm‘
cont
rol
’isu
sedt
oref
ert
ores
trai
nexper
iment
alc
ondi
ti
ons
.

4.C
onf
oundedr
elat
ions
hip:Whent
hedependentvar
iabl
eisnotf
reef
rom t
hei
nfl
uenc
eof
ex
traneou
svar
iabl
e(s
),t
her
elat
ions
hipbet
weent
hedependentandi
ndependentvar
iabl
esi
s
s
aidt
obec
onf
oundedbyanext
raneou
svar
iabl
e(s
).

5
.Res
ear
chhy
pot
hes
is:Whenapr
edi
cti
onorahy
pot
hes
izedr
elat
ions
hipi
stobet
est
edby
s
cient
ifi
cme
thods
,iti
ster
medasr
esear
chhy
pot
hes
is.T
her
esear
chhy
pot
hes
isi
sapr
edi
cti
ve
s
tat
ementt
hatr
elat
esani
ndepende
ntvar
iabl
etoadependentvar
iabl
e.Us
ual
l
yar
esear
ch
hy
pot
hes
ismu
stc
ont
ain,atl
eas
t,onei
ndepe
ndentandonedependentvar
iabl
e.P
redi
cti
ve
s
tat
ement
swhi
char
enott
obeobj
ect
ivel
yver
ifi
edort
her
elat
ions
hipst
hatar
eas
sumedbu
t
nott
obet
est
edar
enott
ermedr
esear
chhy
pot
hes
es.

4.
4Feat
uresofagooddes
ign

A good des
ign i
s of
ten c
har
act
eri
zed by adj
ect
ives l
i
ke f
lexi
ble,appr
opr
iat
e,ef
fic
ient
,
ec
onomi
calands
oon.Gener
all
y,t
hedes
ignwhi
chmi
nimi
zesbi
asandmaxi
miz
est
her
eli
abi
l
ity
oft
hedat
acol
l
ect
edandanal
yzedi
scons
ider
edagooddes
ign.T
hedes
ignwhi
chgi
vest
he
s
mal
l
estexper
iment
aler
rori
ssu
ppos
edt
obet
hebes
tdes
igni
nmanyi
nves
tigat
ions
.Si
mil
arl
y,
ades
ignwhi
chy
iel
dsmaxi
mali
nfor
mat
ionandpr
ovi
desanoppor
tuni
tyf
orc
ons
ide
ringmany
di
ffer
entas
pec
tsofapr
obl
em i
scons
ider
edmos
tappr
opr
iat
eandef
fic
ientdes
igni
nres
pec
t
ofmanyr
esear
chpr
obl
ems
.

T
hus
,thequ
est
ionofgooddes
igni
sre
lat
edt
othepu
rpos
eorobj
ect
iveoft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em
andal
sowi
tht
henat
ureoft
hepr
obl
em t
obes
tudi
ed.Ades
ignmaybequ
ites
uit
abl
einone
c
ase,bu
tmaybef
oundwant
ingi
noner
espec
tort
heot
heri
nthec
ont
extofs
omeot
her
r
esear
chpr
obl
em.Ones
ingl
edes
ignc
annots
ervet
hepu
rpos
eofal
lty
pesofr
esear
chpr
obl
ems
.

I
fther
esear
chs
tudyhappenst
obeanexpl
orat
oryoraf
ormu
lat
iveone,wher
eint
hemaj
or
emphas
isi
sondi
scover
yofi
deasandi
nsi
ght
s,t
her
esear
chdes
ignmos
tappr
opr
iat
emu
stbe
f
lex
ibl
eenou
ght
oper
mitt
hec
ons
ider
ati
onofmanydi
ffer
entas
pec
tsofaphenomenon.Bu
t
whent
hepu
rpos
eofas
tudyi
sac
cur
atedes
cri
pti
onofas
itu
ati
onorofanas
soc
iat
ionbet
ween
var
iabl
es (
or i
n what ar
ecal
l
ed t
he des
cri
pti
ve s
tudi
es), ac
cur
acy bec
omes a maj
or
c
ons
ider
ati
onandar
esear
chdes
ignwhi
chmi
nimi
zesbi
asandmaxi
miz
est
her
eli
abi
l
ityoft
he
evi
denc
ecol
l
ect
edi
scons
ider
edagooddes
ign.

S
tudi
esi
nvol
vingt
het
est
ingofahy
pot
hes
isofac
aus
alr
elat
ions
hipbet
weenvar
iabl
esr
equ
irea
des
ignwhi
chwi
l
lper
miti
nfer
enc
esabou
tcau
sal
i
tyi
naddi
ti
ont
othemi
nimi
zat
ionofbi
asand
maxi
miz
ati
onofr
eli
abi
l
ity
.Bu
tinpr
act
icei
tist
hemos
tdi
ffi
cul
ttas
ktopu
tapar
tic
ulars
tudyi
n
apar
tic
ulargr
oup,f
oragi
ven r
esear
chmayhavei
nitel
ement
soft
woormor
eoft
he
f
unc
tionsofdi
ffer
ents
tudi
es.I
tisonl
yont
hebas
isofi
tspr
imar
yfu
nct
iont
hatas
tudyc
anbe
c
ategor
izedei
therasanexpl
orat
oryordes
cri
pti
veorhy
pot
hes
is-
tes
tings
tudyandac
cor
dingl
y
t
hec
hoi
ceofa r
esear
ch des
ign maybemadei
ncas
eofa par
tic
ulars
tudy
.Bes
ides
,the
avai
l
abi
l
ityoft
ime,money
,ski
l
lsoft
her
esear
chs
taf
fand t
hemeansofobt
aini
ng t
he
i
nfor
mat
ionmu
stbegi
vendu
ewei
ght
agewhi
l
ewor
kingou
tther
elevantdet
ail
soft
her
esear
ch
des
ign.

4.
5Thr
eeT
ypesofRes
ear
chDes
ign

Re
sear
chdes
ignsar
ecl
ass
ifi
edi
ntot
hreemaj
orc
ategor
ies
:expl
orat
ory
,des
cri
pti
ve,andc
aus
al.
T
hec
hoi
ceoft
hemos
tappr
opr
iat
ede
signdepe
ndsl
argel
yupont
heobj
ect
iveoft
her
esear
ch.I
t
hasbeens
aidt
hatr
esear
chhast
hreeobj
ect
ives
:

T
odevel
ophy
pot
hes
is,

T
omeas
uret
hes
tat
eofavar
iabl
eofi
nter
est,

T
otes
thy
pot
hes
ist
hats
pec
ifyt
her
elat
ions
hipsbet
weent
woormor
e.

AC
aut
ion:Bef
oredi
scu
ssi
ngt
het
hre
ety
peofr
esear
chdes
igni
tisbet
tert
owar
nyouabou
t
t
hinki
ngofr
esear
chdes
igns
olel
yins
tep-
by-
stepf
ashi
on.S
omemayt
hinkt
hati
tisi
mpl
i
edi
n
t
he di
scu
ssi
on t
hatt
he or
deron whi
cht
he des
ignsar
e pr
esent
ed-t
hati
sexpl
orat
ory
,
de
scr
ipt
iveandc
aus
al-i
stheor
deri
n whi
cht
hes
esdes
ignss
hou
ldbec
arr
iedou
t.T
hisi
s
i
ncor
rec
t.

T
hreepoi
ntss
hou
ldbemader
elat
ivet
othei
nter
dependenc
yofr
esear
chdes
igns
.

F
irs
t,i
nsomec
ases
,itmaybeper
fec
tlyl
egi
ti
mat
etobegi
nanyoneoft
hreedes
ignsandt
o
u
seonl
ythatonedes
ign.

S
econd,r
esear
chi
san“
iter
ati
ve”pr
oces
s;byc
ondu
cti
ngoner
esear
chpr
ojec
t,wel
ear
nthat
wemayneedaddi
ti
onalr
esear
ch,ands
oon.T
hismaymeant
hatweneedt
out
il
iz
emu
lti
ple
r
esear
chdes
igns
.Wec
oul
dver
ywel
lfi
nd,f
orexampl
e,t
hataf
terc
ondu
cti
ngdes
cri
pti
ve
r
esear
ch,weneedt
ogobac
kandc
ondu
ctexpl
orat
oryr
esear
ch.

T
hir
d,i
fmu
lti
pledes
ignsar
eus
einanypar
tic
ularor
der(
ift
her
eisanor
der
),i
tmakess
ens
e
t
ofi
rstc
ondu
ctexpl
orat
oryr
esear
ch,t
hendes
cri
pti
ver
esear
ch,andf
inal
l
ycau
salr
esear
ch.
T
heonl
yreas
on f
ort
hisor
derpat
ter
nist
hateac
hsu
bsequ
entdes
ign r
equ
iresgr
eat
er
knowl
edgeabou
tther
esear
chpr
obl
em ont
hepar
toft
her
esear
cher
.Ther
efor
e,expl
orat
ory
maygi
veonet
hei
nfor
mat
ionneededt
ocondu
ctades
cri
pti
ves
tudywhi
ch,i
ntu
rn,may
pr
ovi
det
hei
nfor
mat
ionnec
ess
aryt
odes
ignc
aus
alexper
iment
.
1
.Expl
orat
oryRes
ear
ch:

Expl
orat
oryr
esear
chi
smos
tcommonl
yuns
tru
ctu
red,i
nfor
malr
esear
cht
hati
sunder
takent
o
gai
n bac
kgr
ound i
nfor
mat
ion abou
tthe ge
ner
alnat
ure of t
he r
esear
ch pr
obl
em.By
u
nst
ruc
tur
ed,wemeant
hatexpl
orat
oryr
esear
chdoesnothaveaf
ormal
i
zeds
etofobj
ect
ives
,
s
ampl
epl
an,orqu
est
ionnai
re.I
tisu
sual
l
ycondu
ctedwhent
her
esear
chdoesnotknow mu
ch
abou
tthepr
obl
em andneedsaddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ionordes
irenewormor
erec
enti
nfor
mat
ion.
Bec
aus
eexpl
orat
oryr
esear
chi
sai
medatgai
ningaddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ionabou
tat
opi
cand
gener
atepos
sibl
ehy
pot
hes
ist
otes
t,i
tisdes
cri
bedasi
nfor
mal
.Su
chr
esear
chmayc
ons
istof
goi
ngt
othel
i
brar
yandr
eadi
ngpu
bli
sheds
econdar
ydat
a;ofas
kingc
ust
omer
s,s
alesper
sons
,
andac
quai
ntanc
esf
ort
hei
ropi
nionsabou
tac
ompany
,it
spr
odu
cts
,ser
vic
es,pr
ices
;orof
s
impl
yobs
ervi
ngever
ydayc
ompanypr
act
ices
.Expl
orat
oryr
esear
chi
ssy
stemat
ic,bu
titi
sver
y
f
lexi
blei
nthati
tal
l
owst
her
esear
chert
oinves
tigat
ewhat
evers
our
ces
/hedes
iresandt
othe
ex
tents
/hef
eel
sisnec
ess
aryi
nor
dert
ogai
nagoodf
eelf
ort
hepr
obl
em athand.

Expl
orat
oryr
esear
chs
tudi
esar
eal
sot
ermedasf
ormu
lat
eres
ear
chs
tudi
es.T
hemai
npu
rpos
e
of s
uchs
tudi
es i
sthatof f
ormu
lat
ing a pr
obl
em f
ormor
e pr
eci
sei
nves
tigat
ion orof
devel
opi
ngt
hewor
kinghy
pot
hes
esf
rom anoper
ati
onalpoi
ntofvi
ew.T
hemaj
ore
mphas
isi
n
s
uchs
tudi
esi
sont
hedi
scover
yofi
deasandi
nsi
ght
s.Ass
ucht
her
esear
chdes
ignappr
opr
iat
e
f
ors
uchs
tudi
esmu
stbef
lexi
blee
nou
gh t
o pr
ovi
deoppor
tuni
tyf
orc
ons
ider
ing di
ffer
ent
as
pec
tsofapr
obl
em u
nders
tudy
.Inbu
il
tfl
exi
bil
i
tyi
nres
ear
chdes
igni
sneededbec
aus
ethe
r
esear
chpr
obl
em,br
oadl
ydef
inedi
nit
ial
l
y,i
str
ans
for
medi
ntoonewi
thmor
epr
eci
semeani
ng
i
n expl
orat
orys
tudi
es,whi
chf
actmaynec
ess
itat
echangesi
nther
esear
ch pr
ocedu
ref
or
gat
her
ingr
elevantdat
a.

Us
esofExpl
orat
oryRes
ear
ch:Expl
orat
oryr
esear
chi
sus
edi
nanu
mberofs
itu
ati
ons
:togai
n
t
hebac
kgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ion,t
o def
inet
erms
,toc
lar
ifypr
obl
emsandhy
pot
hes
is,and t
o
es
tabl
i
shr
esear
chpr
ior
iti
es.

a)Gai
nBac
kgr
oundI
nfor
mat
ion:whenver
yli
ttl
eisknownabou
tthepr
obl
em orwhent
he
pr
obl
em hasnotbeenc
lear
lyf
ormu
lat
ed,expl
orat
oryr
esear
chmaybeu
sedt
ogai
nmu
ch-
neededbac
kgr
oundi
nfor
mat
ion.

b)Def
ineT
erms
:expl
orat
oryr
esear
chhel
pst
odef
inet
ermsandc
onc
ept
s.

c
)Cl
ari
fyPr
obl
emsandHy
pot
hes
is:e
xpl
orat
oryr
esear
chal
l
owst
her
esear
chert
odef
inet
he
pr
obl
em mor
epr
eci
sel
yandt
oge
ner
atehy
pot
hes
isf
ort
heu
pcomi
ngs
tudy
.Expl
orat
ory
r
esear
chc
anal
sobebenef
ici
ali
nfor
mul
ati
onofhy
pot
hes
is,whi
char
est
atement
sdes
cri
bing
 t
hes
pec
ulat
edr
elat
ions
hipsamongt
woormor
evar
iabl
es.

d)Es
tabl
i
shi
ng Res
ear
chPr
ior
iti
es:expl
orat
oryr
esear
chc
an hel
pa f
irm pr
ior
iti
zer
esear
ch
t
opi
csi
nor
derofi
mpor
tanc
e,es
pec
ial
l
ywheni
tisf
acedwi
thc
ondu
cti
ngs
ever
alr
esear
ch
s
tudi
es.Ar
evi
ew ofc
ust
omerc
ompl
i
antl
ett
ers
,forexampl
e,mayi
ndi
cat
ewhi
chpr
odu
ctor
s
ervi
cesar
emos
tinneedofmanagement
’sat
tent
ion.

Met
hodsofC
ondu
cti
ngExpl
orat
oryRes
ear
ch:Avar
iet
yofmet
hodsar
eavai
l
abl
etoc
ondu
ct
ex
plor
ator
yres
ear
ch.T
hes
einc
ludes
econdar
ydat
aanal
ysi
s,exper
ienc
esu
rvey
,cas
eanal
ysi
s,
f
ocu
sgr
oups
,andpr
ojec
ttec
hni
ques
.

a)S
econdar
yDat
aAnal
ysi
s:bys
econdar
ydat
aanal
ysi
swer
efert
othepr
oces
sofs
ear
chi
ng
f
orandi
nter
pret
ingexi
sti
ngi
nfor
mat
ionr
elevantt
other
esear
chpr
obl
em.S
econdar
ydat
a
ar
edat
athathavebeenc
oll
ect
edf
ors
omeot
herpu
rpos
e.Ananal
ysi
sofs
econdar
ydat
ais
of
ten t
he “
cor
e’of expl
orat
oryr
esear
ch.T
hisi
sbec
aus
ether
e ar
e many benef
itst
o
e
xami
nings
econdar
ydat
aandt
hec
ost
sar
ety
pic
all
ymi
nimal
.Fu
rther
mor
e,t
hec
ost
sfor
s
ear
chi
ngt
imef
ors
uchdat
aar
ebei
ngr
edu
cedever
ydayasmor
eandmor
ecompu
ter
ized
dat
abas
esbec
omeavai
l
abl
e.

b)Exper
ienc
eSu
rvey
:exper
ienc
esu
rve
yref
erst
ogat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom t
hos
ethou
ghtt
o
beknowl
edgeabl
eon t
hei
ssu
esr
elevantt
other
esear
ch pr
obl
em.F
ori
nst
anc
e,i
fthe
r
esear
ch pr
obl
em deal
swi
th di
ffi
cul
ti
esenc
ount
ered when bu
ying i
nfantc
lot
hing,t
hen
s
urvey
sofmot
her
s(orf
ather
s)wi
thi
nfant
smaybei
nor
der
.Exper
ienc
esu
rveydi
fferf
rom
s
urvey
scondu
ctedaspar
tofdes
cri
pti
ver
esear
chi
nthatt
her
eisu
sual
l
ynof
ormalat
tempt
t
oens
uret
hatt
hes
urveyr
esu
ltsar
erepr
esent
ati
vesofanydef
inedgr
oupofs
ubj
ect
s.

c
)Cas
eAnal
ysi
s:byc
aseanal
ysi
s,wer
efert
oar
evi
ew ofavai
l
abl
einf
ormat
ion abou
ta
f
ormers
itu
ati
on(
s)t
hathass
omes
imi
l
ari
ti
est
othepr
esentr
esear
chpr
obl
em.

d)F
ocu
sGr
oups
:An i
ncr
eas
ing popu
larmet
hodofc
ondu
cti
ng expl
orat
oryr
esear
chi
sfoc
us
gr
oups
,whi
char
esmal
lgr
oupsofpeopl
ebr
oughtt
oget
herandgu
idedbyamoder
ator
t
hrou
gh u
nst
ruc
tur
ed,s
pont
aneou
s di
scu
ssi
on f
or t
he pu
rpos
e of gai
ning i
nfor
mat
ion
r
elevantt
other
esear
chpr
obl
em.Al
thou
ghf
ocu
sgr
oups
hou
ldenc
our
ageopennes
sont
he
par
toft
hepar
tic
ipant
s,t
hemode
rat
or’
stas
kist
oens
uret
hedi
scu
ssi
oni
s“f
ocu
sed”on
s
omegener
alar
eaofi
nter
est
.

2
.Des
cri
pti
veRes
ear
ch

Ast
henamei
mpl
i
es,t
hemaj
orobj
ect
iveofdes
cri
pti
ver
esear
chi
sdes
cri
bingt
hec
har
act
eri
sti
cs
ofapar
tic
ulari
ndi
vidu
al,orofagr
oup/s
tat
eofnat
ure/var
iabl
esu
nders
tudy
.Si
ncet
heai
mis
t
oobt
ainc
ompl
eteandac
cur
atei
nfor
mat
ioni
nthes
aids
tudi
es,t
hepr
ocedu
ret
obeu
sedmu
st
bec
aref
ull
ypl
anned.T
her
esear
chdes
ignmu
stmakeenou
ghpr
ovi
si
onf
orpr
otec
tionagai
nst
bi
asandmu
stmaxi
miz
erel
i
abi
l
ity
,wi
thdu
econc
ernf
ort
heec
onomi
calc
ompl
eti
onoft
he
r
esear
chs
tudy
.Thedes
igni
nsu
chs
tudi
esmu
stber
igi
dandnotf
lexi
ble.

F
orexampl
e,whenwewi
sht
oknow:
-

Howmanyc
ust
omer
sthatas
pec
ifi
cbankhave,

Whats
ervi
cest
heybu
yandi
nwhatf
requ
enc
y,

Whi
chadver
tis
ementofs
ervi
cet
heyr
ecal
l
,and

Whatt
hei
rat
tit
udesar
etowar
dst
hebankandi
tsc
ompet
itor
s,wet
urnt
odes
cri
pti
ve
r
esear
ch,whi
chpr
ovi
desans
wer
stoqu
est
ionss
uchaswho,what
,wher
e,when,andhow,
ast
heyar
erel
atedt
other
ese
arc
hpr
obl
em.T
ypi
cal
l
y,ans
wer
stot
hes
equ
est
ions
,ar
e
f
oundi
nsec
ondar
ydat
a orbyc
ondu
cti
ng s
urvey
s.Manager
sor
/anddec
isi
on maker
s
of
tenneedans
wer
stot
hes
ebas
icqu
est
ionsbef
oret
heyc
anf
ormu
lat
eandi
mpl
ement
anybu
sines
sst
rat
egi
es.

C
las
sif
icat
ionofDes
cri
pti
veRes
ear
chS
tudi
es

T
her
ear
etwobas
icdes
cri
pti
ver
esear
chs
tudi
esavai
l
abl
etot
hebu
sines
sres
ear
cher
;cr
oss
-
s
ect
ionalandl
ongi
tudi
nal
.

TypesofS
tudy Feat
uresofS
tudy

C
ros
s-s
ect
ional One-
time meas
urement
,inc
ludi
ng a s
ampl
esu
rvey
wher
etheemphas
isi
spl
acedonl
arge,r
epr
esent
ati
ve
s
ampl
e.

L
ongi
tudi
nal Repeat
edmeas
urement
sont
hes
ames
ampl
e,i
ncl
udi
ng
at
radi
ti
onalpanel
s(qu
est
ionsr
emai
nthes
ame
)andan
omni
buspanel(
ques
tionsdi
ffer
)

Tabl
e5.
1:C
las
sif
icat
ionsofdes
cri
pti
veRes
ear
chS
tudi
es

a)C
ros
s-s
ect
ionals
tudi
es:meas
ureapopu
lat
ionatonl
yonepoi
nti
nti
me.C
ros
ssec
tional
s
tudi
esar
ever
ypr
eval
enti
nmar
ket
ingr
esear
ch,ou
tnu
mber
ingl
ongi
tudi
nals
tudi
esand
c
aus
als
tudy
ing.Bec
aus
ecr
osss
ect
ionals
tudi
esar
eone-
timemeas
urement
s,t
heyar
eof
ten
des
cri
bedas“
snaps
hot
s”oft
hepopu
lat
ion.Asan exampl
e,manymagaz
iness
urveya
s
ampl
eoft
hei
rsu
bsc
riber
sandas
kthem qu
est
ionss
uchast
hei
rage,oc
cupat
ion,i
ncome,
 edu
cat
ionall
evel
,ands
oon.T
hiss
ampl
edat
a,t
akenaonepoi
nti
nti
me,i
sus
edt
odes
cri
be
t
her
eader
shi
poft
hemagaz
inei
nter
msofdemogr
aphi
cs.C
ros
ssec
tionals
tudi
esnor
mal
l
y
empl
oyeef
air
lyl
arges
ampl
esi
ze,s
omanyc
ros
ssec
tionals
tudi
esar
eref
err
edt
oass
ampl
e
s
urvey
s.S
ampl
esu
rvey
sar
ecr
osss
ect
ionals
tudi
eswhos
esampl
esar
edr
awni
nsu
chaway
ast
ober
epr
esent
ati
veofas
pec
ifi
cpopu
lat
ion.

b)L
ongi
tudi
nals
tudi
es:r
epeat
edl
ymeas
uret
hes
amepopu
lat
ionoveraper
iodoft
ime.Bec
aus
e
l
ongi
tudi
nals
tudi
esi
nvol
vemu
lti
plemeas
urement
s,t
heyar
eof
tendes
cri
bedas“
movi
es”of
t
hepopu
lat
ion.L
ongi
tudi
nals
tudi
esar
eempl
oyedbyal
mos
t50per
centofbu
sines
sus
ing
mar
ket
ing r
esear
ch. T
oens
uret
hes
ucc
essofl
ongi
tudi
nals
tudy
,res
ear
chermu
sthave
ac
ces
stot
he s
ame member
soft
he s
ampl
e,c
all
ed a panel
,so ast
otake r
epeat
ed
meas
urement
s.

T
her
ear
etwot
ypesofpanel
s:t
radi
ti
onalpanel
sandomni
buspanel
s.T
radi
ti
onalpanel
sas
k
panelmember
sthe s
ame qu
est
ions on eac
h panelmeas
urement
.Omni
bus panel
s var
y
qu
est
ionsf
rom onepanelmeas
urementt
othenext
.Us
ual
l
y,f
irmsar
eint
eres
tedi
nus
ingdat
a
f
rom t
radi
ti
onalpanel
sbec
aus
etheyc
angai
nins
ight
sint
ochangesi
ncons
umer
s’pu
rchas
es,
at
tit
udes
,ands
oon.

3
.Cau
salRes
ear
ch

C
aus
ali
ty may be t
hou
ghtof as u
nder
standi
ng a phenomenon i
nter
ms of c
ondi
ti
onal
s
tat
ement
soft
he f
orm “
if x,t
heny
”.T
hes
e“i
f-t
hen”s
tat
ement
sbec
ome ou
rwayof
mani
pul
ati
ngvar
iabl
esofi
nter
est
.Forexampl
e,i
fIs
pendmor
eonadver
tis
ing,t
hens
aleswi
l
l
r
ise.F
ort
unat
elyf
ormanki
nd,t
her
eisani
nbor
ntendenc
ytodet
ermi
nec
aus
alr
elat
ions
hips
.
T
hist
endenc
yiseverpr
esenti
nou
rthi
nki
ngandou
rac
tions
.Li
kewi
se,mar
ket
ingmanager
s
ar
eal
way
str
yingt
odet
ermi
newhatwi
l
lcau
seac
hangei
ncons
umers
ati
sfac
tion,agai
nin
mar
kets
har
e,orani
ncr
eas
esal
e.

C
ondi
ti
on Des
cri
pti
on

C
o-var
iat
ion I
tmu
stbedemons
trat
edt
hatt
hec
aus
alvar
iabl
esoc
cur
swi
tht
hec
aus
ed
var
iabl
eandt
hatt
het
wovar
iabl
eshaveanor
der
lyr
elat
ions
hips(
For
exampl
e,aspr
icegoesdown,s
alesgoesu
p).
T
ime I
tmu
stbedemons
trat
edt
hatt
hec
aus
alvar
iabl
echangedpr
iort
oor
S
equ
enc
e s
imu
ltaneou
s wi
th obs
erved c
hanges i
nthe c
aus
ed var
iabl
e(f
or
exampl
e,pr
iceswer
elower
edonMonday
,ands
alesgou
pforMonday
 andal
lot
herday
swhenpr
icewer
elower
)
S
yst
emat
ic I
tmu
stbedemons
trat
edt
hatal
lot
herpos
sibl
ecau
salvar
iabl
esar
e
El
i
minat
ion el
i
minat
ed f
rom c
andi
dac
y(f
or,exampl
e,i
f adver
tis
ing c
ampai
gn
beganont
hedaywel
ower
edpr
ices
;wec
oul
dnotel
i
minat
edt
head
c
ampai
gnasac
aus
eofs
alesgoi
ngu
p).
Exper
iment
al I
tmu
stbedemons
trat
edt
hatasval
i
dexper
imenthasbeenc
ondu
cted
des
ign i
nor
dert
ost
atet
hatt
hevar
iabl
eisu
nequ
ivoc
all
ycau
sal(
forexampl
e,
af
ormalmar
kett
estwou
ldbedes
ignedandc
ondu
ctedi
n or
dert
o
det
ermi
net
heef
fec
tofapr
icer
edu
cti
onons
ales
).
Tabl
e5.
2For
malC
ondi
ti
onsf
orC
aus
ali
ty

T
heabovet
abl
edes
cri
best
hef
ormalr
equ
irement
sforc
aus
ali
tyc
ons
umer
sar
ebombar
dedon
adai
l
yands
omet
imeseveni
nahou
rlybas
isbyavas
tmu
lti
tudeoff
act
ors
,al
lofwhi
chc
oul
d
c
aus
ethem t
oac
tinonewayoranot
her
.Neve
rthel
ess
,ther
eisahi
gh“
rewar
d”i
nthemar
ket
pl
acef
orevenpar
tial
l
yunder
standi
ngc
aus
alr
elat
ions
hips
.Cau
salr
elat
ions
hipsar
edet
ermi
ned
byt
heu
seofexper
iment
s.
 C
HAPT
ERF
IVE
MET
HODOFDAT
ACOL
LEC
TIONANDDES
IGNOFDAT
ACOL
LEC
TIONF
ORMS

5
.1.S
our
cesofDat
a
Dat
aneededf
orbu
sines
sres
ear
chc
anbegr
oupedi
ntot
wot
ypes
;pr
imar
il
yands
econdar
y.
P
rimar
il
ydat
aref
erst
oinf
ormat
iont
hati
sdevel
opedorgat
her
edbyt
her
esear
chers
pec
ifi
cal
l
y
f
ort
her
esear
chpr
ojec
t.S
econdar
ydat
ahaspr
evi
ous
lybeengat
her
edbys
omeoneot
hert
han
t
her
esear
cherand/orf
ors
omeot
herpu
rpos
ethant
her
esear
chpr
ojec
tathand.T
het
erm
s
econdar
ydat
aref
erst
odat
anotgat
her
edf
ort
hei
mmedi
ates
tudyathandbu
tfors
ome
ot
herpu
rpos
e.

5
.1.
1.S
econdar
yDat
a
Anydat
awhi
chhavebeengat
her
edear
li
erf
ors
omeot
herpu
rpos
ear
esec
ondar
ydat
aint
he
handsoft
hebu
sines
sres
ear
cher
.

5
.1.
1.1
. Advant
agesandDi
sadvant
agesofs
econdar
ydat
a
Advant
agesofs
econdar
ydat
a
S
econdar
ysou
rcesc
anu
sual
l
ybef
oundmor
equ
ickl
yandc
heapl
y.
I
nmanyc
aseswec
anhopet
ogat
herpr
imar
yinf
ormat
ion,atanyc
ost
,compar
abl
eto
pu
bli
sheddat
a,f
orexampl
e,c
ens
usr
epor
tsandi
ndu
str
yst
ati
sti
cs.
S
econdar
ydat
asou
rcesal
soext
endou
rti
meands
pac
erange.Mos
tres
ear
chonpas
tevent
hast
orel
yons
econdar
ydat
asou
rcest
osomedegr
ee.
Dat
agat
her
edabou
tdi
stantpl
ace
s,f
orex
ampl
e,f
orei
gnc
ount
ries
,of
tenc
anbec
oll
ect
ed
 mor
echeapl
ythr
oughs
econdar
ymat
eri
als
.
Di
sadvant
agesofs
econdar
ydat
a
T
hemos
timpor
tantl
i
mit
ati
oni
sthatt
hei
nfor
mat
ionof
tenwi
l
lnotmeetou
rspec
ifi
c
needs
.Sec
ondar
ysou
rcei
nfor
mat
ionhasbeenc
oll
ect
edbys
omeoneel
sef
ort
hei
rpu
rpos
e
r
athert
hanou
rs.
Uni
tsofmeas
uredonotmat
chwi
thot
her
s.
Di
ffer
entt
imeper
iodsmaybei
nvol
ved.
Weof
tenc
annotevenas
ses
stheac
cur
acyoft
hei
nfor
mat
ionbec
aus
eweknowl
i
ttl
eabou
t
t
hec
ondi
ti
onsu
nderwhi
cht
her
esear
cht
ookpl
ace.
T
heval
ueofs
econdar
yinf
ormat
ionof
teni
spar
tial
l
yobs
olet
ebef
orei
tisavai
l
abl
e

5
.1.
1.2
. C
har
act
eri
sti
csofs
econdar
ydat
a
T
her
esear
chermu
stbever
ycar
efu
linu
sings
econdar
ydat
a.Hemu
stmakemi
nut
esc
rut
iny
bec
aus
eiti
sju
stpos
sibl
ethats
econdar
ydat
amaybeu
nsu
itabl
eormaybei
nadequ
atei
nthe
c
ont
extoft
hepr
obl
em whi
cht
her
esear
cherwant
stos
tudy
.Bywayofc
aut
ion,bef
oreu
sing
s
econdar
ydat
a,wemu
sts
eet
hatt
heypos
sesf
oll
owi
ngc
har
act
eri
sti
cs:

1
.Rel
i
abi
l
ityofDat
a:T
her
eli
abi
l
ityc
anbet
est
edbyf
indi
ngou
tsu
cht
hingsabou
tthes
aiddat
a?
 Whoc
oll
ect
edt
hedat
a?
 Whatwer
ethes
our
cesofdat
a?
 Wher
etheyc
oll
ect
edbyu
singpr
opermet
hods
?
 Atwhatt
imewer
etheyc
oll
ect
ed?
 Wast
her
eanybi
asoft
hec
ompu
ter
?
 Whatl
evelofac
cur
acywasdes
ired?
 Whati
tac
hieved?
2
.Su
itabi
l
ityofDat
a:Res
ear
chermu
stver
ycar
efu
ll
ysc
rut
ini
zet
hedef
ini
ti
onofvar
iou
ster
ms
andu
nit
sofc
oll
ect
ionu
sedatt
het
imeofc
oll
ect
ingt
hedat
afr
om pr
imar
ysou
rcesor
igi
nal
l
y.
3
. Adequ
acyofDat
a:I
fthel
evelofac
cur
acyac
hievedi
ndat
aisf
oundi
nadequ
ate
f
ort
hepu
rpos
eofpr
esentenqu
iry
,theywi
l
lbec
ons
ider
edasi
nadequ
ateands
hou
ldnotbe
u
sedbyt
her
esear
cher
.
5
.1.
1.3
. T
ypesofS
econdar
yDat
a
1
.Int
ernaldat
aref
erst
odat
athathasbeenc
oll
ect
edwi
thi
nthef
irm.S
uchdat
ainc
ludes
ales
r
ecor
ds,pu
rchas
erequ
isi
ti
ons
,de
par
tment
alr
epor
ts,pr
odu
cti
ons
ummar
ies
,fi
nanc
ialand
 ac
cou
nti
ng r
epor
ts,mar
ket
ing,s
aless
tudi
es and i
nvoi
ces
.Obvi
ous
ly,a good bu
sines
s
r
esear
che
ral
way
sdet
ermi
neswhati
nter
nali
nfor
mat
ion i
sal
readyavai
l
abl
e.T
oday
,a
maj
ors
our
ceofi
nter
naldat
aisdat
abas
ethatc
ont
ainsi
nfor
mat
iononc
ust
omer
s,s
ales
,
s
uppl
i
ers
,andanyot
herf
acetofbu
sines
saf
irm maywi
sht
otr
ack.
2
.Ext
ernaldat
aisdat
aobt
ainedf
rom ou
tsi
det
hef
irm.Wec
las
sif
yext
ernaldat
aint
othr
ee
s
our
ces
:pu
bli
shed,s
yndi
cat
ed,anddat
abas
es.
P
ubl
i
sheds
our
cesar
ethos
ethatar
eavai
l
abl
efr
om ei
therl
i
brar
iesorot
herent
iti
ess
uch
ast
radeas
soc
iat
ions
.
S
yndi
cat
eds
our
cesar
ehi
ghl
yspec
ial
i
zedandar
enotavai
l
abl
einl
i
brar
iesf
ort
hegener
al
pu
bli
c.S
yndi
cat
ed (
orc
ommer
cial
) dat
a nor
mal
l
ycons
istof dat
athathave been
c
oll
ect
edandc
ompi
l
edac
cor
dingt
osomes
tandar
diz
edpr
ocedu
re.I
nmos
tcas
est
hes
e
dat
aar
ecol
l
ect
edf
orapar
tic
ularbu
sines
sorc
ompany
,wi
thas
pec
ifi
creas
onorpu
rpos
e
dr
ivi
ngt
hedat
acol
l
ect
ionpr
oce
dur
e.
Gener
all
ypu
bli
sheds
our
ces
,bu
tforf
ews
pec
ifi
ccas
es,ot
hers
our
cesofi
nfor
mat
ionmay
beu
sef
ul.
Ther
ear
efi
vec
ategor
iesofext
ernals
our
ces
:
Books  Var
iet
yofmat
eri
als
-Ref
ere
ncebooks
,
P
eri
odi
cal
s Uni
ver
sit
ypu
bli
cat
ionset
c.
Gover
nmentdoc
ument
s  C
ens
usDat
a
5
.1.
2. Pr
imar
yDat
a
Pr
imar
ydat
aar
eor
igi
nat
edbyar
esear
cherf
ort
hes
pec
ifi
cpu
rpos
eofaddr
ess
ingt
hepr
obl
em
athand.T
heyar
eindi
vidu
all
ytai
l
oredf
ort
hedec
isi
on-
maker
sofor
gani
sat
ionst
hatpayf
or
wel
l
-foc
usedandexc
lus
ives
uppor
t.
I
nfor
mat
iont
hati
sdevel
opedorgat
her
edbyt
her
esear
chers
pec
ifi
cal
l
yfort
her
esear
chat
hand,
T
hos
ewhi
char
ecol
l
ect
edaf
res
handf
ort
hef
irs
tti
me,t
hushappent
obeor
igi
nali
n
c
har
act
er,
T
hos
edat
awher
ear
ecol
l
ect
edathandbyt
her
esear
cheres
pec
ial
l
yfort
hepu
rpos
eoft
he
s
tudy

5
.1.
2.1
. Advant
agesanddi
sadvant
agesofpr
imar
ydat
a
Advant
agesofpr
imar
ydat
a
Appl
i
cabl
eandu
sabl
e….
.i
fdoner
ight
Ac
cur
ateandr
eli
abl
e…….
.c
anans
wery
ourdi
rec
tres
ear
chqu
est
ions
Up-t
o-dat
e--
-asy
ouhavec
oll
ect
edt
hedat
a
Di
sadvant
agesofpr
imar
ydat
a
 Expens
ive
Noti
mmedi
atel
yavai
l
abl
e
Notasr
eadi
l
yac
ces
sibl
e
5
.2.Dat
aGat
her
ingI
nst
rument
s
1
.Qu
est
ionnai
re 3
.Obs
ervat
ion
2
.Int
ervi
ew 4.F
ocu
sgr
oupdi
scu
ssi
on
5
.2.
1. Qu
est
ionnai
re
Af
orm off
ormal
i
zedf
ramewor
kcons
ist
ingofas
etofqu
est
ionsands
cal
esdes
igned
t
ogener
atepr
imar
ydat
a.
1
.Uns
tru
ctu
redqu
est
ions
:Ar
eopenendedqu
est
ionsf
ormat
tedt
oal
l
owr
espondent
s
t
orepl
yint
hei
rownwor
ds.
2
.St
ruc
tur
edqu
est
ions
:ar
ecl
osedendedqu
est
ionst
hatr
equ
iret
her
espondentt
o
c
hoos
efr
om apr
edet
ermi
neds
etofr
espons
esors
cal
epoi
nts
.
Advant
agesofC
los
edended/S
tru
ctu
redqu
est
ions
:
Eas
ierandqu
ickf
orr
espondent
stoans
wer
Eas
iert
ocompar
etheans
werofdi
ffer
entr
espondent
s
Eas
iert
ocodeands
tat
ist
ical
l
yanal
yze
L
essl
i
ter
ater
espondent
sar
enotatadi
sadvant
age
Di
sadvant
agesofc
los
edended/S
tru
ctu
redqu
est
ions
:
Res
pondent
swi
thnoopi
nionornoknowl
edgec
anans
werany
way
Res
pondent
scanbec
onf
use
dbec
aus
eoft
oomanyc
hoi
ces
Mi
si
nter
pret
ati
onofaqu
est
ionsc
angou
nnot
iced
Advant
agesofopenended/u
nst
ruc
tur
edqu
est
ions
P
ermi
tanu
nli
mit
ednu
mbe
rofpos
sibl
eans
wer
s
Res
pondent
scanans
weri
ndet
ail
Unant
ici
pat
edf
indi
ngc
anbedi
scover
ed
P
ermi
tadequ
ateans
wer
stoc
ompl
etequ
est
ions
P
ermi
tcr
eat
ivi
ty,s
elfexpr
ess
ion,andr
ichnes
sofdet
ail
Revealar
espondent
’sl
ogi
c,t
hinki
ngpr
oces
sandf
rameofr
efer
enc
e

Di
sadvant
agesofopenended/u
nst
ruc
tur
edqu
est
ions
Di
ffer
entr
espondent
sgi
vedi
ffer
entdegr
eesofdet
aili
nnu
mber
s–r
espons
es
maynotc
ons
ider
ed
Repons
esmaybei
rrel
evantorbu
riedi
nus
eles
sdet
ail
C
odi
ngr
espons
esi
sdi
ffi
cul
t
 Ar
tic
ulat
eandhi
ghl
yli
ter
ater
espondent
shaveanadvant
age
Gr
eat
eramou
ntofr
espondentt
ime,t
hou
ght
,andef
for
tisnec
ess
ary

5
.2.
1.1
.Ty
peofC
los
edEndedqu
est
ions
1
.Di
chot
omou
sQu
est
ions
T
hes
impl
ecat
egor
ysc
ale
 Of
fer
stwomu
tual
l
yexc
lus
ive
 Yesorno
P
art
icu
lar
lyu
sef
ulf
ordemogr
aphi
cqu
est
ion
Di
chot
omou
s(orbi
nar
y)qu
est
ionsas
kabou
tbl
ack-
and-
whi
tes
ubj
ect
s,s
eeki
ngonl
y
oneoft
woans
wer
s.T
heyar
eef
fec
tivel
ysc
alequ
est
ionswi
thonl
ytwopos
iti
onson
t
hes
cal
e.
Di
dyouvot
eint
hel
astel
ect
ion? Yes[
 ] 
  
 No[
 ]
2
.RankedRes
pons
es
S
omet
imesi
tisu
sef
ulf
ort
her
espondentt
orankas
etofopt
ionsbynu
mber
ing
t
hem i
nor
derf
rom 1t
othemax
imu
m nu
mbery
ouar
eint
eres
tedi
n.F
orexampl
e,t
o
a qu
est
ion l
i
ke:P
lac
ein or
derofi
mpor
tanc
etoy
out
hef
oll
owi
ng f
eat
ure
sofa
c
ampi
ng hol
i
day(
Indi
cat
ebynu
mber
ing f
rom 1
-4i
n or
derwher
e1i
sthemos
t
i
mpor
tant
)
Openai
r
Mobi
l
ity
C
ost
P
eopl
e
At
mos
pher
e
Not
ethateac
hopt
ionwi
l
lneedt
obec
odedasas
epar
atevar
iabl
eandi
ntheabove
c
asef
ivevar
iabl
esar
erequ
ired(
event
hou
ghonl
yfou
rranksar
etobei
dent
ifi
ed).
T
hisappr
oac
hcangener
ateal
otofdat
aands
othenu
mberofopt
ionsu
seds
hou
ld
notbe exc
ess
ive.Apar
tfr
om t
hisr
espondent
sfi
nd i
tdi
ffi
cul
tto di
scr
imi
nat
e
meani
ngf
ull
ybet
weenl
otsofopt
ions
.
3
.Rat
edRes
pons
es/L
iker
tsc
ale
Apopu
larappr
oac
hint
hes
oci
als
cienc
esi
stou
seL
iker
tsc
aless
uchast
heexampl
e
bel
ow:(
Cir
clet
he nu
mber u
nder t
he i
nit
ial
sthat appl
i
es.VI
=Ver
yimpor
tant
;
I
=Impor
tant
;N=Neu
tral
;U=Uni
mpor
tant
;VU=Ver
yUni
mpor
tant
).
VI I N U VU
C
ommu
nit
yli
fe 1 2 3 4 5
 L
owc
ost 1 2 3 4 5
Ou
tdoorl
i
fe 1 2 3 4 5
Abi
l
ityt
omovear
ound 1 2 3 4 5
Not
ethateac
hoft
hef
ourr
owswi
l
lfor
m as
epar
atevar
iabl
ethatc
ont
ainst
he
appr
opr
iat
enu
mer
icc
odef
rom 1t
o5.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
okeept
hes
cal
ebal
anc
ed.

4.S
emant
icDef
erent
ialS
cal
es
Bi
pol
arqu
est
ionshaveas
cal
ewi
tht
woends
.Thes
ubj
ecti
sas
kedt
oshowbi
ast
owar
ds
ei
therend.

 
Whati
syou
rbal
anc
eofpr
efer
enc
eher
e?

I l
ike goi
ng f
or I l
i
ke wat
chi
ng a
[ ] [
 ] [
 ] [
 ] [
 ]
wal
ks. movi
e.

T
hist
ypeofqu
est
ion c
an beu
set
ofor
cec
hoi
cebet
ween ver
ysi
mil
ari
tems(
thu
s
c
aus
ingas
emant
icdi
ffer
ent
ialc
hoi
ce).

5
.Mu
lti
plec
hoi
cequ
est
ions
:
S
elec
tionqu
est
ionsas
kyout
omakeac
hoi
cef
rom al
i
stofi
temsgi
ven.S
ingl
e-s
elec
tion
qu
est
ionsas
kyout
ochoos
eonl
yonei
tem.Mu
lti
ple-
choi
cequ
est
ionsl
ety
ouc
hoos
eas
manyr
espons
esasy
ouwi
sh.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpl
aceshavey
ouvi
si
ted?(
Chec
kal
lthatappl
y):
[
 ] 
Par
is [
 ] 
London [
 ] 
Rom [
 ] 
Mos
cow

5
.2.
1.2
.Ty
pesofBadQu
est
ions
Anyqu
est
ionst
hatpr
eventordi
stor
tthef
undament
alc
ommu
nic
ati
onbet
wee
nthe
r
esear
che
randt
her
espondent
s

1
.Dou
bleBar
rel
edQu
est
ions
Dou
bleBar
rel
edQu
est
ionsc
overmor
ethanonet
opi
c.T
hegoals
hou
ldbeonet
opi
cper
qu
est
ion.
Exampl
e: Whenwast
hel
astt
imey
ouu
pgr
adedy
ourc
ompu
terandpr
int
er?
T
hisi
sadou
ble-
bar
rel
edqu
est
ionbec
aus
eitas
ksabou
ttwos
epar
atet
opi
cs(
compu
ter
and pr
int
er) att
he s
ame t
ime. Res
ponde
nts who have u
pgr
aded one wi
thou
t
u
pgr
adi
ngt
heot
herwou
ldn’
tknow how t
oans
wer
.Wheny
ouar
eanal
yzi
ngt
hedat
a,
how wi
l
lyouknow whi
chpar
toft
hequ
est
ionwasans
wer
ed? “
And”or“
or”wi
thi
na
qu
est
ionu
sual
l
ymakesi
tdou
blebar
rel
ed.T
ryel
i
minat
ingt
hel
essi
mpor
tantt
opi
cor
c
reat
etwoqu
est
ions
.

2
.Leadi
ng/L
oadedQu
est
ions
Al
eadi
ngqu
est
ions
ugges
tst
other
espondentt
hatt
her
esear
cherexpec
tsorde
sir
esa
c
ert
ainans
wer
.Ther
espondents
hou
ldnotbeabl
etodi
scer
nwhatt
ypeofans
wert
he
r
esear
che
rwant
stohear
.
Exampl
e:Nowt
haty
ou'
ves
eenhowy
ouc
ans
avet
ime,wou
ldy
oubu
you
r pr
odu
ct?
Byc
iti
ngpr
ooft
hepr
odu
cti
sgood(
i.
e.,i
tsavest
ime),t
hequ
est
ionerhast
ipped
hi
shandt
hathewant
sa“
yes
”ans
wer
.Al
oadedqu
est
ionas
kst
her
espondentt
o
r
elyont
hei
remot
ionsmor
ethant
hef
act
s.L
oadedqu
est
ionsc
ont
ain“
emot
ive”
wor
dswi
thapos
iti
veornegat
ivec
onnot
ati
on.F
orexampl
e,whi
l
epol
i
tic
iansar
e
wi
l
li
ngt
oas
soc
iat
ethems
elveswi
thdemoc
rac
yandl
i
ber
ty,t
heyt
ryt
oavoi
dtags
l
i
keenvi
ronment
ali
standl
i
ber
al.T
heyknow s
uch“
char
ged”t
ermsc
an c
reat
e
negat
iver
eac
tionsi
npeopl
eregar
dles
soft
hec
ont
entoft
hes
tat
ement
.
Exampl
e:Doy
ouappr
oveoft
heP
res
ident
’soppr
ess
ivei
mmi
grat
ionpol
i
cy?
T
hisqu
est
ioni
ncl
udesanemot
ivewor
d(i
.e.
,oppr
ess
ive)whi
chc
arr
iesanegat
ivel
y-
c
har
gedc
onnot
ati
onf
ormos
tres
pondent
s.T
her
espondenti
sas
kedt
oans
wer
bas
edonhow i
twou
ldf
eelt
obeoppr
ess
edr
athert
han ont
hemer
itsoft
he
pr
esi
dent
’spol
i
cy.

5
.2.
1.3
.Fu
nnels
equ
enc
eofqu
est
ions
F
ivedi
sti
nctpar
tsofaqu
est
ionnai
re
1
.Thet
itl
e&i
dent
ifi
cat
ionoft
hes
urvey
’ss
pons
ors
 P
urpos
eoft
hes
urvey
 Howt
hei
nfor
mat
ionwi
l
lbeu
sed
 S
pons
orsoft
hes
urvey
 Gu
arant
eef
ori
ndi
vidu
alanony
mit
y
2
.Ins
tru
cti
onst
ores
pondent
s
 Howt
ofi
l
lthequ
est
ionnai
re
 I
nfor
mat
ionabou
tpot
ent
ialc
onf
usi
on
 Whoi
sexpec
tedt
oans
wers
ect
ionsofqu
est
ions
?
3
.War
m-u
pqu
est
ions
 S
impl
eandeas
ytoans
werwi
thami
nimu
m ef
for
t
 Br
ingi
ngt
hem t
oal
evelofc
omf
ort
4.Bodyoft
hequ
est
ionnai
re
 T
hepl
acewher
ethemos
timpor
tantqu
est
ionsc
anbel
ocat
ed
 T
heeas
ies
tqu
est
ionss
hou
ldappearbef
oret
hemor
edi
ffi
cul
torc
ompl
ex
qu
est
ions
 T
hequ
est
ionss
hou
ldbear
rangedi
nal
ogi
calor
der
5
.Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ionqu
est
ions
6
. Pr
e-t
est
ing/Pi
l
ott
est
ing
T
hel
asts
tepi
nqu
est
ionnai
redes
igni
stot
estaqu
est
ionnai
rewi
thas
mal
lnu
mberof
i
nter
viewsbef
orec
ondu
cti
ngy
ourmai
nint
ervi
ews
.Ideal
l
y,y
ous
hou
ldt
estt
hes
urvey
ont
hes
ameki
ndsofpeopl
eyouwi
l
linc
ludei
nthemai
nst
udy
.Ift
hati
snotpos
sibl
e,
atl
eas
thaveaf
ewpeopl
e,ot
hert
hant
hequ
est
ionwr
iter
,tr
ythequ
est
ionnai
re.T
his
ki
ndoft
estr
unc
anr
evealu
nant
ici
pat
edpr
obl
emswi
thqu
est
ionwor
ding,i
nst
ruc
tions
t
oski
pqu
est
ions
,et
c.I
tcanhel
pseei
fthei
nter
vieweesu
nder
standy
ourqu
est
ions
andgi
vingu
sef
ulans
wer
s.

5
.2.
2. I
nter
view
I
ndi
vidu
ali
nter
viewsoc
curasc
onver
sat
ionsbet
weenar
esear
cherandar
espondent
.
Hi
ghl
ysec
ludedi
nter
viewsl
i
stal
lthequ
est
ionst
hei
nter
vieweri
ssu
ppos
edt
oas
k.T
he
i
nter
viewerf
oll
owst
hisi
nter
vie
wsc
hedu
lec
aref
ull
ysot
hati
nter
viewsbydi
ffer
ent
i
nter
viewer
s and wi
th di
ffer
ent r
espondent
s ar
econdu
cted i
n as
imi
l
ar way
.
Moder
atel
ysc
hedu
ledi
nter
viewsi
dent
ifyt
hes
pec
ifi
cqu
est
ionsi
nter
viewsar
etoas
kbu
t
al
l
ow t
hem f
reedom t
o pr
obe f
oraddi
ti
onali
nfor
mat
ion af
terr
espons
est
othe
pr
imar
y qu
est
ions ar
e gi
ven. Uns
chedu
led i
nter
view l
i
stt
he pr
imar
ytopi
cst
he
i
nter
viewers
hou
ldc
overbu
tal
l
owmaxi
mumf
reedom f
orphr
asi
ng.

5
.2.
3. F
ocu
sGr
oupDi
scu
ssi
on
P
owel
letal(
1996
:499) def
ine a f
ocu
sgr
oup asa gr
oup ofi
ndi
vidu
alss
elec
ted and
as
sembl
edbyr
esear
cher
stodi
scu
ssandc
ommenton,f
rom per
sonalexper
ienc
e,t
het
opi
c
t
hati
sthes
ubj
ectoft
her
esear
ch.F
ocu
sgr
oupsar
eaf
orm ofgr
oupi
nter
viewi
ngbu
titi
s
i
mpor
tantt
o di
sti
ngu
ish bet
ween t
he t
wo.Gr
oupi
nter
viewi
ng i
nvol
vesi
nter
viewi
ng a
nu
mberofpeopl
eatt
hes
amet
imet
heemphas
isbei
ng on qu
est
ionsand r
espons
es
bet
weent
her
esear
cherandpar
tic
ipant
s.F
ocu
sgr
oupshoweverr
elyoni
nter
act
ionwi
thi
nthe
gr
oupbas
edont
opi
cst
hatar
esu
ppl
i
edbyt
her
esear
cher(
Mor
gan1
997
:12
).Mer
tonand
Kendal
l
’s(
1946
)inf
luent
ialar
tic
leont
hef
ocu
sedi
nter
view s
ett
hepar
amet
ersf
orf
ocu
s
gr
oup devel
opment
.Thi
s was i
nter
ms of ens
uri
ng t
hatpar
tic
ipant
s have a s
pec
ifi
c
exper
ienc
eoforopi
nionabou
tthet
opi
cunderi
nves
tigat
ion;t
hatanexpl
i
citi
nte
rvi
ewgu
ide
i
sus
ed;and t
hatt
hes
ubj
ect
iveexper
ienc
esofpar
tic
ipant
sar
eexpl
ored i
nrel
ati
on t
o
pr
edet
ermi
nedr
esear
chqu
est
ions
.

5
.2.
3.1
.Whyu
sef
ocu
sgr
oupsandnotot
hermet
hods
?
T
hemai
npu
rpos
eoff
ocu
sgr
oupr
esear
chi
stodr
aw u
ponr
espondent
s’at
tit
udes
,feel
i
ngs
,
bel
i
efs
,exper
ienc
esandr
eac
tionsi
n a wayi
n whi
chwou
ldnotbef
eas
ibl
eus
ing ot
her
met
hods
,forexampl
e obs
ervat
ion,one-
to-
one i
nter
viewi
ng,orqu
est
ionnai
res
urvey
s.
C
ompar
edt
oindi
vidu
ali
nter
views
,whi
chai
m t
o obt
aini
ndi
vidu
alat
tit
udes
,bel
i
efsand
f
eel
i
ngs
,foc
usgr
oupsel
i
cit
/dr
aw ou
tamu
lti
pli
ci
tyofvi
ewsandemot
ionalpr
oces
seswi
thi
n
agr
oupc
ont
ext
.Thei
ndi
vidu
ali
nter
viewi
seas
ierf
ort
her
esear
chert
ocont
rolt
hanaf
ocu
s
gr
oupi
nwhi
chpar
tic
ipant
smayt
aket
hei
nit
iat
ive.C
ompar
edt
oobs
ervat
ion,af
ocu
sgr
oup
enabl
est
her
esear
chert
ogai
nal
argeramou
ntofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nas
hor
terper
iodoft
ime.
Obs
ervat
ionalmet
hodst
end t
o depend on wai
ti
ng f
ort
hingst
o happen,wher
east
he
r
esear
che
rfol
l
owsani
nter
view gu
idei
naf
ocu
sgr
oup.I
nthi
ssens
efoc
usgr
oupsar
enot
nat
uralbu
tor
gani
zedevent
s.

5
.2.
3.2
.Ther
oleoff
ocu
sgr
oups
F
ocu
sgr
oupsc
anbeu
sedatt
hepr
eli
minar
yorexpl
orat
orys
tagesofas
tudy(
Kreu
ger1
988
);
du
ringas
tudy
,per
hapst
oeval
uat
eordevel
opapar
tic
ularpr
ogr
ammeofac
tivi
ti
es(
Rac
eet
al1
994);oraf
terapr
ogr
ammehasbeenc
ompl
eted,t
oas
ses
sit
simpac
tort
ogener
ate
f
urt
heravenu
esofr
esear
ch.T
heyc
anbeu
sedei
therasamet
hodi
nthei
rownr
ightorasa
c
ompl
ementt
o ot
hermet
hods
,es
pec
ial
l
yfort
riangu
lat
ion (
Mor
gan 1
988
)and val
i
dit
y
c
hec
king.F
ocu
sgr
oupsc
anhel
ptoexpl
oreorgener
atehy
pot
hes
es.P
owel
landS
ingl
e(1
996
)
devel
opedqu
est
ionsorc
onc
ept
sforqu
est
ionnai
resandi
nter
view gu
ides(
Hoppeetal1
995
;
L
anks
hear1
993
).T
heyar
ehoweverl
i
mit
edi
nter
msoft
hei
rabi
l
ityt
ogener
ali
zef
indi
ngst
o
awhol
epopu
lat
ion,mai
nlybec
aus
eoft
hes
mal
lnu
mber
sofpeopl
epar
tic
ipat
ingandt
he
l
i
kel
i
hoodt
hatt
hepar
tic
ipant
swi
l
lnotbear
epr
esent
ati
ves
ampl
e.
Exampl
esofr
esear
chi
n whi
chf
ocu
sgr
oupshavebeen empl
oyedi
ncl
udedevel
opi
ngHI
V
edu
cat
ioni
nZi
mbabwe(
Munodawaf
aetal1
995
),u
nder
standi
nghow medi
ames
sagesar
e
pr
oces
sed(
Kit
zinger
1994and1
995
),expl
ori
ngpeopl
e’sf
earofwoodl
ands(
Bur
ges
s1996
)
anddi
stanc
eint
ervi
ewi
ngoff
ami
l
ydoc
tor
s(Whi
teandT
homs
on1
995
).

5
.2.
3.3
.Thepr
act
icalor
gani
zat
ionoff
ocu
sgr
oups
Or
gani
zi
ng f
ocu
sgr
oupi
nter
vie
wsu
sual
l
yrequ
iresmor
e pl
anni
ng t
han ot
hert
ypesof
i
nter
viewi
ng as get
ting peopl
eto gr
oup gat
her
ings c
an be di
ffi
cul
t and s
ett
ing u
p
appr
opr
iat
e venu
es wi
th adequ
ate r
ecor
ding f
aci
l
iti
es r
equ
ires a l
ot of t
ime.
The
r
ecomme
ndednu
mberofpeopl
epergr
oupi
sus
ual
l
ysi
xtot
en(
Mac
Int
osh1
993
),bu
tsome
r
esear
che
rshaveu
sedu
ptof
ift
eenpeopl
e(Gos
sandL
einbac
h1996
)orasf
ew asf
our
(
Kit
zinger1
995
).Nu
mbe
rsofgr
oupsvar
y,s
omes
tudi
esu
singonl
yonemeet
ingwi
theac
hof
s
ever
alf
ocu
sgr
oups(
Bur
ges
s1996
),ot
her
smeet
ingt
hes
amegr
oups
ever
alt
imes
.Foc
us
gr
oups
ess
ionsu
sual
l
ylas
tfr
om onet
otwohou
rs.Neu
trall
ocat
ionsc
an behel
pfu
lfor
avoi
dingei
thernegat
iveorpos
iti
veas
soc
iat
ionswi
thapar
tic
ulars
iteorbu
il
ding(
Powel
land
S
ingl
e1996
).Ot
her
wis
ethef
ocu
sgr
oupmeet
ingsc
anbehel
dinavar
iet
yofpl
aces
,for
exampl
e,peopl
e’shomes
,inr
ent
edf
aci
l
iti
es,orwher
ethepar
tic
ipant
shol
dthei
rregu
lar
meet
ingsi
ftheyar
ea pr
e-exi
sti
ng gr
oup.I
tisnotal
way
seas
ytoi
dent
ifyt
hemos
t
appr
opr
iat
epar
tic
ipant
sforaf
ocu
sgr
oup.I
fagr
oupi
stoohet
erogeneou
s,whet
heri
n
t
ermsofgenderorc
las
s,ori
nte
rmsofpr
ofes
sionaland‘
lay
’per
spec
tives
,thedi
ffer
enc
es
bet
weenpar
tic
ipant
scanmakeac
ons
ider
abl
eimpac
tont
hei
rcont
ribu
tions
.Al
ter
nat
ivel
y,i
f
a gr
oupi
s homogenou
s wi
thr
egar
dtos
pec
ifi
cchar
act
eri
sti
cs,di
ver
se opi
nions and
exper
ienc
esmaynotber
eveal
ed.P
art
ici
pant
sneedt
ofeelc
omf
ort
abl
ewi
theac
hot
her
.
Meet
ingwi
thot
her
swhom t
heyt
hinkofaspos
ses
sings
imi
l
arc
har
act
eri
sti
csorl
evel
sof
u
nder
standi
ngabou
tagi
vent
opi
c,wi
l
lbemor
eappeal
i
ngt
hanmeet
ingwi
tht
hos
ewhoar
e
per
cei
vedt
obedi
ffer
ent(
Mor
gan1
988
).

5
.2.
3.4.T
her
oleofmoder
ator
Onc
eameet
inghasbeenar
ranged,t
her
oleofmoder
atororgr
oupf
aci
l
itat
orbec
omes
c
rit
ical
,es
pec
ial
l
yint
ermsofpr
ovi
dingc
learexpl
anat
ionsoft
hepu
rpos
eoft
hegr
oup,
hel
pingpeopl
efeelateas
e,andf
aci
l
itat
ingi
nte
rac
tionbet
weengr
oupmember
s.Du
ringt
he
meet
ingmoder
ator
swi
l
lneedt
opr
omot
edebat
e,per
hapsbyas
kingopenqu
est
ions
.They
mayal
soneedt
ochal
l
engepar
tic
ipant
s,es
pec
ial
l
ytodr
aw ou
tpeopl
e’sdi
ffe
renc
es,and
t
eas
eou
tadi
ver
ser
angeofmeani
ngsont
het
opi
cunderdi
scu
ssi
on.S
omet
imesmoder
ator
s
wi
l
lneedt
opr
obef
ordet
ail
s,ormovet
hingsf
orwar
dwhent
hec
onver
sat
ioni
sdr
ift
ingor
hasr
eac
hedami
norc
onc
lus
ion.Moder
ator
sal
sohavet
okeept
hes
ess
ionf
ocu
sedands
o
s
omet
imest
heymaydel
i
ber
atel
yhavet
ost
eert
hec
onver
sat
ionbac
konc
our
se.Moder
ator
s
al
sohavet
oens
ureever
yonepar
tic
ipat
esandget
sac
hanc
etos
peak.Att
hes
amet
ime
moder
ator
sar
eenc
our
agednott
oshow t
oomu
chappr
oval(
Kreu
ger1
988
),s
oast
oavoi
d
f
avor
ingpar
tic
ularpar
tic
ipant
s.T
heymu
stavoi
dgi
ving per
sonalopi
nionss
oasnott
o
i
nfl
uenc
epar
tic
ipant
stowar
dsanypar
tic
ularpos
iti
onoropi
nion.
T
riangu
lat
ion
T
riangu
lat
ionr
efer
stot
heu
seofmor
ethanoneappr
oac
htot
hei
nves
tigat
ionofar
esear
ch
qu
est
ion i
n or
dert
oenhanc
econf
idenc
eint
heens
uing f
indi
ngs
.Byc
ombi
ning mu
lti
ple
obs
erver
s,t
heor
ies
,met
hods
,andempi
ri
calmat
eri
als
,res
ear
cher
scanhopet
oover
come
t
heweaknes
sori
ntr
ins
icbi
asesandt
hepr
obl
emst
hatc
omef
rom s
ingl
emet
hod,s
ingl
e-
obs
erver
,si
ngl
e-t
heor
yst
udi
es.Of
tent
hepu
rpos
eoft
riangu
lat
ioni
nspec
ifi
ccont
ext
sist
o
obt
ainc
onf
irmat
ionoff
indi
ngst
hrou
ghc
onver
genc
eofdi
ffer
entper
spec
tives
.Thepoi
ntat
whi
cht
heper
spec
tivesc
onver
gei
sseent
orepr
esentr
eal
i
ty.

T
ypesofT
riangu
lat
ion:
Ac
cor
dingt
oSt
ake(
1995
)ther
ear
efi
vepr
otoc
olsoft
riangu
lat
ion.T
hes
ear
e
• Dat
aSou
rceTr
iangu
lat
ion -T
heanal
ystas
kswhet
herornotwhatt
heyar
e
r
epor
tingi
sli
kel
ytobec
ons
tantatot
hert
imesorc
irc
ums
tanc
es.
• I
nves
tigat
orTr
iangu
lat
ion-Ot
herr
esear
cher
stakeal
ookatt
hes
ames
cene.Or
f
indi
ngs c
an be pr
esent
ed t
o ot
her r
esear
cher
sto di
scu
ss al
ter
nat
ive
i
nter
pret
ati
ons
.
• T
heor
yTr
iangu
lat
ion-Mu
lti
plei
nves
tigat
orsagr
eeast
othemeani
ngoft
he
phe
nomenon.
• Met
hodol
ogi
calTr
iangu
lat
ion-T
hisi
nvol
vesu
singavar
iet
yofdat
acol
l
ect
ion
met
hodst
obu
il
dconf
idenc
eint
hei
nter
pret
ati
onsmades
ofar
.
• MemberT
riangu
lat
ion -T
her
espondenti
sas
kedt
orevi
ew t
hemat
eri
alf
or
ac
cur
acy and t
o add f
urt
her c
omment
sthat mi
ght ai
d des
cri
pti
on and
expl
anat
ion. By doi
ng s
o, t
he ac
tor
s per
sonal
l
y hel
ptot
riangu
lat
ethe
r
esear
cher
’sobs
ervat
ionsandi
nter
pret
ati
ons
.
 C
HAPT
ERS
IX
S
AMPL
EDES
IGNANDPROC
EDURE

6
.1. I
ntr
odu
cti
on
S
ampl
i
ngi
ssel
ect
ingas
mal
lnu
mberofu
nit
sfr
om apopu
lat
ioni
nsu
chamannert
hat
t
heyc
anbeu
sedt
omakees
timat
esabou
tthepopu
lat
ion.As
ampl
eisdr
awnwi
tht
he
ai
m ofi
nfer
ringc
ert
ainf
act
sabou
tthepopu
lat
ionf
rom t
her
esu
ltsi
nthes
ampl
e,a
pr
oces
sknownass
tat
ist
icali
nfe
renc
e.As
ampl
ecanpr
ovi
dever
yac
cur
atees
timat
es
abou
tthepopu
lat
ioni
trepr
esent
sifc
aref
ull
ydr
awnu
singwel
les
tabl
i
shedpr
oce
dur
es.
Anes
sent
ialf
eat
ureofas
ampl
eist
hedef
ini
ti
onoft
her
ulebywhi
chi
tiss
elec
ted.
6
.2. Bas
icC
onc
ept
sinS
ampl
esandS
ampl
i
ng
T
obegi
n,weac
quai
nty
ouwi
ths
omebas
ict
ermi
nol
ogyu
sedi
nsampl
i
ng.T
het
ermswe
di
scu
ssedher
ear
epopu
lat
ion,s
ampl
eands
ampl
euni
t,c
ens
us,s
ampl
i
nger
ror
,sampl
e
f
rameands
ampl
efr
ameer
ror
.
• Popu
lat
ion

– Theent
iregr
oupofpeopl
eofi
nter
estf
rom whom t
her
esear
cherneeds
t
oobt
aini
nfor
mat
ion

• El
ement
/sampl
i
ngu
nit

– Oneu
nitf
rom apopu
lat
ion

• S
ampl
i
ng

– Thes
elec
tionofas
ubs
etoft
hepopu
lat
ion

• S
ampl
i
ngf
rame

• L
ist
ingofpopu
lat
ionf
rom whi
chas
ampl
eisc
hos
en

• C
ens
us

– Apol
l
ingofpopu
lat
ion

• S
urvey

– Apol
l
ingoft
hes
ampl
e
 • Par
amet
er

– Thevar
iabl
eofi
nter
est

• S
tat
ist
ic

– Thei
nfor
mat
ionobt
ainedf
rom t
hes
ampl
eabou
tthepar
amet
er

• S
ampl
i
nger
ror
:sampl
i
nger
rori
sanyer
rori
nas
urveyt
hatoc
cur
sbec
aus
ea
s
ampl
eisu
sed;s
ampl
i
nger
rori
scau
sedbyt
wof
act
ors
:themet
hodofs
ampl
e
s
elec
tionand t
hes
izeoft
hes
ampl
e
• S
ampl
eFr
ameandS
ampl
eFr
ameEr
ror
:tos
elec
tas
ampl
e,y
ouwi
l
lneeda
s
ampl
efr
ame,whi
chi
samas
terl
i
stofal
lthes
ampl
euni
tsi
nthepopu
lat
ion.
F
ori
nst
anc
e,i
far
esear
cherhaddef
inedapopu
lat
iont
obeal
lshoer
epai
rst
ores
i
nGondar
,heors
hewou
ldneed amas
terl
i
sti
ngoft
hes
est
oresasaf
rame
f
rom whi
cht
osampl
e.S
imi
l
arl
y,i
fthe popu
lat
ion bei
ng r
esear
ched wer
e
c
ert
ifi
edpu
bli
cac
cou
ntant
s,as
ampl
efr
amef
ort
hisgr
oupwou
ldbeneeded.

As
ampl
efr
amei
nvar
iabl
ycont
ainss
ampl
efr
ameer
ror
,whi
chi
sthedegr
eet
owhi
ch
i
tfai
l
stoac
cou
ntf
oral
loft
hepopu
lat
ion.Awayt
oenvi
si
ons
ampl
efr
ameer
rori
sby
mat
chi
ngt
hel
i
stwi
tht
hepopu
lat
ionands
eei
ngt
owhatdegr
eet
hel
i
stade
quat
ely
mat
ches t
he t
arget
ed popu
lat
ion.Whenevera s
ampl
eis dr
awn,t
he amou
ntof
pot
ent
ials
ampl
efr
ameer
rors
hou
ldbej
udgedbyt
her
esear
cher
.Iti
sar
esear
cher
’s
r
espons
ibi
l
ityt
oseek ou
ta s
ampl
efr
ame wi
tht
he l
eas
tamou
ntofer
rorata
r
eas
onabl
ecos
t.T
her
esear
chers
hou
ldal
soappr
iset
hec
li
entoft
hedegr
eeofs
ampl
e
f
rameer
rori
nvol
ved.
6
.3. C
ens
usVsS
ampl
e
T
he obj
ect
ive ofmos
tbu
sines
sres
ear
ch pr
ojec
tsi
sto obt
aini
nfor
mat
ion abou
t
t
hec
har
act
eri
sti
csorpar
amet
ersofapopu
lat
ion.Apopu
lat
ioni
stheaggr
egat
eofal
l
t
heel
ement
sthats
har
esomec
ommons
etofc
har
act
eri
sti
csandt
hatc
ompr
iset
he
u
niver
sef
or t
he pu
rpos
e of t
he bu
sines
s r
esear
ch pr
obl
em. T
he popu
lat
ion
par
amet
ers
aret
ypi
cal
l
ynu
mber
s,s
uchast
hepr
opor
tionofc
ons
umer
swhoar
eloy
alt
o
apar
tic
ular
brandoft
oot
hpas
te.I
nfor
mat
ionabou
tpopu
lat
ionpar
amet
ersmaybe
obt
ainedbyt
aki
ngac
ens
usoras
ampl
e.
Ac
ens
usi
nvol
vesac
ompl
eteenu
mer
ati
onoft
heel
ement
sofapopu
lat
ion.T
he
popu
lat
ionpar
amet
ersc
anbec
alc
ulat
eddi
rec
tlyi
nas
trai
ght
for
war
dwayaf
ter
t
hec
ens
usi
senu
mer
ated.
 As
ampl
e,on t
he ot
herhand,i
sas
ubgr
oup oft
he popu
lat
ion s
elec
ted f
or
par
tic
ipat
ioni
nthes
tudy
.Sampl
echar
act
eri
sti
cs,
cal
l
eds
tat
ist
ics
,ar
ethenu
sedt
o
makei
nfer
enc
esabou
tthepopu
lat
ionpar
amet
ers
.

6
.4.T
heNeedf
orS
ampl
i
ng
S
ampl
i
ngi
sac
rit
icali
ssu
eins
urveyr
esear
ch;u
sual
l
ythet
ime,money
,andef
for
t
i
nvol
veddonotper
mitar
esear
chert
ost
udyal
lpos
sibl
emember
sofapopu
lat
ion.
F
urt
her
mor
e,i
tisgener
all
ynotnec
ess
aryt
ost
udyal
lpos
sibl
ecas
est
ounder
standt
he
phenomenonu
nderc
ons
ider
ati
on.S
ampl
i
ngc
omest
oou
rai
dbyenabl
i
ngu
stos
tudya
por
tion of t
he popu
lat
ion r
athe
rthan t
he ent
ire popu
lat
ion.
Si
ncet
he pu
rpos
e of
dr
awi
ng a s
ampl
efr
om a popu
lat
ion i
sto obt
aini
nfor
mat
ion c
onc
erni
ng t
hat
popu
lat
ion,i
tisext
reme
lyi
mpor
tantt
hati
ndi
vidu
alsi
ncl
udedi
nas
ampl
econs
tit
utea
r
epr
esent
ati
vec
ros
ssec
tion ofi
ndi
vidu
alsi
nthepopu
lat
ion. I
.e.s
ampl
esmu
stbe
r
epr
esent
ati
oni
fonei
stobeabl
etogener
ali
zewi
thc
onf
idenc
efr
om t
hes
ampl
eto
t
hepopu
lat
ion.S
o,r
andomnes
sisbas
ict
osc
ient
ifi
cobs
ervat
ionandr
efer
enc
e.At
ype
ofs
ampl
ethatc
ont
ainsmanyu
nrepr
esent
ati
vec
har
act
eri
sti
cswou
ldbet
erme
dasa
bi
aseds
ampl
e.T
hef
indi
ngsofabi
aseds
ampl
ecannotl
egi
ti
mat
elybegener
ali
zedt
o
t
hepopu
lat
ionf
rom whi
chi
tist
aken.
L
imi
tat
ionsofs
ampl
i
ng
L
essAc
cur
acy
:inc
ompar
ison t
ocens
ust
echni
quet
hec
onc
lus
ion der
ived f
rom
s
ampl
ear
emor
eli
abl
etoer
ror
.Ther
efor
e,s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quesi
sles
sac
cur
ate
t
hant
hec
ens
ust
echni
que.
Mi
sl
eadi
ngc
onc
lus
ion: i
fthes
ampl
eisnotc
aref
ull
ysel
ect
edori
fsampl
esar
e
ar
bit
rar
il
ysel
ect
ed,t
hec
onc
lus
ionder
ivedf
rom t
hem wi
l
lbec
omemi
sl
eadi
ngi
f
ext
endedt
oal
lpopu
lat
ion.
Needf
ors
pec
ial
i
zedknowl
edge:t
hes
ampl
etec
hni
quec
anbes
ucc
ess
fulonl
yifa
c
ompet
entandabl
esc
ient
istmakest
hes
elec
tion.
S
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
sus
edu
ndert
hef
oll
owi
ngc
ondi
ti
ons
:
Vas
tDat
a:Whent
henu
mbe
rofu
nit
sisver
ylar
ge,s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quemu
stbe
u
sed.Bec
aus
eitec
onomi
zemoney
,ti
meandef
for
t.
Whenu
tmos
tac
cur
acyi
snotr
equ
ired:t
hes
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
sver
ysu
itabl
ein
t
hos
esi
tuat
ionswher
e100%ac
cur
acyi
snotr
equ
ired,ot
her
wis
ecens
ust
echni
quei
s
u
navoi
dabl
e.
I
nfi
nit
epopu
lat
ion:i
fthepopu
lat
ioni
sunl
i
mit
ed,s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
simmi
nent
.
Whenc
ens
usi
simpos
sibl
e:i
fwewantt
oknowt
heamou
ntofmi
ner
alweal
thi
na
c
ount
rywec
annotdi
gal
lmi
nest
odi
scoverandc
ount
.Rat
herwehavet
ous
ethe
s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
que
.
Homogenei
ty:i
fal
luni
tsoft
hepopu
lat
ionar
eal
i
ke(
simi
l
ar)s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
s
eas
ytou
se.
6
.5.S
ampl
i
ngT
echni
ques
T
heyar
ebas
ical
l
yoft
wot
ypes
:non-
probabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngandpr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng.I
n
t
hef
inalanal
ysi
s,al
lsampl
edes
ignsf
alli
ntooneoft
het
woc
ategor
ies
;pr
obabi
l
ityor
non-pr
obabi
l
ity
.
P
robabi
l
itys
ampl
esar
eonesi
nwhi
chmember
soft
hepopu
lat
ionhaveaknown
c
hanc
e(pr
obabi
l
ity
)ofbei
ngs
elec
tedi
ntos
ampl
e.
Non-
probabi
l
itys
ampl
es,ont
heot
herhand,ar
eins
tanc
esi
nwhi
cht
hec
hanc
es
(
probabi
l
ity
)ofs
elec
tingmember
sfr
om t
hepopu
lat
ioni
ntot
hes
ampl
ear
e
u
nknown.
T
hees
senc
eofa“
known”pr
obabi
l
ityr
est
sint
hes
ampl
i
ngmet
hodr
athert
hani
n
knowi
ngt
heexac
tsi
zeoft
hepopu
lat
ion.P
robabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngmet
hodsar
ethos
ethat
ens
uret
hat
,ift
heexac
tsi
zeoft
hepopu
lat
ionwer
eknownf
ort
hemomenti
nti
me
t
hats
ampl
i
ngt
ookpl
ace,t
heexac
tpr
obabi
l
ityofanymemberoft
hepopu
lat
ionbei
ng
s
elec
tedi
ntot
hes
ampl
ecou
ldbec
alc
ulat
ed.I
not
herwor
ds,t
hispr
obabi
l
ityval
uei
s
r
eal
l
yneverc
alc
ulat
edi
nac
tual
i
ty,bu
twear
eas
sur
edbyt
hes
ampl
emet
hodt
hatt
he
c
hanc
esofanyonepopu
lat
ion memberbei
ng s
elec
ted i
ntot
hes
ampl
ecou
ld be
c
ompu
ted.
Wit
hnon-
probabi
l
itymet
hodt
her
eisnowayt
odet
ermi
net
hepr
obabi
l
ity
eveni
fthepopu
lat
ions
izei
sknownbec
aus
ethes
elec
tiont
echni
quei
ssu
bjec
tive.S
oiti
s
t
hes
ampl
i
ngmet
hodr
athert
hant
heknowl
edgeoft
hes
izeoft
hes
ampl
eort
hes
ize
oft
hepopu
lat
iont
hatdet
ermi
nespr
obabi
l
ityornon-
probabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng.

6
.5.
1.Pr
obabi
l
ityS
ampl
i
ngMet
hods

1
.Si
mpl
eRandom S
ampl
i
ng
S
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ngi
sapr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
ret
hatgi
ves
ever
yel
ement
i
nthet
argetpopu
lat
ion,andeac
hpos
sibl
esampl
eofagi
vens
ize,
anequ
alc
hanc
eof
bei
ng s
elec
ted.Ass
uch,i
tisan equ
alpr
obabi
l
itys
elec
tionmet
hod (
EPS
EM).T
his
s
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quei
sexpr
ess
edbyt
hef
ormu
la:
P
robabi
l
ityofs
elec
tion=S
ampl
eSi
ze
P
opu
lat
ions
ize
T
her
ear
eanu
mberofexampl
esofs
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng,i
ncl
udi
ngt
he“
bli
nddr
aw”
met
hodandt
het
abl
eofr
andom nu
mber
smet
hod.
T
he “
bli
nd dr
aw” met
hod:t
he “
bli
nd dr
aw”met
hod i
nvol
vesbl
i
ndl
ychoos
ing
par
tic
ipant
sbyt
hei
rnamesors
omeot
heru
niqu
edes
ignat
ion.
T
het
abl
eofr
andom nu
mber
smet
hod.Amor
esophi
sti
cat
edappl
i
cat
ionofs
impl
e
r
andom s
ampl
i
ngi
stou
seat
abl
eofr
andom nu
mber
swhi
chi
sal
i
sti
ngofnu
mber
s
whos
erandom or
deri
sas
sur
ed.I
fyoul
ookatat
abl
eofr
andom nu
mber
s,y
ouwi
l
l
notbeabl
etos
eeanys
yst
emat
ics
equ
enc
eoft
henu
mber
sregar
dles
sofwhe
reon
t
het
abl
eyoubegi
nandwhet
hery
ougou
p,down,l
eft
,ri
ghtordi
agonal
l
yac
ros
sthe
ent
ries
.

WhatAr
etheS
tepsi
nSel
ect
ingaS
impl
eRandom S
ampl
e?
T
her
ear
esi
xmaj
ors
tepsi
nsel
ect
ingas
impl
erandom s
ampl
e:
.D
1 ef
inet
het
argetpopu
lat
ion.
.I
2 dent
ifyanexi
sti
ngs
ampl
i
ngf
rameoft
het
argetpopu
lat
ionordevel
opa
newone
.E
3 val
uat
ethes
ampl
i
ngf
ramef
oru
nde
rcover
age,over
cover
age,mu
lti
ple
 c
over
age,andc
lus
ter
ing,andmakeadj
ust
ment
swher
enec
ess
ary
.
4. As
signau
niqu
enu
mbert
oeac
hel
ementi
nthef
rame.
.D
5 et
ermi
net
hes
ampl
esi
ze.
.R
6 andoml
ysel
ectt
het
arget
ednu
mberofpopu
lat
ionel
ement
s.

2
.Syst
emat
icS
ampl
i
ng
S
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ngi
soneoft
hemos
tpr
eval
entt
ypesofs
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quesu
sedi
n
pl
aceofs
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ngi
tspopu
lar
ityovers
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ngi
sbas
ed
on:
T
he“
economi
cef
fic
ienc
y”t
hatr
epr
esent
s:i
.e.
,itc
anbeappl
i
edwi
thl
essdi
ffi
cul
ty.
S
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ngi
spr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngbec
aus
eitempl
oysar
andom s
tar
ting
poi
nt,whi
chens
urest
her
eiss
uff
ici
entr
andomnes
sint
hes
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ngt
o
appr
oxi
mat
eaknownandequ
alpr
obabl
yofanyper
sonori
tem i
nthepopu
lat
ion
bei
ngs
elec
tedi
ntot
hes
ampl
e.I
nes
senc
e,s
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ngenvi
si
onst
hel
i
st
asas
etc
ompr
isi
ngmu
tual
l
yexc
lus
ivel
ysampl
es,eac
honeofwhi
chi
sequ
all
y
r
epr
esent
ati
veoft
hel
i
stedpopu
lat
ion.
I
tcanbeac
compl
i
shedi
nas
hor
tert
imepe
riodt
hanc
ans
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng.
I
thast
hepot
ent
ialt
ocr
eat
ea s
ampl
ethati
sal
mos
tident
icali
n qu
ali
tyt
o
s
ampl
esc
reat
edf
rom s
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng.
T
ous
esy
stemat
ics
ampl
i
ng,i
tisnec
ess
aryt
oobt
ainal
i
sti
ngoft
hepopu
lat
ion,j
ustas
i
nthec
aseofs
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng,however
,iti
snotnec
ess
aryt
otr
ans
cri
be
names
,nu
mber
s,oranyot
herdes
ignat
ionsont
osl
i
psofpaperorc
ompu
terf
il
es.
I
nst
ead,t
her
esear
cherdec
idesona“
ski
pint
erval
,”whi
chi
scal
cul
atedbydi
vidi
ngt
he
nu
mberofnamesont
hel
i
stbyt
hes
ampl
esi
ze.Namesar
esel
ect
edbas
edont
hiss
kip
i
nter
val
.Thes
kipi
nter
vali
scompu
tedver
ysi
mpl
ythr
ought
heu
seoft
hef
oll
owi
ng
f
ormu
la.
S
kipi
nter
val=P
opu
lat
ionL
istS
ize1
00,
000/1
000=1
00
S
ampl
esi
ze
F
orexampl
e,t
her
ear
e100,
000el
ement
sint
hepopu
lat
ionandas
ampl
eof1
000i
s
des
ired.I
nthi
scas
e,t
hes
ampl
i
ngi
nter ,i
val ,i
s100.Ar
andom nu
mberbet
ween1and
1
00i
ssel
ect
ed.I
f,f
orexampl
e,t
hisnu
mberi
s23
,thes
ampl
econs
ist
sofel
ement
s23
,
1
23,2
23,3
23,42
3,5
23,ands
oon.
Pr
ocedu
re
1
.Sel
ectas
uit
abl
esampl
i
ngf
rame
2
.Eac
hel
ementi
sas
signedanu
mberf
rom 1–N(
popu
lat
ion)
 3
.Det
ermi
net
hes
ampl
i
ngi
nter
valI
,wher
ei=N/n.i
fii
saf
rac
tion,r
oundt
othe
near
estwhol
enu
mber
4.S
elec
tar
andom nu
mber
,r,bet
ween1andi
,asexpl
ainedi
nsi
mpl
erandom
s
ampl
i
ng
5
.Theel
ementwi
tht
hef
oll
owi
ngnu
mber
swi
l
lcompr
iset
hes
yst
emat
icr
andom
s
ampl
e;
r
,r+i
,r+2
i,r
+3r
,…r+(
n-1
)i.

3
.Cl
ust
erS
ampl
i
ng
I
tisu
sed when t
hepopu
lat
ion u
nders
tudyi
slar
ge,when t
hedi
str
ibu
tion oft
he
member
siss
cat
ter
ed,orwhent
hes
elec
tionofi
ndi
vidu
almember
sisnotc
ont
inentf
or
s
ever
alr
eas
ons
.Cl
ust
ers
ampl
i
ngi
sus
edi
nsi
tuat
ionswher
ethepopu
lat
ionme
mber
s
ar
enat
ural
l
ygr
oupedi
nuni
tthatc
anbeu
sedc
onveni
ent
lyasc
lus
ter
s.Exampl
e: A
r
esear
che
risi
nter
est
edt
osu
rveyt
heMat
h’sac
hievementof4t
hgr
ades
tudent
sin
el
ement
arys
chool
sfou
ndi
nEt
hiopi
a. I
tispr
act
ical
l
yimpos
sibl
etot
es l4th gr
tal ade
s
tudent
sinel
ement
arys
chools
tudent
sint
hec
ount
rybyas
ingl
eres
ear
cher
.Si
ncet
he
4th gr
ader
sar
enat
ural
l
ygr
oupedbyr
egi
ons
,Zones
,Wor
edas
,sc
hool
sandc
las
ses
,the
r
esear
che
rmayt
akez
onesorWor
edasors
chool
sasc
lus
ter
s.I
fsc
hool
sar
esel
ect
ed,i
t
wi
l
lbeeas
ierf
orhi
m t
otakes
tudent
sass
ampl
e.T
hen,al
lst
udent
sint
hes
elec
ted
s
chool
sar
etobes
elec
ted.

C
lus
ters
ampl
i
ngdi
ffer
sfr
om s
trat
ifi
edr
andom s
ampl
i
ngi
nthati
ncl
ust
ers
ampl
i
ng
r
andom s
elec
tionoc
cur
snotwi
tht
hei
ndi
vidu
almember
sbu
twi
tht
hec
lus
ter
s.T
he
c
lus
ter
sfort
hes
ampl
ear
erandoml
ysel
ect
edf
rom t
hel
argepopu
lat
ionofc
lus
terand
onc
eac
lus
teri
ssel
ect
edf
ort
hes
ampl
e,al
lthepopu
lat
ionmember
sint
hatc
lus
ter
sar
e
i
ncl
udedi
nthes
ampl
e.T
hisi
sinc
ont
ras
ttos
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngi
nwhi
cht
hei
ndi
vidu
al
member
s wi
thi
nst
rat
a ar
erandoml
ysel
ect
ed.
We i
l
lus
trat
ecl
ust
er s
ampl
i
ng by
des
cri
bingat
ypeofc
lus
ters
ampl
eknownasar
eas
ampl
i
ng.
Ar
easS
ampl
i
ngasaf
orm ofC
lus
terS
ampl
i
ng
I
nar
eas
ampl
i
ng,t
her
esear
chers
ubdi
videst
hepopu
lat
iont
obes
urvey
edi
ntoar
eas
,
s
uch as r
egi
ons
,ci
ti
es,s
ubc
iti
es,nei
ghbor
hoods
,or any ot
her c
onveni
ent and
i
dent
ifi
abl
egeogr
aphydes
ignat
ion.T
her
esear
cherhast
woopt
ionsatt
hispoi
nt:
a)I
ntheones
tepappr
oac
h,t
her
esear
chmaybel
i
evet
hevar
iou
sgeogr
aphi
car
east
o
be s
uff
ici
ent
lyi
dent
icalt
o per
mithi
m c
onc
ent
rat
e on j
ustonear
ea and t
hen
gener
ali
zet
her
esu
ltst
othef
ullpopu
lat
ion.Bu
tther
esear
cherwou
ldneedt
osel
ect
t
hatonear
ear
andoml
yandper
for
m ac
ens
usofi
tsmember
s.

b)I
nat
wo-s
tepappr
oac
hther
ear
etwos
tepst
othes
ampl
i
ngpr
oces
s.
I
nthef
irs
tst
ep,t
her
esear
cherc
oul
dsel
ectar
andom s
ampl
eofar
eas
.
I
nthes
econds
tep,t
her
esear
cherc
oul
ddec
ideonapr
obabi
l
itymet
hodt
osampl
e
i
ndi
vidu
alswi
thi
nthec
hos
enar
eas
.
T
het
wos
tepappr
oac
hispr
efer
abl
etot
heone-
stepappr
oac
hbec
aus
ether
eisal
way
s
t
hepos
sibi
l
ityt
hatas
ingl
ecl
ust
ermaybel
essr
epr
esent
ati
vet
hen t
her
ese
arc
her
bel
i
eved.Bu
tthet
wo-s
tepmet
hodi
smor
ecos
tlybec
aus
emor
ear
easandt
imear
e
i
nvol
ved.
 C
lus
ters
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
re

4.St
rat
ifi
edS
ampl
i
ng
S
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngi
sapr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
rei
nwhi
cht
het
argetpopu
lat
ioni
s
f
irs
tsepar
atedi
ntomu
tual
l
yexc
lus
ive,homogeneou
ssegment
s(s
trat
a),andt
hena
s
impl
erandom s
ampl
eiss
elec
tedf
rom eac
hse
gment(
str
atu
m).T
hes
ampl
ess
elec
ted
f
rom t
he var
iou
sst
rat
a ar
ethen c
ombi
ned i
ntoas
ingl
esampl
e.T
hiss
ampl
i
ng
pr
ocedu
rei
ssomet
imesr
efer
redt
oas“
quot
arandom s
ampl
i
ng.

Al
loft
hes
ampl
i
ngmet
hodswehavedes
cri
bedt
husf
ari
mpl
i
cit
lyas
sumet
hatt
he
popu
lat
ionhasanor
mal(
bel
lshaped)di
str
ibu
tionf
ori
tskeypr
oper
ties
.Thati
s,t
her
e
i
stheas
sumpt
iont
hatever
ypot
ent
ials
ampl
euni
tisaf
air
lygoodr
epr
esent
ati
onof
t
hepopu
lat
ion,andanywhoar
eext
remel
yinonewayar
eper
fec
tlyc
ount
erbal
anc
edby
oppos
itee
xtr
emepot
ent
ials
ampl
euni
ts.

Unf
ort
unat
ely
,iti
scommon t
owor
kwi
thpopu
lat
ionsi
ncommer
cialr
esear
cht
hat
c
ont
ainu
niqu
esu
bgr
oupi
ngs
;youmi
ghtenc
ount
erapopu
lat
iont
hati
snotdi
str
ibu
ted
s
yst
emat
ical
l
yac
ros
sanor
malc
urve.Wi
tht
hiss
itu
ati
on,u
nles
syoumakeadj
ust
ment
s
i
nyou
rsampl
e des
ign,y
ouwi
l
lend u
p wi
thas
ampl
e des
cri
bed as“
stat
ist
ical
l
y
i
nef
fic
ient
”ori
not
herwor
ds,i
nac
cur
ate.Ones
olu
ti ss
oni t
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng,whi
ch
s
epar
atest
hepopu
lat
ioni
ntodi
ffer
ents
ubgr
oupsandt
hens
ampl
esal
loft
hes
esu
b
gr
oups
.

Wi
ths
trat
ifi
edr
andom s
ampl
i
ng,onet
akesas
kewedpopu
lat
ionandi
dent
ifi
est
hes
ub
gr
oupsors
trat
acont
ainedwi
thi
nit
.Si
mpl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng,s
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ng,or
s
omeot
hert
ypeofpr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
rei
sthenappl
i
edt
odr
aw as
ampl
e
f
rom eac
hst
rat
um.T
hes
trat
ums
ampl
esi
zesc
andi
fferbas
edonknowl
edgeoft
he
var
iabi
l
ityi
n eac
hpopu
lat
ion s
trat
um and wi
tht
heai
m ofac
hievi
ng t
hegr
eat
est
s
tat
ist
icale
ffi
ci
enc
y.
Ac
cur
acyofs
trat
ifi
ed s
ampl
i
ng: how doess
trat
ifi
ed s
ampl
i
ng r
esu
lti
n a mor
e
ac
cur
ateover
alls
ampl
e?T
her
ear
etwoway
sthi
sac
cur
acyi
sac
hieved.
F
irs
t,s
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngal
l
owsf
orexpl
i
citanal
ysi
sofeac
hst
rat
um.T
hec
oll
ege
degr
ee exampl
eil
l
ust
rat
es why a r
esear
cher wou
ld wantt
o know abou
tthe
di
sti
ngu
ishi
ngdi
ffer
enc
esbet
weent
hes
trat
ainor
dert
oas
ses
sthet
ruepi
ctu
re.
Eac
hst
rat
umr
epr
ese
ntsadi
ffer
entr
espons
epr
ofi
l
e,andbyal
l
ocat
ings
ampl
esi
ze
 bas
edont
hevar
iabi
l
ityi
nthes
trat
apr
ofi
l
es,amor
eef
fic
ients
ampl
edes
igni
s
ac
hieved.
S
econd,t
her
eisapr
ocedu
ret
hatal
l
owst
hees
timat
ionoft
heover
alls
ampl
emean
byu
seofawei
ght
edmean,whos
efor
mul
atakesi
ntoc
ons
ider
ati
ont
hes
izesof
t
hes
trat
arel
ati
vet
othet
otalpopu
lat
ions
izeandappl
i
est
hos
epr
opor
tionst
othe
s
trat
a’smeans
.Thepopu
lat
ionmeani
scal
cul
atedbymu
lti
ply
ingeac
hst
rat
um byi
ts
pr
opor
tion and s
ummi
ng t
he wei
ght
ed s
tat
ement
s.T
hisf
ormu
lar
esu
ltsi
n an
es
timat
ethati
scons
ist
entwi
tht
het
ruedi
str
ibu
tionoft
hepopu
lat
ionwhent
he
s
ampl
esi
zesu
sed i
nthe s
trat
a ar
e notpr
opor
tionat
etot
hei
rshar
esoft
he
popu
lat
ion.Her
eist
hef
ormu
lat
hati
sus
edf
ort
wos
trat
a:
Meanpopul
aton=(
i meanA)(
propor
tion)+(
meanB)(
propor
tion)
Wher
eAs
igni
fi
ess
trat
um A,andBs
igni
fi
ess
trat
um B.

Pr
ocedu
res
1
.Sel
ectas
uit
abl
esampl
i
ngf
rame
2
.Sel
ectt
hes
trat
ifi
cat
ionvar
iabl
esandt
henu
mberofs
trat
a,H
3
.Di
videt
heent
irepopu
lat
ioni
ntoHs
trat
a.Bas
edont
hec
las
sif
icat
ionvar
iabl
e,
eac
hel
ementoft
hepopu
lat
ioni
sas
signedt
ooneoft
heHs
trat
a
4.I
neac
hst
rat
um,nu
mberf
rom 1t
oNh,(
thepopu
lat
ions
izeofs
trat
um h)
5
.Det
ermi
net
hes
ampl
esi
zeofeac
hst
rat
um,Nh,bas
edonpr
opor
tionat
eor
di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngwher
e

∑n=n h
h=1

6
.Ineac
hst
rat
um,s
elec
tas
ampl
erandom s
ampl
eofs
izen.

WhatAr
etheS
ubt
ypesofS
trat
ifi
edS
ampl
i
ng?

T
her
ear
etwomaj
ors
ubt
ypesofs
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng:pr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng
and di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
ed s
ampl
i
ng.Di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
ed s
ampl
i
ng has
var
iou
ssu
bcat
egor
ies
.
Pr
opor
tionat
eSt
rat
ifi
edS
ampl
i
ng
I
npr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng,t
henu
mberofel
ement
sal
l
ocat
edt
othevar
iou
s
s
trat
aispr
opor
tionalt
other
epr
esent
ati
onoft
hes
trat
aint
het
argetpopu
lat
ion.T
hat
i
s,t
hes
izeoft
hes
ampl
edr
awnf
rom eac
hst
rat
umi
spr
opor
tionalt
other
elat
ives
ize
oft
hats
trat
um i
nthet
argetpopu
lat
ion.Ass
uch,i
tisas
elf
-wei
ght
ingandEP
SEM
s
ampl
i
ng pr
ocedu
re.T
hes
ames
ampl
i
ng f
rac
tion i
sappl
i
ed t
o eac
hst
rat
um,gi
ving
ever
yel
ementi
nthepopu
lat
ionanequ
alc
hanc
etobes
elec
ted.T
her
esu
lti
ngs
ampl
eis
as
elf
-wei
ght
ing s
ampl
e.T
hiss
ampl
i
ng pr
oce
dur
eisu
sedwhen t
hepu
rpos
eoft
he
r
esear
chi
stoes
timat
eapopu
lat
ion’
s
par
amet
ers
.

Di
spr
opor
tionat
eSt
rat
ifi
edS
ampl
i
ng

Di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngi
sas
trat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
rei
nwhi
cht
he
nu
mber of el
ement
ssampl
ed f
rom eac
hst
rat
um i
s not pr
opor
tionalt
othei
r
r
epr
esent
ati
on i
nthet
otalpopu
lat
ion.P
opu
lat
ion el
ement
sar
enotgi
ven an equ
al
c
hanc
etobei
ncl
udedi
nthes
ampl
e.T
hes
ames
ampl
i
ngf
rac
tioni
snotappl
i
edt
oeac
h
s
trat
um.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hes
trat
ahavedi
ffer
ents
ampl
i
ngf
rac
tions
,andass
uch,
t
hiss
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
rei
snotanEP
SEM s
ampl
i
ngpr
ocedu
re.I
n or
dert
oes
timat
e
popu
lat
ion par
amet
ers
,the popu
lat
ion c
ompos
iti
on mu
stbe u
sed as wei
ght
sto
c
ompens
atef
ort
hedi
spr
opor
tional
i
tyi
nthes
ampl
e.However
,fors
omer
esear
ch
pr
ojec
ts, di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
ed s
ampl
i
ng may be mor
e appr
opr
iat
ethan
pr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ng.

Di
spr
opor
tionat
est
rat
ifi
eds
ampl
i
ngmaybebr
okeni
ntot
hrees
ubt
ypesbas
edont
he
pu
rpos
eofal
l
ocat
iont
hati
simpl
ement
ed.T
hepu
rpos
eoft
heal
l
ocat
ionc
oul
dbet
o
f
aci
l
itat
e wi
thi
n-s
trat
a anal
yses
,bet
ween-
str
ata anal
yses
,oropt
imu
m al
l
ocat
ion.
Opt
imu
m al
l
ocat
ion mayf
ocu
son t
heopt
imi
zat
ion ofc
ost
s,t
heopt
imi
zat
ion of
pr
eci
si
on,ort
heopt
imi
zat
ionofbot
hpr
eci
si
onandc
ost
s

5
-St
age(
mul
tis
tage)S
ampl
i
ng

I
tisaf
urt
herdevel
opmentoft
hepr
inc
ipl
eofc
lus
ters
ampl
i
ng.I
tisu
sedi
nlar
ge-
scal
e
s
urvey
sforamor
ecompr
ehens
ivei
nves
tigat
ion.T
her
esear
chermayhavet
ous
etwo,
t
hree,orf
ours
tages
ampl
i
ng.F
orexampl
e,ar
esear
cherwant
stos
tudyt
heopi
nionof
t
eac
her
stowar
dss
elf
-cent
eredc
las
ssy
stem. Hewant
stos
elec
tas
ampl
efr
om al
l
el
ement
arys
choolt
eac
her
sin Et
hiopi
a. A s
impl
erandom s
ampl
i
ng wou
ld be
i
mpr
act
icalands
ofr
om t
her
egi
onals
tat
eas
ampl
eoff
iver
egi
onals
tat
esc
oul
dbe
s
elec
tedr
andoml
yfr
om Nor
ther
n,Eas
ter
n,s
out
her
n,Wes
ter
nandc
ent
ralr
egi
ons
.
F
rom t
hef
ives
tat
esc
hos
en,al
lzonesc
oul
dbel
i
stedandr
andom s
ampl
eof1
5zones
s
elec
ted.F
orm t
he1
5zones
,30Wor
edasc
anbes
elec
tedr
andoml
yandf
rom t
hes
e
Wor
edasal
lel
ement
arys
chool
scou
ldbel
i
stedandar
andom s
ampl
eof1
00s
chool
s
s
elec
ted. I
twou
ldn’
tbedi
ffi
cul
ttoc
ompi
l
eal
i
stofal
lel
ement
arys
choolt
eac
her
s
wor
kingi
n100s
chool
sandr
andom s
ampl
eofs
ay6
50t
eac
her
ssel
ect
ed.T
hes
ucc
ess
ive
r
andom s
ampl
i
ng ofr
egi
onals
tat
es,z
ones
,Wor
edass
chool
sand f
inal
l
yte
acher
s
c
ons
tit
uteamu
lti
stage/5
stages
/. Mu
ltis
tages
ampl
i
ngi
scompar
ati
vel
yconveni
ent
l
esst
imec
ons
umi
ng,andl
essex
pens
ivemet
hodofs
ampl
i
ng. However
,anel
ement
s
ampl
ebi
asget
sint
rodu
cedbec
aus
eoft
heu
nequ
als
izeofs
omeoft
hes
elec
teds
ub-
s
ampl
es.

6
.5.
2.Non-Pr
obabi
l
ityS
ampl
i
ng
Al
loft
hes
ampl
i
ngmet
hodswehavedes
cri
bedt
husf
arembodypr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng
as
sumpt
ions
.In eac
hcas
e,t
he pr
obabi
l
ity of any i
tem bei
ng s
elec
ted f
rom t
he
popu
lat
ioni
ntot
hes
ampl
eisknown;event
hou
ghi
tcannotbec
alc
ulat
edpr
eci
sel
y.T
he
c
rit
icaldi
ffer
enc
ebet
ween pr
obabi
l
ityand non-
probabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng met
hod i
sthe
mec
hani
csu
sed i
nthe s
ampl
e des
ign.Wi
th a non-pr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng me
thod,
s
elec
tioni
snotbas
edonpr
obabi
l
ity
.Thati
syouc
annotc
alc
ulat
ethepr
obabi
l
ityofany
oneper
soni
nthepopu
lat
ionbei
ngs
elec
tedi
ntot
hes
ampl
e.S
til
l
,eac
hnon-
probabi
l
ity
s
ampl
i
ngmet
hods
tri
vest
odr
awar
epr
esent
ati
ves
ampl
e.
T
her
ear
efou
rnonpr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ngmet
hods
.
1
.Conveni
enc
eSampl
es:C
onveni
enc
esampl
esar
esampl
esdr
awnatt
hec
onveni
enc
e
oft
hei
nter
viewer
.Ac
cor
dingl
y,t
hemos
tconveni
entar
east
oar
esear
cheri
nter
ms
oft
imeandef
for
ttu
rnou
ttobe“
hight
raf
fic
”ar
eass
uchass
hoppi
ngorbu
sy
pedes
tri
an ar
eas
.The s
elec
tion of t
he pl
ace and c
ons
equ
ent
ly, pr
ospec
tive
r
espondent
siss
ubj
ect
iver
athert
hanobj
ect
ive.C
ert
ainmember
soft
hepopu
lat
ion
ar
eau
tomat
ical
l
yel
i
minat
edf
rom t
hes
ampl
i
ngpr
oces
s.F
ori
nst
anc
e,t
her
ear
e
t
hos
epeopl
ewhomaybei
nfr
equ
entorevennonvi
si
tor
soft
hepar
tic
ularhi
gh-
t
raf
ficar
easbei
ng u
sed.On t
heot
herhand,i
ntheabs
enc
eofs
tri
cts
elec
tion
pr
ocedu
res
,ther
ear
emembe
rsoft
hepopu
lat
ionwhomaybeomi
ttedbec
aus
eof
t
hei
rphy
sic
alappear
anc
e,orbyt
hef
actt
hatt
heyar
einagr
oupr
athert
hanal
one.
2
.Ju
dgmentS
ampl
es:J
udgments
ampl
esar
esomewhatdi
ffer
entf
rom c
onveni
ent
s
ampl
esi
nconc
eptbec
aus
etheyr
equ
iret
hej
udgmentoran“
edu
cat
edgu
ess
”as
 who s
hou
ldr
epr
esentt
he popu
lat
ion.Of
ten,t
her
esear
cherors
omei
ndi
vidu
al
hel
pingt
her
esear
cherwhohasc
ons
ider
abl
eknowl
edgeabou
tthepopu
lat
ionwi
l
l
c
hoos
ethos
eindi
vidu
alsheors
hef
eel
scons
tit
utet
hes
ampl
e.F
ocu
sgr
oups
tudi
es
of
tenu
sej
udgments
ampl
i
ngr
athert
hanpr
obabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng.
3
.Ref
err
alS
ampl
i
ng:Ref
err
als
ampl
i
ng,s
omet
imesc
all
ed “
snow bal
lsampl
es,
”
r
equ
irer
espondent
stopr
ovi
det
henamesofaddi
ti
onalr
espondent
s.S
uchl
i
sts
begi
nwhent
her
ese
arc
herc
ompl
yas
hor
tli
stofs
ampl
euni
tst
hati
ssmal
l
ert
han
t
he t
otals
ampl
e he ors
he des
ires f
ort
he s
tudy
.Af
tereac
hres
pondenti
s
i
nter
viewed,he or s
he i
s qu
eri
ed abou
tthe names of t
he ot
her pos
sibl
e
r
espondent
s.I
nthi
smanner
,addi
ti
onalr
espondent
sar
eref
err
ed bypr
evi
ous
r
espondent
s.Ref
err
als
ampl
esar
emos
tappr
opr
iat
ewhent
her
eisal
i
mit
edand
di
sappoi
nti
ngl
yshor
tsampl
efr
ameandwhenr
espondent
scanpr
ovi
det
henames
ofot
her
swhowou
ldqu
ali
fyf
ort
hes
urvey
.Thenon-
probabi
l
ityas
pec
tsofr
efer
ral
s
ampl
i
ngc
omef
rom t
hes
ele
cti
vit
yus
edt
hrou
ghou
t.
4.Qu
otaS
ampl
es:T
hequ
otas
ampl
ees
tabl
i
shesas
pec
ifi
cqu
otaf
orvar
iou
sty
pesof
i
ndi
vidu
alst
o be i
nter
viewed.I
tisa f
orm of non-
probabi
l
itys
ampl
i
ng u
sed
pr
eval
ent
ly by c
ommer
cialr
esear
cher
s.T
he qu
otas ar
e det
ermi
ned t
hrou
gh
appl
i
cat
ionoft
her
esear
chobj
ect
ivesandar
edef
inedbykeyc
har
act
eri
sti
csu
sedt
o
i
dent
ifyt
hepopu
lat
ion.I
ntheappl
i
cat
ion ofqu
otas
ampl
i
ng,af
iel
dwor
keri
s
pr
ovi
dedwi
ths
creeni
ngc
rit
eri
athatwi
l
lcl
ass
ifyt
hepot
ent
ialr
espondenti
ntoa
par
tic
ularqu
otac
ell
.A l
argebank,f
ori
nst
anc
emi
ghts
tipu
lat
ethatt
hef
inal
s
ampl
e be one-
hal
fadu
ltmal
esand one-
hal
fadu
ltf
emal
esbec
aus
eint
hei
r
u
nder
standi
ng oft
hei
rmar
ket
,thec
ust
omerpr
ofi
l
eisabou
t50-
50,mal
eand
f
emal
e.Aqu
otas
yst
em ove
rcomesmu
choft
henonr
epr
esent
ati
venes
sdanger
i
nher
enti
nconveni
enc
esampl
es.I
tmay gu
arant
ee t
hatt
he r
esear
che
r has
s
uff
ici
ents
ubs
ampl
esi
zesf
ormeani
ngf
uls
ubgr
oupanal
ysi
s.
S
trengt
handweaknes
sesofS
ampl
i
ngMet
hods
 6
.6. Devel
opi
ngaS
ampl
ePl
an
T
hevar
iou
sas
pec
tsofs
ampl
i
ngar
elogi
cal
l
yjoi
nedt
oget
her
,andt
her
eisadef
ini
te
s
equ
enc
eofs
teps
,cal
l
edt
hes
ampl
epl
an,t
hatt
her
esear
chergoest
hrou
ghi
nor
dert
o
dr
aw and u
lti
mat
elyar
riveatt
hef
inals
ampl
e.T
hes
est
epsar
eil
l
ust
rat
ed i
nthe
f
oll
owi
ngf
igu
re.
 I
ll
ust
rat
ionofs
tepsofas
ampl
epl
an
S
tep1
:Def
inet
heRel
evantPopu
lat
ion
T
hever
yfi
rsts
tept
obec
ons
ider
edi
nthes
ampl
i
ngpr
oces
srequ
iresadef
ini
ti
onoft
he
t
argetpopu
lat
ionu
nders
tudy
.Thet
argetpopu
lat
ioni
sident
ifi
edbyt
her
esear
chs
tudy
obj
ect
ives
.Ther
esear
cherhast
ospec
ifyt
hes
ampl
euni
tint
hef
orm ofapr
eci
se
des
cri
pti
onoft
het
ypeofper
sont
obes
urvey
ed.
Demogr
aphi
cdes
cri
pti
ons
,su
chasage
r
ange,i
ncomer
ange,edu
cat
ionall
evel
,ands
ofor
th,ar
ety
pic
all
yus
edi
npopu
lat
ion
def
ini
ti
ons
.Li
fes
tyl
edes
cri
pti
onsmayal
soi
ncl
ude.F
inal
l
y,ot
hert
ypesofdes
cri
pti
ons
ar
eavai
l
abl
e.

S
tep2
:Obt
aina“
li
sti
ng”oft
hePopu
lat
ion
Onc
ether
elevantpopu
lat
ionhasbeendef
ined,t
her
esear
cherbegi
nss
ear
chi
ngf
ora
s
uit
abl
eli
stt
oser
veast
hes
ampl
efr
ame.I
nsomes
tudi
es,c
andi
dat
eli
stsar
ereadi
l
y
avai
l
abl
eint
hef
orm ofdi
rec
tor
ies
,companyf
il
esorr
ecor
ds,ei
therpu
bli
corpr
ivat
e
t
hatar
emadeavai
l
abl
etot
her
esear
cher
.Mos
tli
stss
uff
erf
rom s
ampl
efr
ameer
ror
:
oraswenot
edear
li
er,t
hel
i
sti
ngdoesnotc
ont
ainac
ompl
eteenu
mer
ati
oni
nthat
s
omeoft
hos
eli
stedmaynotbel
ongt
othepopu
lat
ion.
Thekeyt
oas
ses
sings
ampl
e
f
rameer
rorl
i
esi
ntwof
act
ors
:
1
.Ju
dgi
nghowt
hepeopl
eli
stedi
nthes
ampl
efr
amear
efr
om t
hepopu
lat
ion,and
2
.Es
timat
ingwhatki
ndsofpeopl
eint
hepopu
lat
ionar
enotl
i
stedi
nthes
ampl
e
f
ame
Wi
tht
hef
irs
tfac
tor
,sc
reeni
ngqu
est
ionsatt
hebeggi
ngofani
nter
view wi
l
l
u
sual
l
ysu
ffi
ce asa meansofdi
squ
ali
fyi
ng t
hos
econt
act
ed who ar
e not
c
ons
ist
entwi
tht
hepopu
lat
iondef
ini
ti
on.
Wi
tht
hes
econdc
ons
ider
ati
on,i
fther
esear
cherc
annotf
indanyr
eas
ont
hat
t
hos
epopu
lat
ionmembe
rst
hatwer
elef
tof
fthel
i
stwou
ldadver
sel
yaf
fec
ted
t
hef
inals
ampl
e,t
hedegr
eeoff
rameer
rori
sju
dgedt
oler
abl
e.

S
tep3
:Des
ignS
ampl
ePl
an(
siz
e,met
hod)
Ar
med wi
th a pr
eci
se def
ini
ti
on of t
he popu
lat
ion and an u
nder
standi
ng of t
he
avai
l
abi
l
ityandc
ondi
ti
onoft
het
argetpopu
lat
ion,t
her
esear
cherpr
ogr
essdi
rec
tlyi
nto
t
hedes
ignoft
hes
ampl
eit
sel
f.Att
hispoi
nt,t
hec
ostofvar
iou
sdat
acol
l
ect
ionmet
hod
f
act
orsc
omesi
nto pl
ay.T
hati
s,t
her
esear
cherbegi
nst
osi
mul
taneou
slybal
anc
e
s
ampl
edes
ign,dat
acol
l
ect
ionc
ost
s,ands
ampl
esi
ze.T
her
emaybeaneedf
orat
rade-
of
fbet
weent
hedes
iref
ors
tat
ist
icalpr
eci
si
onandt
her
equ
irement
sofef
fic
ienc
yand
ec
onomy
.Regar
dles
soft
he s
ize oft
he s
ampl
e,t
he s
pec
ifi
csampl
i
ng met
hod or
c
ombi
nat
ionofs
ampl
i
ngmet
hodst
obeempl
oyedmu
stbes
tipu
lat
edi
ndet
ailbyt
he
r
esear
che
r.T
her
eisnoone“
bes
t”s
ampl
i
ngmet
hod.T
hes
ampl
epl
anvar
iesac
cor
ding
t
otheobj
ect
iveoft
hes
urveyandi
tsc
ons
trai
nts
.Thes
ampl
i
ngmet
hoddes
cri
pti
on
i
ncl
udesal
loft
henec
ess
arys
tepst
odr
awt
hes
ampl
e.F
ori
nst
anc
e,i
fwedec
idet
ous
e
s
yst
emat
ics
ampl
i
ng,t
he s
ampl
i
ng met
hod wou
ld det
ailt
hes
ampl
i
ng f
rame,t
he
s
ampl
esi
ze,t
hes
kipi
nter
val
,how t
her
andom s
tar
tingpoi
ntwou
ldbedet
ermi
ned,
qu
ali
fyi
ngqu
est
ions
,rec
ons
tru
cts
,andr
epl
acementpr
ocedu
res
.Obvi
ous
ly,i
tisvi
talt
o
t
hes
ucc
essoft
hes
urveyt
hatt
hes
ampl
i
ngmet
hodi
sadher
edt
othr
oughou
ttheent
ire
s
ampl
i
ngpr
oces
s.

S
tep4:Ac
ces
sthePopu
lat
ion
I
tref
erst
oappr
oac
hingt
hepopu
lat
ionaspert
hes
pec
ifi
eddef
ini
ti
on.

S
tep5
:Dr
awt
hes
ampl
e
Dr
awi
ngt
hes
ampl
eisat
wo-phas
epr
oces
s.
F
irs
t,t
hes
ampl
euni
tmu
stbes
elec
ted.
S
econd,i
nfor
mat
ionmu
stbegai
nedf
rom t
hatu
nit
.
S
impl
ypu
t,y
ouneedt
ochoos
eaper
sonandas
khi
m orhers
omequ
est
ions
.However
,
asy
our
eal
i
ze,notever
yonewi
l
lagr
eet
oans
wer
.Sot
her
ecomest
hequ
est
ionof
s
ubs
tit
uti
ons
.Su
bst
itu
tionsoc
curwheneverani
ndi
vidu
alwhowasqu
ali
fi
edt
obei
nthe
s
ampl
epr
ovest
obeu
navai
l
abl
e,u
nwi
l
li
ngt
ores
pond,oru
nsu
itabl
e.

S
tep6
:Val
i
dat
etheS
ampl
e
T
hef
inalac
tivi
tyi
nthes
ampl
i
ngpr
oces
sist
heval
i
dat
ions
tage.S
ampl
eval
i
dat
ionc
an
t
akeanu
mberoff
orms
,oneofwhi
chi
stoc
ompar
ethes
ampl
e’sdemogr
aphi
cpr
ofi
l
e
wi
thaknownpr
ofi
l
esu
chast
hec
ens
us.Wi
thqu
otas
ampl
eval
i
dat
ion,ofc
our
se,t
he
r
esear
che
rmu
stu
sedemogr
aphi
cchar
act
eri
sti
csot
hert
hanu
sedt
osetu
pthequ
ota
s
yst
em.T
hees
senc
eofs
ampl
eval
i
dat
ioni
stoas
sur
ethec
li
entt
hatt
hiss
ampl
eis
,in
f
act
,ar
epr
esent
ati
ves
ampl
eoft
hepopu
lat
ionabou
twhi
cht
hedec
isi
onmakerwi
shes
t
omakedec
isi
ons
.
S
tep7
:Res
ampl
e,i
fNec
ess
ary
Whenas
ampl
efai
l
stheval
i
dat
ion,i
tmeanst
hati
tdoesnotadequ
atel
yrepr
ese
ntt
he
popu
lat
ion.T
hispr
obl
em mayar
iseevenwhens
ampl
esu
bst
itu
tionsar
einc
orpor
ated.
S
omet
imeswhent
hisc
ondi
ti
oni
sfou
nd,t
her
esear
cherc
aus
esawei
ght
ings
chemei
n
t
het
abu
lat
ionsandanal
ysest
ocompens
atef
ort
hemi
srepr
esent
ati
on.Ont
heot
her
hand,i
tiss
omet
imespos
sibl
etoper
for
mres
embl
i
ngbys
elec
tingmor
eres
pondent
s
andaddi
ngt
hem u
nti
las
ati
sfac
tor
ylevelofval
i
dat
ioni
sreac
hed.

6
.7.S
ampl
i
ngandNonS
ampl
i
ngEr
ror
S
ampl
i
ngs
tudi
esar
esu
bjec
ttos
ampl
i
ngandnon-
sampl
i
nger
ror
s,whi
char
ear
andom,
orofac
ons
tantnat
ure.T
heer
ror
scr
eat
eddu
etos
ampl
i
ngandatwhi
cht
heaver
age
magni
tudec
anbedet
ermi
nedar
esampl
i
nger
ror
s,whi
l
eot
her
sar
ecal
l
edbi
ases
.

6
.7.
1.S
ampl
i
ngEr
ror
:
I
sthedi
ffer
enc
ebet
weent
her
esu
ltofas
ampl
eandt
her
esu
ltofc
ens
us
I
sthedi
ffer
enc
ebet
ween t
hes
ampl
ees
timat
ion andt
heac
tualval
ueoft
he
popu
lat
ion
I
saner
rort
hati
scr
eat
edbec
aus
eofc
hanc
eonl
y?
Al
thou
ghas
ampl
eispr
oper
lys
elec
ted,t
her
ewi
l
lbes
omedi
ffer
enc
ebet
ween t
he
es
timat
eobt
ainedf
rom s
ampl
e(s
ampl
est
ati
sti
cs)andt
heac
tualval
ueofpopu
lat
ion
(
par
amet
er).T
hemeanoft
hes
ampl
emi
ghtbedi
ffer
entf
rom t
hepopu
lat
ionmean
byc
hanc
eal
one.T
hes
tandar
ddevi
ati
onoft
hes
ampl
ewi
l
lal
sopr
obabl
ybedi
ffer
ent
f
rom t
hepopu
lat
ions
tandar
ddevi
ati
on. Wec
ant
her
efor
e,expec
tsomedi
ffe
renc
e
bet
ween t
he s
ampl
est
ati
sti
csand t
he c
orr
espondi
ng popu
lat
ion val
uesknown as
par
amet
ers
.Thi
sdi
ffer
enc
eisknownast
hes
ampl
i
nger
ror
.
6
.7.
2.S
yst
emat
ic/NonPr
obabi
l
ity
/Sampl
i
ngBi
as
I
tisa non-
probabi
l
ityer
ror
,whi
chc
an be c
reat
ed f
rom er
ror
sint
he s
ampl
i
ng
pr
ocedu
resandi
tcannotber
edu
cedorel
i
minat
edbyi
ncr
eas
ingt
hes
ampl
ess
ize
.Su
ch
er
ror
soc
curbec
aus
eofhu
manmi
stakesandnotc
hanc
e. T
hepos
sibl
efac
tor
sthat
c
ont
ribu
tet
othec
reat
ionofs
uchbi
asi
ncl
ude:
1
.Inappr
opr
iat
eSampl
i
ng:I
fthes
ampl
euni
tismi
srepr
esent
ati
onoft
heu
niver
se,i
t
wi
l
lres
ulti
nsampl
i
ngbi
as.T
hisc
oul
dhappenwhenar
esear
chergat
her
sdat
afr
om
as
ampl
ethatwasdr
awnf
rom s
omef
avor
edl
ocat
ions
.Itoc
cur
swhent
her
eisa
f
ail
ureofal
luni
tsi
ntheu
niver
set
ohaves
omepr
obabi
l
ityofbei
ngs
elec
tedf
ort
he
s
ampl
e.
2
.Ac
ces
sibi
l
ityBi
as:i
nac
ons
ider
abl
enu
mberofr
esear
chs
tudi
es,r
esear
cher
stendt
o
s
elec
tres
pondent
swhoar
ethemos
tac
ces
sibl
etot
hem (
eas
il
yreac
hed). Bu
tit
s
hou
ldbenot
edt
hatwhenal
lmember
soft
hepopu
lat
ionar
en’
tequ
all
yac
ces
sibl
e,
t
her
esear
chermu
stpr
ovi
des
omemec
hani
smsofc
ont
rol
l
ings
oast
oens
uret
he
abs
enc
eofoverandu
nderr
epr
esent
ati
onofs
omer
espondent
s.
3
.Def
ect
iveMeas
uri
ngDevi
ces
:ins
omei
nst
anc
es,qu
est
ionsi
naqu
est
ionnai
remay
notbephr
aseds
othatt
heyar
efu
ll
yunder
standabl
ebyr
espondent
s.C
ons
equ
ent
ly,
t
heans
wer
sobt
ainedar
en’
tac
cur
ate.F
urt
her
mor
e,onanymeas
uri
ngdevi
ce,mos
t
i
ndi
vidu
alsar
eli
kel
ytobemi
smeas
uredt
osomedegr
eedu
etoer
ror
sinpr
ocedu
res
ofobs
ervat
ion,i
nter
viewi
ng,c
odi
nget
c.
4.Non-
Res
pons
eBi
as:T
hisi
sani
ncompl
etec
over
ageofas
ampl
eori
nabi
l
ityt
oget
c
ompl
eter
espons
esf
rom al
lthei
ndi
vidu
alsi
nit
ial
l
yinc
ludedi
nthes
ampl
e. T
his
ar
isesdu
etof
ail
urei
nloc
ati
ngs
omeoft
hei
ndi
vidu
alsoft
hepopu
lat
ions
elec
tedf
or
s
ampl
eordu
etot
hei
rref
usal
.Non-r
espons
eer
ror
sar
eal
sodu
etot
her
espondent
s
notpr
oces
sing/havi
ngc
orr
ecti
nfor
mat
ionordu
etot
hei
rgi
vingdel
i
ber
atel
ybi
ased
r
espons
es.

Not
ethatnon-
sampl
i
nger
ror
soc
curbot
hinas
ampl
esu
rveyandi
nac
ens
us;
wher
eas
t
hes
ampl
i
nger
ror
soc
curonl
ywhenas
ampl
esu
rveyi
scondu
cted.P
repar
ingt
hes
urvey
qu
est
ionnai
reandhandl
i
ngt
hedat
acar
efu
ll
ycanmi
nimi
zeno-
sampl
i
nger
ror
s.
6
.8.Det
ermi
ningt
heS
ampl
eSi
ze
I
nst
eadofdet
ermi
ningr
epr
esent
ati
venes
s,t
hes
izeoft
hes
ampl
eaf
fec
tst
heac
cur
acy
ofr
esu
lts
.Sampl
eac
cur
acyr
efe
rst
ohow c
los
ethes
ampl
e’ss
tat
ist
ici
stot
het
rue
popu
lat
ion’
sval
uei
trepr
esent
s.Not
ethat
:
 S
ampl
esi
zei
s not r
elat
ed t
o r
epr
esent
ati
venes
s. Repr
esent
ati
venes
sis
dependentont
hes
ampl
epl
an.
 S
ampl
esi
zei
srel
atedt
oac
cur
acy
.

6
.8.
1.Met
hodsofDet
ermi
ningS
ampl
eSi
ze

1
.Ar
bit
rar
yAppr
oac
h:T
hear
bit
rar
yappr
oac
hus
esa“
rul
eoft
humb”t
odet
ermi
net
he
s
ampl
esi
ze.T
her
esear
chermaydet
ermi
ne,f
ori
nst
anc
e,t
hatt
hes
ampl
esi
zes
hou
ld
be5
%oft
hepopu
lat
ion.Ar
bit
rar
ysampl
esi
zear
esi
mpl
eandeas
ytoappl
y,bu
tthey
ar
enei
theref
fic
ientnotec
onomi
cal
.
2
.Convent
ionalAppr
oac
h:T
hec
onvent
ionalappr
oac
hfol
l
owss
ome“
convent
ion”or
nu
mberbel
i
eveds
omehow t
obet
her
ights
ampl
esi
ze.T
hec
onvent
ionmi
ghtbean
aver
ageoft
hes
ampl
esi
zesofs
imi
l
ars
tudi
es,i
tmi
ghtbet
hel
arges
tsampl
esi
zeof
pr
evi
ouss
urvey
s,ori
tmi
ghtbeequ
alt
othes
ampl
esi
zeofac
ompet
itor
’ss
urvey
.For
i
nst
anc
ether
esear
chermayt
aket
hec
onvent
ionals
ampl
esi
zeofbet
ween1
000and
1
200asdet
ermi
nedbyt
hei
ndu
str
y.Us
eofac
onvent
ionals
ampl
esi
zec
anr
esu
lti
na
s
ampl
ethatmaybet
oos
mal
lort
ool
arge.
3
.Cos
tBas
isAppr
oac
h:I
tus
esc
ostasabas
isf
ors
ampl
esi
ze.I
nthi
scas
e,i
nst
eadof
t
heval
ueoft
hei
nfor
mat
iont
obegai
ned(
from s
urveybei
ngapr
imar
ycons
ider
ati
on
i
nthes
ampl
esi
ze)t
hes
ampl
esi
zei
sdet
ermi
nedbyc
ostf
act
orst
hati
gnor
etheval
ue.
4.S
tat
ist
icalAnal
ysi
sAppr
oac
h:S
omeadvanc
eds
tat
ist
icalt
echni
quesr
equ
irec
ert
ain
mi
nimu
m s
ampl
esi
zesi
n or
dert
ober
eli
abl
e,ort
osaf
egu
ardt
heval
i
dit
yoft
he
s
tat
ist
icalr
esu
lts
.St
ati
sti
calanal
ysi
sisu
sedt
oanal
ysi
ssu
bgr
oupswi
thi
nas
ampl
e.
5
.Conf
idenc
eInt
ervalAppr
oac
h:T
ocr
eat
eaval
i
dsampl
e,t
hec
onf
idenc
eint
erval
appr
oac
happl
i
est
hec
onc
eptof
:
Var
iabi
l
ity
:ist
heamou
ntofdi
ssi
mil
ari
tyi
nres
pondent
s’ans
wer
stoapar
tic
ular
qu
est
ion.
C
onf
idenc
eint
erval
;isar
angewhos
eendpoi
ntsdef
ineac
ert
ainper
cent
ageof
t
her
espons
esi
saqu
est
ion.
S
tandar
der
ror
:iti
ndi
cat
eshow f
arawayf
rom t
het
ruepopu
lat
ion val
uea
t
ypi
cals
ampl
eres
ulti
sexpe
cted.
 C
HAPT
ERS
EVEN

DAT
APROC
ESS
INGANDANAL
YSI
S

T
hegoalofanyr
esear
chi
stopr
ovi
dei
nfor
mat
ionou
tofr
aw dat
a. T
her
aw dat
a
af
terc
oll
ect
ionhast
obepr
oces
sedandanal
yzedi
nli
newi
tht
heou
tli
ne(
plan)l
aid
downf
ort
hepu
rpos
eatt
het
imeofdevel
opi
ngt
her
esear
chpl
an.T
hec
ompi
l
eddat
a
mu
stbec
las
sif
ied,pr
oces
sed,anal
yzedandi
nter
pret
edc
aref
ull
ybef
oret
hei
rcompl
ete
meani
ngsandi
mpl
i
cat
ionsc
anbeu
nder
stood.

7
.1Dat
aPr
oces
sing
Dat
apr
oces
singi
mpl
i
esedi
ti
ng,c
odi
ng,c
las
sif
icat
ionandt
abu
lat
ionofc
oll
ect
eddat
a
s
othatt
heyar
eamenabl
etoanal
ysi
s.
1
.Edi
ti
ng:
I
tisapr
oces
sofexami
ningt
hec
oll
ect
edr
awdat
atodet
ecter
ror
sandomi
ssi
on
(
ext
remeval
ues
)andt
ocor
rec
tthos
ewhenpos
sibl
e.
 I
tinvol
vesac
aref
uls
cru
tinyofc
ompl
etedqu
est
ionnai
resors
chedu
les
 I
tisdonet
oas
sur
ethatt
hedat
aar
e:
Ac
cur
ate
C
ons
ist
entwi
thot
herdat
agat
her
ed
Uni
for
mlyent
ered
Asc
ompl
eteaspos
sibl
e
Andhasbeenwel
lor
gani
zedt
ofac
il
it
atec
odi
ngandt
abu
lat
ion.

Edi
ti
ngc
anbeei
therf
iel
dedi
ti
ngorc
ent
raledi
ti
ng

F
iel
dedi
ti
ng: c
ons
istofr
evi
ewi
ngoft
her
epor
tingf
ormsbyt
hei
nves
tigat
or
f
orc
ompl
eti
ngwhathasbeenwr
itt
eni
nabbr
evi
ati
onand/ori
nil
l
egi
blef
orm
atat
imeofr
ecor
dingt
her
espondent
’sr
espons
e.T
hiss
ortofedi
ti
ngs
hou
ldbe
doneass
oonaspos
sibl
eaf
tert
hei
nter
vieworobs
ervat
ion.

C
ent
ralEdi
ti
ng: i
twi
l
ltakepl
aceatt
her
esear
chof
fic
e. I
tsobj
ect
ivei
sto
c
orr
ecter
ror
ssu
chasent
ryi
nthewr
ongpl
ace,ent
ryr
ecor
dedi
nwr
ongu
nit
s
(
weeksi
nst
eadofmont
h).

2
.Codi
ng:
C
odi
ngr
efer
stot
hepr
oces
sofas
signi
ngnu
mer
icalorot
hers
ymbol
stoans
wer
sso
t
hatr
espons
esc
anbepu
tint
oal
i
mit
ednu
mberofc
ategor
iesorc
las
ses
.Su
chc
las
ses
s
hou
ldbeappr
opr
iat
etot
her
esear
chpr
obl
em u
nderc
ons
ider
ati
on.T
her
emu
stbea
c
las
sofever
ydat
ait
ems
.Theymu
stbemu
tual
l
yexc
lus
ive(
aspec
ifi
cans
werc
anbe
pl
acedi
noneandonl
yonec
elli
nagi
venc
ategor
yset
).C
odi
ngdec
isi
onss
hou
ldu
sual
l
y
bet
akenatt
hedes
igni
ngs
tageoft
hequ
est
ionnai
re.
3
.Cl
ass
ifi
cat
ion:
Mos
tres
ear
chs
tudi
esi
nal
argevol
umeofr
aw dat
a,whi
chmu
stber
edu
cedi
nto
homogenou
sgr
oup.Dat
acl
ass
ifi
cat
ion i
mpl
i
est
hepr
oces
sesofar
rangi
ng dat
ain
gr
oupsorc
las
seson t
hebas
isofc
ommon c
har
act
eri
sti
cs. Dat
a havi
ng c
ommon
c
har
act
eri
sti
cspl
acedi
nonec
las
sandi
nthi
swayt
heent
iredat
agetdi
videdi
ntoa
nu
mberofgr
oupsorc
las
ses
.

3
.1Dat
aac
cor
dingt
oat
tri
but
es:

Dat
aar
ecl
ass
ifi
edont
hebas
isofc
ommonc
har
act
eri
sti
cst
hatar
edes
cri
pti
ves
uchas
l
i
ter
acy
,sex, hones
ty, et
c.S
uch des
cri
pti
ve c
har
act
eri
sti
csr
efer t
o qu
ali
tat
ive
phenomenon,whi
chc
annotbemeas
uredqu
ant
itat
ivel
y:onl
ythei
rpr
esenc
eorabs
enc
e
i
nani
ndi
vidu
ali
tem c
anbenot
iced. Dat
aobt
ainedt
hiswayont
hebas
isofc
ert
ain
at
tri
but
esar
eknownass
tat
ist
icsofat
tri
but
esandt
hei
rcl
ass
ifi
cat
ioni
ssai
dtobe
c
las
sif
icat
ionac
cor
dingt
oat
tri
but
es.

3
.2C
las
sif
icat
ionac
cor
dingt
oCl
assi
nter
val
:

Unl
i
ke de
scr
ipt
ive c
har
act
eri
sti
cst
he nu
mer
icalc
har
act
eri
sti
csr
efert
o qu
ant
itat
ive
phenomena,whi
chc
anbemeas
uredt
hrou
ghs
omes
tat
ist
icalu
nit
. Dat
arel
ati
ngt
o
i
ncome,age,wei
ght
,et
c.c
omeu
ndert
hisc
ategor
y.S
uchdat
aar
eknownass
tat
ist
ics
ofvar
iabl
esandar
ecl
ass
ifi
edont
hebas
isofc
las
sint
erval
.Forexampl
e,i
ndi
vidu
als
whos
einc
omes
,say
,ar
ewi
thi
n1001
-15
00 bi
rrc
an f
orm onegr
oup,t
hos
ewhos
e
i
ncomeswi
thi
n500-
1500bi
rrc
anf
orm anot
hergr
oupands
oon.I
nthi
swayt
heent
ire
dat
amaybedi
videdi
ntoanu
mberofgr
oupsorc
las
sesorwhatar
eus
ual
l
ycal
l
edc
las
s
i
nter
val
.Eac
hcl
ass
-int
erval
,thu
s,hasanu
pperaswel
lasl
owerl
i
mit
,whi
chi
sknown
asc
las
sli
mit
.Thedi
ffer
enc
ebet
weent
het
wo-
clas
sli
mit
sisknownasc
las
smagni
tude.
T
henu
mberofi
temst
hatf
alli
nagi
venc
las
sisknownast
hef
requ
enc
yoft
hegi
ven
c
las
s.

7
.2Dat
aAnal
ysi
s

Dat
aanal
ysi
sisf
urt
hert
rans
for
mat
ionoft
hepr
oces
seddat
atol
ookf
orpat
ter
nsand
r
elat
ionsamongdat
agr
oups
.Byanal
ysi
swemeant
hec
ompu
tat
ionofc
ert
aini
ndi
ces
ormeas
uresal
ongwi
ths
ear
chi
ngf
orpat
ter
nsorr
elat
ions
hipt
hatexi
stamongt
he
dat
a gr
oups
.Anal
ysi
spar
tic
ular
lyi
ncas
eofs
urveyorexper
iment
aldat
ainvol
ves
es
timat
ing t
he val
uesof u
nknown par
amet
ersof t
he popu
lat
ion and t
est
ing of
hy
pot
hes
isf
ordr
awi
ngi
nfer
enc
es.

Anal
ysi
scanbec
ategor
izedas
:

 Des
cri
pti
veAnal
ysi
s

 I
nfer
ent
ial(
Stat
ist
ical
)Anal
ysi
s

7
.2.
1Des
cri
pti
veAnal
ysi
s
Des
cri
pti
veanal
ysi
sisl
argel
ythes
tudyofdi
str
ibu
tionofonevar
iabl
e.Anal
ysi
sbegi
ns
f
ormos
tpr
ojec
tswi
ths
omef
orm ofdes
cri
pti
veanal
ysi
stor
edu
cet
hedat
aint
oa
s
ummar
yfor
mat
.Des
cri
pti
veanal
ysi
sref
erst
othet
rans
for
mat
ionofr
awdat
aint
o
af
ormt
hatwi
l
lmaket
hem eas
ytou
nder
standandi
nter
pret
.

T
hemos
tcommonf
ormsofdes
cri
bingt
hepr
oces
seddat
aar
e:

 T
abu
lat
ion

 P
erc
ent
age

 Meas
urer
sofc
ent
ralt
endenc
y

 Meas
uresofdi
sper
sion

 Meas
uresofas
ymmet
ry

T
abu
lat
ion

T
abu
lat
ionr
efer
stot
heor
der
lyar
rangement
sofdat
ainat
abl
eorot
hers
ummar
y
f
ormat
.Itpr
esent
sres
pons
esort
heobs
ervat
ionsonaqu
est
ion-
by-
ques
tionori
tem-
byi
tem bas
isandpr
ovi
dest
hemos
tbas
icf
orm ofi
nfor
mat
ion.I
ttel
l
sther
esear
cher
howf
requ
ent
lyeac
hres
pons
eoc
cur
s.T
abu
lat
ionmaybedonebyhandorbymec
hani
cal
orel
ect
roni
cdevi
cess
uchast
hec
ompu
ter
.

T
abu
lat
ionmaybec
las
sif
iedass
impl
eandc
ompl
ex:

S
impl
etabu
lat
ion gi
ves i
nfor
mat
ion abou
tone or mor
e gr
oups of i
ndependent
qu
est
ionsr
esu
lti
ngi
none-
wayt
abl
e.

C
ompl
ext
abu
lat
ion s
howst
hedi
vis
ion ofdat
aint
otwo ormor
ecat
egor
ies
.Iti
s
des
ignedt
ogi
vei
nfor
mat
ionc
onc
erni
ngoneormor
eset
sofi
nter
-rel
atedqu
est
ions

Needf
orT
abu
lat
ion
I
tcons
ervess
pac
eand r
edu
cesexpl
anat
oryand des
cri
pti
ves
tat
ementt
oa
mi
nimu
m
 I
tfac
il
it
atest
hepr
oces
sofc
ompar
ison

I
tfac
il
it
atest
hes
ummat
ionofi
temsandt
hedet
ect
ionofer
ror
sandomi
ssi
on

I
tpr
ovi
desbas
isf
orvar
iou
sst
ati
sti
calc
ompu
tat
ion.

Per
cent
age:

Whet
her t
he dat
a ar
etabu
lat
ed by c
ompu
ter orby hand,i
tisu
sef
ult
o have
per
cent
agesandc
umu
lat
iveper
cent
age.T
abl
econt
aini
ngper
cent
ageandf
requ
enc
y
di
str
ibu
tioni
seas
iert
oint
erpr
et.Meas
uresofC
ent
ralT
endenc
y

Des
cri
bingt
hec
ent
ralt
endenc
yoft
hedi
str
ibu
tionwi
thmean,medi
an,ormodei
s
anot
herbas
icf
orm ofdes
cri
pti
veanal
ysi
s.

T
hes
emeas
uresar
emos
tus
efu
lwhent
hepu
rpos
eist
oident
ifyt
ypi
calval
uesofa
var
iabl
eort
hemos
tcommonc
har
act
eri
sti
csofagr
oup.Meas
uresofc
ent
ralt
endenc
y
ar
eal
soknownass
tat
ist
icalaver
age. Mean,medi
an,andmodear
emos
tpopu
lar
aver
ages
.

T
hemos
tcommonl
yus
edmeas
ureofc
ent
ralt
endenc
yist
hemean.T
ocompu
tet
he
mean,y
ouaddu
pal
lthenu
mber
sanddi
videbyhowmanynu
mber
sther
ear
e.I
t'
s
nott
heaver
agenora hal
fwaypoi
nt,bu
ta ki
ndofc
ent
ert
hatbal
anc
eshi
gh
nu
mbe
rswi
thl
ow nu
mber
s. F
ort
hisr
eas
on,i
t'
smos
tof
tenr
epor
tedal
ongwi
th
s
omes
impl
emeas
ureofdi
spe
rsi
on,s
uchast
her
ange,whi
chi
sexpr
ess
edast
he
l
owes
tandhi
ghes
tnu
mber
.

T
hemedi
ani
sthenu
mbert
hatf
all
sint
hemi
ddl
eofar
angeofnu
mber
s.I
t'
snot
t
heaver
age;i
t'
sthehal
fwaypoi
nt.T
her
ear
eal
way
sju
stasmanynu
mber
sabove
t
hemedi
an asbel
ow i
t.I
ncas
eswher
ether
eisan even s
etofnu
mber
s,y
ou
aver
aget
het
womi
ddl
enu
mber
s.T
hemedi
an i
sbes
tsu
itedf
ordat
athatar
e
or
dinal
,orr
anked.I
tisal
sou
sef
ulwheny
ouhaveext
remel
yloworhi
ghs
cor
es.

T
hemodei
sthemos
tfr
equ
ent
lyoc
cur
ringnu
mberi
nal
i
stofnu
mber
s.I
t'
sthe
c
los
estt
hingt
owhatpeopl
emeanwhent
heys
ays
omet
hingi
saver
ageort
ypi
cal
.
T
hemodedoes
n'tevenhavet
obeanu
mber
.Itwi
l
lbeac
ategor
ywhent
hedat
a
ar
enomi
nalorqu
ali
tat
ive.T
hemodei
sus
efu
lwheny
ouhaveahi
ghl
yskeweds
etof
nu
mbe
rs,mos
tlyl
ow ormos
tlyhi
gh.Youc
an al
so havet
wo modes(
bimodal
di
str
ibu
tion)whenonegr
oupofs
cor
esar
emos
tlyl
owandt
heot
hergr
oupi
smos
tly
hi
gh,wi
thf
ewi
nthemi
ddl
e.
Meas
ureofDi
sper
sion:

Meas
ureofDi
sper
sion:i
sameas
urementhow t
heval
ueofani
tem s
cat
ter
edar
ound
t
he t
rut
h-val
ue oft
he aver
age
. Aver
age val
uef
ail
sto gi
ve anyi
dea abou
tthe
di
sper
sionoft
heval
uesofani
tem oravar
iabl
ear
oundt
het
rut
h-val
ueoft
heaver
age.
Af
teri
dent
ify
ingt
het
ypi
calval
ueofavar
iabl
ether
esear
cherc
anmeas
urehow t
he
val
ueofani
tem i
ssc
att
eredar
oundt
het
rueval
ueoft
hemean.I
tisameas
ure
ment
ofhow f
ari
stheval
ueoft
hevar
iabl
efr
om t
heaver
ageval
ue. I
tmeas
urest
he
var
iat
ionoft
heval
ueofani
tem.

I
mpor
tantmeas
uresofdi
sper
sionar
e:

 Range:meas
urest
hedi
ffer
enc
ebet
weent
hemaxi
mum andt
hemi
nimu
m val
ueof
t
heobs
ervedvar
iabl
e.
 MeanDevi
ati
on:i
tist
heave
ragedi
sper
sionofanobs
ervat
ionar
oundt
hemean
val
ue.
 Var
ianc
e:i
tismeans
quar
edevi
ati
on.I
tmeas
urest
hes
ampl
evar
iabi
l
ity
.
 S
tandar
ddevi
ati
on:t
hes
quar
erootofvar
ianc
e

Meas
ureofas
ymmet
ry(
Skew-
nes
s):

Meas
ureofas
ymmet
ry(
skew-
nes
s):whent
hedi
str
ibu
tionofi
temsi
shappent
obe
per
fec
tlys
ymmet
ric
al,wet
henhaveanor
malc
urveandt
her
elat
ingdi
str
ibu
tioni
s
nor
maldi
str
ibu
tion.S
uchc
urvei
sper
fec
tlybel
lshapedc
urvei
nwhi
chc
aset
heval
ueof
Mean=Medi
an=Mode

S
kewnes
sis
,thu
sameas
urementofas
ymmet
ryands
howst
hemanneri
nwhi
cht
he
i
temsar
ecl
ust
eredar
oundt
heaver
age. I
nas
ymmet
ric(
nor
maldi
str
ibu
tion)t
he
i
temss
how aper
fec
tbal
anc
eonei
thers
ideoft
hemode,bu
tinas
keweddi
str
ibu
tion
t
hebal
anc
eiss
kewedones
ideordi
stor
ted.T
heamou
ntbywhi
cht
hebal
anc
eex
ceeds
onone-
sidemeas
urest
hes
kew-
nes
s.

Knowl
edgeabou
tthes
hapeoft
hedi
str
ibu
tioni
scr
uci
alt
otheu
seofs
tat
ist
icalmeas
ure
i
nres
ear
chanal
ysi
s.S
inc
emos
tmet
hodsmakes
pec
ifi
cas
sumpt
ionabou
tthenat
ure
ofdi
str
ibu
tion.S
kew -
nes
sdes
cri
best
he as
ymmet
ryofa di
str
ibu
tion.A s
kewed
di
str
ibu
tiont
her
efor
ehasonet
aill
ongert
hant
heot
her
.

Apos
iti
vel
yskeweddi
str
ibu
tionhasal
ongert
ailt
other
ight

Anegat
ivel
yskeweddi
str
ibu
tionhasal
ongert
ailt
othel
eft

Adi
str
ibu
tionwi
thnos
kew(
e.g.anor
maldi
str
ibu
tion)i
ssy
mmet
ric
al
7
.2.
2.I
nfer
ent
ialAnal
ysi
s

Mos
tres
ear
cherwi
shest
ogobey
ondt
hes
impl
etabu
lat
ionoff
requ
enc
ydi
str
ibu
tion
and c
alc
ulat
ion aver
agesand/ordi
sper
sion.T
hey f
requ
ent
lyc
ondu
ctand s
eek t
o
det
ermi
net
her
elat
ions
hipbet
weenvar
iabl
esandt
ests
tat
ist
icals
igni
fi
canc
e.

Whent
hepopu
lat
ioni
scons
ist
ingofmor
ethanonevar
iabl
e,i
tispos
sibl
etome
asu
re
t
her
elat
ions
hipbet
weent
hem.I
sther
eanyas
soc
iat
ionorc
orr
elat
ionbet
weent
het
wo
ormor
evar
iabl
e? I
fyes
,thenu
ptowhatdegr
ee?

T
hiswi
l
lbeans
wer
edbyt
heu
seofc
orr
elat
iont
echni
que.

C
orr
elat
ion

T
hemos
tcommonl
yus
edr
elat
ionals
tat
ist
ici
scor
rel
ati
onandi
t'
sameas
ureoft
he
s
trengt
hofs
omer
elat
ions
hipbe
tweent
wovar
iabl
es,notc
aus
ali
ty.I
nter
pret
ati
onofa
c
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
ientdoesnotevenal
l
ow t
hes
li
ght
esthi
ntofc
aus
ali
ty.T
hemos
ta
r
esear
che
rcan s
ayi
sthatt
hevar
iabl
ess
har
esomet
hingi
ncommon;t
hati
s,ar
e
r
elat
edi
nsomeway
.Themor
etwot
hingshaves
omet
hingi
ncommon,t
hemor
e
s
trongl
ytheyar
erel
ated.T
her
ecan al
sobenegat
iver
elat
ions
,bu
tthei
mpor
tant
qu
ali
ty of c
orr
elat
ion c
oef
fic
ient
sis not t
hei
rsi
gn,bu
tthei
r abs
olu
te val
ue.A
c
orr
elat
ionof-
.58i
sst
rongert
hanac
orr
elat
ionof.
43,event
hou
ghwi
tht
hef
ormer
,
t
her
elat
ions
hipi
snegat
ive.T
hef
oll
owi
ngt
abl
eli
stst
hei
nter
pret
ati
onsf
orvar
iou
s
c
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
ient
s:

.
8to1
.0 Ver
yst
rong

.
6to.
8 S
trong

.
4to.
6 Moder
ate

.
2to.
4 Weak

.
0to.
2 Ver
yweak

P
ear
son'
scor
rel
ati
onc
oef
fic
ient
,ors
mal
lr,r
epr
esent
sthedegr nearas
eeofl
i soc
iat
ion
bet
weenanyt
wovar
iabl
es.Unl
i
ker
egr
ess
ion,c
orr
elat
iondoes
n'tc
arewhi
chvar
iabl
eis
t
hei
ndependentoneort
hede
pendentone,t
her
efor
e,y
ouc
annoti
nferc
aus
ali
ty.
C
orr
elat
ionsar
eal
sodi
mens
ion-
free,bu
ttheyr
equ
ireagooddealofvar
iabi
l
ityor
r
andomnes
siny
ourou
tcomemeas
ures
.Ac
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
iental
way
srangesf
rom
negat
iveone(
-1)t
oone(
1),s
oanegat
ivec
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
ientof-
0.6
5indi
cat
es
t
hat"
65%oft
het
ime,whenonevar
iabl
eisl
ow,t
heot
hervar
iabl
eishi
gh"
.Apos
iti
ve
c
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
ientof0.
65i
ndi
cat
es,"
65%oft
het
ime,whenonevar
iabl
eexer
tsa
pos
iti
vei
nfl
uenc
e,t
heot
hervar
iabl
eal
soexer
tsapos
iti
vei
nfl
uenc
e".A c
orr
elat
ion
c
oef
fic
ientatz
ero,orc
los
etoz
ero,i
ndi
cat
esnol
i
nearr
elat
ions
hip.

T
hemos
tfr
equ
ent
lyu
sedc
orr
elat
ionc
oef
fic
ienti
ndat
aanal
ysi
sist
heP
ear
sonpr
odu
ct
momentc
orr
elat
ion.I
tiss
ymbol
i
zedbyt
hes
mal
ll
ett
err
,andi
sfai
rl
yeas
ytoc
ompu
te
f
rom r
aws
cor
es.

I
sther
eanyc
aus
eandef
fec
t(c
aus
alr
elat
ions
hip)bet
weent
wovar
iabl
esorbe
tween
onevar
iabl
eonones
ideandt
woormor
evar
iabl
esont
heot
hers
ide?

T
hisqu
est
ionc
anbeans
wer
edbyt
heu
seofr
egr
ess
ionanal
ysi
s.I
nregr
ess
ionanal
ysi
s
t
her
esear
chert
riest
oes
timat
eorpr
edi
ctt
heaver
ageval
ueofonevar
iabl
eont
he
bas
isoft
heval
ueofot
hervar
iabl
e.

Regr
ess
ion

Regr
ess
ion i
sthec
los
estt
hing t
o es
timat
ing c
aus
ali
tyi
n dat
a anal
ysi
s,andt
hat
's
bec
aus
eitpr
edi
ctshow mu
cht
henu
mber
s"f
it"apr
ojec
teds
trai
ghtl
i
ne.T
hemos
t
c
ommon f
orm ofr
egr
ess
ion,however
,isl
i
nearr
egr
ess
ion,andt
hel
eas
tsqu
ares
met
hod t
ofi
nd an equ
ati
on t
hatbes
tfi
tsa l
i
ner
epr
esent
ing whati
scal
l
ed t
he
r
egr
ess
ionofyonx.I
nst
eadoff
indi
ngt
heper
fec
tnu
mber
,however
,onei
sint
eres
ted
i
nfi
ndi
ngt
heper
fec
tli
ne,s
ucht
hatt
her
eisoneandonl
yonel
i
ne(
repr
esent
edby
equ
ati
on)t
hatper
fec
tlyr
epr
esent
s,orf
itst
hedat
a,r
egar
dles
sofhow s
cat
ter
edt
he
dat
apoi
nts
.Thes
lopeoft
hel
i
ne(
equ
ati
on)pr
ovi
desi
nfor
mat
ionabou
tpr
edi
cted
di
rec
tional
i
ty, and t
he es
timat
ed c
oef
fic
ient
s(or bet
a wei
ght
s)f
or x and y
(
independentanddependentvar
iabl
es)i
ndi
cat
est
hepoweroft
her
elat
ions
hip.

Yi
=Bo+B1
Zi

Yi
=Ou
tcomess
cor
efort
hent
huni
t(dependentvar
iabl
e)

B0=c
oef
fic
ientf
ort
hei
nter
cept

B1
=Coef
fic
ientf
ors
lope

Z
i=i
ndependentvar
iabl
e
 C
HAPT
EREI
GHT

I
NTERPRET
ATI
ONANDREPORT
INGT
HERES
EARC
HRES
ULT

Af
terc
oll
ect
ingandanal
yzi
ngt
hedat
a,t
her
esear
cherhast
oac
compl
i
sht
het
askof
dr
awi
ng i
nfer
enc
esf
oll
owed byt
her
epor
twr
iti
ng.I
nter
pret
ati
on hast
o bedone
c
aref
ull
ysot
hatmi
sl
eadi
ngc
onc
lus
ionwi
l
lnotbedr
awnandt
hewhol
epu
rpos
eof
doi
ngr
esear
chwi
l
lnotbevi
ti
ated.I
tist
hrou
ghi
nter
pret
ati
ont
hatt
her
esear
cherc
an
expos
erel
ati
onsandpr
oces
sest
hatu
nder
li
nehi
sfi
ndi
ngs
.Ifhy
pot
hes
esar
etes
tedand
u
phel
d(c
onf
irmed),t
her
esear
che
rmayar
riveatgener
ali
zat
ion.

Bu
tinc
aset
her
esear
cherhadnohy
pot
hes
ist
ost
artwi
th;hewou
ldt
ryt
oexpl
ainhi
s
f
indi
ngsont
hebas
isofs
omet
heor
y.Al
ltheanal
yti
cali
nfor
mat
ionandc
ons
equ
ent
ial
i
nfer
enc
esmaywel
lbec
ommu
nic
ated,pr
efe
rabl
ythr
ough r
esear
chr
epor
t,t
othe
c
ons
umer
sofr
esear
chr
esu
ltswhomaybeei
therani
ndi
vidu
alsorgr
oupsors
ome
pu
bli
corpr
ivat
eor
gani
zat
ion.

1
0.1
.Meani
ngsandT
echni
queofi
nter
pret
ati
on

I
nter
pret
ati
onr
efer
stot
het
askofdr
awi
ngi
nfer
enc
esf
rom t
hec
oll
ect
edf
act
saf
ter
anal
yti
calorexper
iment
als
tudy
.

T
het
askofi
nter
pret
ati
onhast
wopar
tsorhast
womaj
oras
pec
ts

1
)Theef
for
ttoes
tabl
i
shc
ont
inu
ityi
nres
ear
cht
hrou
ghl
i
nki
ngt
her
esu
ltsofagi
ven
s
tudywi
tht
hos
eofot
her
s.
2
)Thees
tabl
i
shmentofexpl
anat
oryc
onc
ept
.
I
nones
ens
e,i
nter
pret
ati
oni
sconc
ernedwi
thr
elat
ions
hipswi
thi
nthec
oll
ect
eddat
a,
par
tial
l
yover
lappi
nganal
ysi
s.

I
nter
pret
ati
onal
soext
endsbey
ondt
hedat
aoft
hes
tudyt
oinc
ludet
her
esu
ltsofot
her
r
esear
ch,t
heor
yhy
pot
hes
is.T
hus
,int
erpr
etat
ioni
sthedevi
cet
hrou
ghwhi
cht
hef
act
ors
t
hats
eem t
oexpl
ainwhathasbeenobs
ervedbyr
esear
cheri
nthec
our
seoft
hes
tudy
c
anbebet
teru
nder
stoodandi
tal
sopr
ovi
desat
heor
eti
calc
onc
ept
ionwhi
chc
ans
erve
asagu
idef
orf
urt
herr
esear
ches
.

Whyi
nter
pret
ati
on?

I
nter
pret
ati
on i
ses
sent
ialf
ort
hes
impl
ereas
on t
hatt
heu
sef
ulnes
sandu
til
i
tyof
r
esear
chf
indi
ngsl
i
einpr
operi
nter
pret
ati
on.I
nter
pret
ati
oni
scons
ider
edasabas
ic
c
omponentofr
esear
chpr
oces
sbe
cau
seoft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
eas
ons
:
(
i)I
tist
hrou
ghi
nter
pret
ati
ont
hatt
her
esear
cherc
anwel
lunder
standt
heabs
trac
t
pr
inc
ipl
ethatwor
ksbeneat
hhi
sfi
ndi
ngs
.Thr
ought
hishec
anl
i
nku
phi
sfi
ndi
ngswi
th
t
hos
eofot
hers
tudi
es,havi
ngt
hes
ameabs
trac
tpr
inc
ipl
e,andt
her
ebyc
anpr
edi
ct
abou
tthec
onc
ret
ewor
ldofevent
s.F
res
hinqu
iri
esc
ant
estt
hes
epr
edi
cti
onsl
ateron.
T
hiswayt
hec
ont
inu
ityi
nres
ear
chc
anbemai
ntai
ned.
(
ii
)Int
erpr
etat
ionl
eadst
othees
tabl
i
shmentofexpl
anat
oryc
onc
ept
sthatc
ans
erveas
agu
idef
orf
utu
rer
esear
chs
tudi
es;i
topensnew avenu
esofi
ntel
l
ect
ualadvent
ureand
s
timu
lat
est
hequ
estf
ormor
eknowl
edge.
(
ii
i)Res
ear
cherc
anbet
terappr
eci
ateonl
ythr
oughi
nter
pret
ati
onwhyhi
sfi
ndi
ngsar
e
whatt
heyar
eandc
anmakeot
her
stou
nder
standt
her
eals
igni
fi
canc
eofhi
sre
sear
ch
f
indi
ngs
.
(
iv)T
hei
nter
pret
ati
onoft
hef
indi
ngsofexpl
orat
oryr
esear
chs
tudyof
tenr
esu
ltsi
nto
hy
pot
hes
esf
orexper
iment
alr
esear
chandass
uchi
nter
pret
ati
on i
sinvol
vedi
nthe
t
rans
iti
onf
rom expl
orat
oryt
oexper
iment
alr
esear
ch.S
inc
eanexpl
orat
orys
tudydoes
nothaveahy
pot
hes
ist
ost
artwi
th,t
hef
indi
ngsofs
uchas
tudyhavet
obei
nter
pret
ed
onapos
t-f
act
um bas
isi
nwhi
chc
aset
hei
nter
pret
ati
oni
stec
hni
cal
l
ydes
cri
bedas‘
pos
t
f
act
um’i
nter
pret
ati
on.
T
echni
queofi
nter
pret
ati
on

T
het
askofi
nter
pret
ati
oni
snotaneas
yjob.Rat
heri
trequ
iresagoods
kil
lont
hepar
t
ofr
esear
cher
.Int
erpr
etat
ioni
sanar
tthatonel
ear
nst
hrou
ghpr
act
iceandexpe
rienc
e.
T
her
esear
chermay
,att
imes
,seekt
hegu
idanc
efr
om exper
tsf
orac
compl
i
shi
ngt
he
t
askofi
nter
pret
ati
on.

T
her
ear
enoexi
sti
ngr
ulest
ogu
idet
her
esear
cherabou
thowt
oint
erpr
ett
hedat
a.

However
,thef
oll
owi
ngs
ugges
teds
tepsc
oul
dbehel
pfu
l.

1
) Res
ear
chermu
stgi
ver
eas
onabl
eexpl
anat
ionoft
her
elat
ion,whi
chhehasf
ound
andhemu
sti
nter
prett
hel
i
nesofr
elat
ions
hipi
nter
msoft
heu
nder
lyi
ngpr
oces
ses
andmu
stt
ryt
ofi
ndou
tthet
hreadofu
nif
ormi
tyt
hatl
i
esu
ndert
hes
urf
acel
ayer
ofhi
sdi
ver
sif
iedr
esear
chf
indi
ngs
.
2
) Ext
raneou
sinf
ormat
ion,i
fcol
l
ect
eddu
ringt
hes
tudy
,mu
stbec
ons
ider
edwhi
l
e
i
nter
pret
ingt
hef
inalr
esu
ltofr
esear
chs
tudy
,fori
tmaypr
ovet
obeakeyf
act
or
i
nunder
standi
ngt
hepr
obl
em u
nderc
ons
ide
rat
ion.
3
)Iti
sadvi
sabl
e,bef
oreembar
kingu
ponf
inali
nter
pret
ati
on,t
ocons
ults
omeone
havi
ngi
nsi
ghti
ntot
hes
tudyandwhoi
sfr
ankandhones
tandwi
l
lnothes
itat
eto
poi
ntou
tomi
ssi
onsander
ror
sinl
ogi
calar
gument
ati
on.S
uchac
ons
ult
ati
onwi
l
l
r
esu
lti
ncor
rec
tint
erpr
etat
ionand,t
hus
,enhanc
etheu
til
i
tyofr
esear
chr
esu
lt.
4) Res
ear
chermu
stac
compl
i
sht
het
askofi
nter
pret
ati
ononl
yaf
terc
ons
ider
ingal
l
r
elevantf
act
orsaf
fec
tingt
hepr
obl
em t
oavoi
dfal
segener
ali
zat
ion.
Hemu
stnotbei
nhu
rrywhi
l
eint
erpr
eti
ngr
esu
lts
,forqu
iteof
tent
hec
onc
lus
ion,whi
ch
appeart
obeal
lri
ghtatt
hebegi
nni
ng,maynotatal
lbeac
cur
ate.

Pr
ecau
tioni
nint
erpr
etat
ion

Res
ear
chermu
stpayat
tent
iont
othef
oll
owi
ngpoi
ntsf
orc
orr
ecti
nter
pret
ati
on.

 Att
heou
tset
,res
ear
chermu
sti
nvar
iabl
ysat
isf
yhi
msel
fthat
:thedat
a ar
e
appr
opr
iat
e,t
rus
twor
thyandadequ
atef
ordr
awi
ngi
nfer
enc
es.T
hedat
aref
lec
t
goodhomogenei
ty(
noex
treme)andpr
operanal
ysi
shasbeendonet
hrou
gh
s
tat
ist
icaloranyot
hermet
hods
.
 T
her
esear
chermu
str
emai
ncau
tiou
sabou
ttheer
ror
sthatc
anpos
sibl
yar
isei
n
t
hepr
oces
sofi
nter
pret
ingr
esu
lts
.Er
rorc
anar
isedu
eto
 F
als
egener
ali
zat
ion and/ordu
eto wr
ong i
nter
pret
ati
on ofs
tat
ist
ical
meas
ures
,su
chas
:
 T
heappl
i
cat
ionoff
indi
ngsbey
ondt
her
angofobs
ervat
ion
 I
dent
ifi
cat
ionofc
orr
elat
ionwi
thc
aus
ati
onandt
hel
i
ke
 Hes
hou
ldbewel
lequ
ippedwi
thandmu
stknow t
hec
orr
ectu
seofs
tat
ist
ical
meas
uresf
ordr
awi
ngi
nfer
enc
esc
onc
erni
nghi
sst
udy
.
 Br
oad gener
ali
zat
ion mu
stbe avoi
ded,bec
aus
ethe c
over
age r
est
ric
ted t
oa
par
tic
ulart
ime,apar
tic
ularar
eaandpar
tic
ularc
ondi
ti
on.S
uchr
est
ric
tion,i
fany
,
mu
sti
nvar
iabl
ybes
pec
ifi
edandt
her
esu
ltmu
stbef
ramedwi
thi
nthei
rli
mit
.
 T
her
esear
chermu
str
emembert
hatt
her
eshou
ldbec
ons
tanti
nter
act
ionbet
ween
i
nit
ialhy
pot
hes
isand,empi
ri
calobs
ervat
ionandt
heor
eti
calc
onc
ept
ions
.Iti
sexac
tly
i
n t
his ar
ea of i
nter
act
ion bet
ween t
heor
eti
cal or
ient
ati
on and empi
ri
cal
obs
ervat
iont
hatoppor
tuni
tyf
oror
igi
nal
i
tyandc
reat
ivi
tyl
i
es.(
V.You
ng,1
849)
S
IGNI
FIC
ANC
EOFREPORTWRI
TING

Res
ear
chr
epor
tisc
ons
ider
ed a maj
orc
omponentoft
he r
esear
chs
tudyf
ort
he
r
esear
cht
askr
emai
nsi
ncompl
etet
il
lther
epor
thasbeenpr
esent
edand/orwr
itt
en.As
amat
teroff
actevent
hemos
tbr
il
li
anthy
pot
hes
is,hi
ghl
ywel
ldes
ignedandc
ondu
cted
r
esear
chs
tudy
,andt
hemos
tst
riki
nggener
ali
zat
ionsandf
indi
ngsar
eofl
i
ttl
eval
ue
u
nles
stheyar
eef
fec
tivel
ycommu
nic
atedt
oot
her
s.

T
hepu
rpos
eofr
esear
chi
snotwel
lser
vedu
nles
sthef
indi
ngsar
emadeknownt
o
ot
her
s.Re
sear
chr
esu
ltsmu
sti
nvar
iabl
yent
ert
hegener
als
tor
eofknowl
edge.Al
lthi
s
expl
ainst
hes
igni
fi
canc
eofwr
iti
ng r
esear
chr
epor
t.T
her
ear
epeopl
ewho do not
c
ons
iderwr
iti
ngofr
epor
tasani
ntegr
alpar
toft
her
esear
chpr
oces
s.Bu
tthegener
al
opi
nioni
sinf
avou
roft
reat
ingt
hepr
esent
ati
onofr
esear
chr
esu
ltsort
hewr
iti
ngof
r
epor
taspar
tandpar
celoft
her
esear
chpr
ojec
t.Wr
iti
ngofr
epor
tist
hel
asts
tepi
na
r
esear
chs
tudyandr
equ
iresas
etofs
kil
l
ssomewhatdi
ffer
entf
rom t
hos
ecal
l
edf
ori
n
r
espec
toft
heear
li
ers
tagesofr
esear
ch.T
hist
asks
hou
ldbeac
compl
i
shedbyt
he
r
esear
che
rwi
thu
tmos
tcar
e;hemays
eekt
heas
sis
tanc
eandgu
idanc
eofexper
tsf
or
t
hepu
rpos
e.

DI
FFERENTS
TEPSI
NWRI
TINGREP
ORT
Res
ear
chr
epor
tsar
ethepr
odu
ctofs
low,pai
nst
aki
ng,ac
cur
atei
ndu
cti
vewor
k.T
he
u
suals
tepsi
nvol
vedi
nwr
iti
ngr
epor
tar
e:(
a)l
ogi
calanal
ysi
soft
hes
ubj
ect
-mat
ter
;(b)
pr
epar
ati
onoft
hef
inalou
tli
ne;(
c)pr
epar
ati
onoft
her
oughdr
aft
;(d)r
ewr
iti
ngand
pol
i
shi
ng;(
c)pr
epar
ati
onoft
hef
inalbi
bli
ogr
aphy
;and(
f)wr
iti
ngt
hef
inaldr
aft
.
T
hou
ghal
lthes
est
epsar
esel
fex
planat
ory
,yetabr
iefment
ionofeac
honeoft
hes
e
wi
l
lbeappr
opr
iat
eforbet
teru
nder
standi
ng.
L
ogi
calanal
ysi
soft
hes
ubj
ectmat
ter
:Iti
sthef
irs
tst
epwhi
chi
spr
imar
il
yconc
erned
wi
tht
hedevel
opmentofas
ubj
ect
.Ther
ear
etwoway
sinwhi
cht
odevel
opas
ubj
ect(
a)
l
ogi
cal
l
yand
(
b) c
hronol
ogi
cal
l
y.T
he l
ogi
caldevel
opment i
s made on t
he bas
is of ment
al
c
onnec
tionsandas
soc
iat
ionsbet
weent
heonet
hingandanot
herbymeansofanal
ysi
s.
L
ogi
calt
reat
mentof
tenc
ons
ist
sindevel
opi
ngt
hemat
eri
alf
rom t
hes
impl
epos
sibl
eto
t
hemos
tcompl
exs
tru
ctu
res
.Chr
onol
ogi
caldevel
opmenti
sbas
edonac
onnec
tionor
s
equ
enc
eint
imeoroc
cur
renc
e.T
hedi
rec
tionsf
ordoi
ngormaki
ngs
omet
hingu
sual
l
y
f
oll
owt
hec
hronol
ogi
calor
der
.
Pr
epar
ati
on oft
hef
inalou
tli
ne:I
tist
henexts
tepi
n wr
iti
ng t
her
esear
chr
epor
t
“
Out
li
nesar
ethef
rame
wor
kuponwhi
chl
ongwr
itt
enwor
ksar
econs
tru
cted.T
heyar
e
anai
dtot
hel
ogi
calor
gani
zat
ionoft
hemat
eri
alandar
emi
nderoft
hepoi
ntst
obe
s
tres
sedi
nther
epor
t.”
Pr
epar
ati
onoft
her
oughdr
aft
:Thi
sfol
l
owst
hel
ogi
calanal
ysi
soft
hes
ubj
ectandt
he
pr
epar
ati
onoft
hef
inalou
tli
ne.S
uchas
tepi
sofu
tmos
timpor
tanc
efort
her
esear
cher
now s
itst
owr
itedownwhathehasdonei
nthec
ont
extofhi
sres
ear
chs
tudy
.Hewi
l
l
wr
itedownt
hepr
ocedu
readopt
edbyhi
minc
oll
ect
ingt
hemat
eri
alf
orhi
sst
udyal
ong
wi
thvar
iou
sli
mit
ati
onsf
acedbyhi
m,t
het
echni
queofanal
ysi
sadopt
edbyhi
m,t
he
br
oadf
indi
ngsandgener
ali
zat
ionsandt
hevar
iou
ssu
gges
tionshewant
stoof
fer
r
egar
dingt
hepr
obl
em c
onc
erned.
Rewr
iti
ngandpol
i
shi
ngoft
her
oughdr
aft
:Thi
sst
ephappenst
obemos
tdi
ffi
cul
tpar
t
ofal
lfor
malwr
iti
ng.Us
ual
l
ythi
sst
epr
equ
iresmor
eti
met
hant
hewr
iti
ngoft
her
ough
dr
aft
.Thec
aref
ulr
evi
si
onmakest
hedi
ffer
enc
ebet
weenamedi
ocr
eandagoodpi
ece
ofwr
iti
ng.Whi
l
erewr
iti
ngandpol
i
shi
ng,ones
hou
ldc
hec
kther
epor
tforweaknes
ses
i
nlogi
caldevel
opmentorpr
esent
ati
on.T
her
esear
chers
hou
ldal
so“
seewhet
herornot
t
hemat
eri
al,asi
tispr
esent
ed,hasu
nit
yandc
ohes
ion;doest
her
epor
tst
andu
pri
ght
andf
irm andexhi
bitadef
ini
tepat
ter
n,l
i
keamar
blear
ch?Ordoesi
tres
embl
eanol
d
wal
lofmol
der
ingc
ementandl
oos
ebr
ick.
”4I
naddi
ti
ont
her
esear
chers
hou
ldgi
vedu
e
at
tent
iont
othef
actt
hati
nhi
srou
ghdr
afthehasbeenc
ons
ist
entornot
.Hes
hou
ld
c
hec
kthemec
hani
csofwr
iti
ng—gr
ammar
,spel
l
ingandu
sage.
Pr
epar
ati
onoft
hef
inalbi
bli
ogr
aphy
:Nexti
nor
derc
omest
het
askoft
hepr
epar
ati
on
oft
hef
inalbi
bli
ogr
aphy
.Thebi
bli
ogr
aphy
,whi
chi
sgener
all
yappendedt
other
esear
ch
r
epor
t,i
sal
i
stofbooksi
nsomewayper
tinentt
other
esear
chwhi
chhasbeendone.I
t
s
hou
ldc
ont
ainal
lthos
ewor
kswhi
cht
her
esear
cherhasc
ons
ult
ed.T
hebi
bli
ogr
aphy
s
hou
ldbear
rangedal
phabet
ical
l
yandmaybedi
videdi
ntot
wopar
ts;t
hef
irs
tpar
t
mayc
ont
aint
henamesofbooksandpamphl
ets
,andt
hes
econdpar
tmayc
ont
aint
he
namesofmagaz
ineandnews
paperar
tic
les
.Gener
all
y,t
hispat
ter
nofbi
bli
ogr
aphyi
s
c
ons
ider
edc
onveni
entands
ati
sfac
tor
yfr
om t
hepoi
ntofvi
ew ofr
eader
,thou
ghi
tis
nott
heonl
ywayofpr
esent
ingbi
bli
ogr
aphy
.Theent
riesi
nbi
bli
ogr
aphys
hou
ldbemade
adopt
ingt
hef
oll
owi
ngor
der
:
F
orbooksandpamphl
etst
heor
dermaybeasu
nder
:

1
.Nameofau
thor
,las
tnamef
irs
t.

2
.Ti
tl
e,u
nder
li
nedt
oindi
cat
eit
ali
cs.

3
.Pl
ace,pu
bli
sher
,anddat
eofpu
bli
cat
ion.

4.Nu
mberofvol
umes
.

Exampl
e

Kot
har
i,C
.R.
,Qu
ant
itat
iveT
echni
ques
,NewDel
hi
,Vi
kasP
ubl
i
shi
ngHou
seP
vt.L
td.
,197
8.
F
ormagaz
inesandnews
paper
stheor
dermaybeasu
nder
:

1
.Nameoft
heau
thor
,las
tnamef
irs
t.

2
.Ti
tl
eofar
tic
le,i
nqu
otat
ionmar
ks.

3
.Nameofper
iodi
cal
,under
li
nedt
oindi
cat
eit
ali
cs.

4.T
hevol
umeorvol
umeandnu
mber
.

5
.Thedat
eoft
hei
ssu
e.

6
.Thepagi
nat
ion.

Exampl
e
Rober
tV.Roos
a,“
Copi
ng wi
thS
hor
t-t
erm I
nter
nat
ionalMoneyF
lows
”,T
heBanker
,
L
ondon,S
ept
ember
,197
1,p.995
.
T
heaboveexampl
esar
eju
stt
hes
ampl
esf
orbi
bli
ogr
aphyent
riesandmaybeu
sed,bu
t
ones
hou
ldal
sor
emembert
hatt
heyar
enott
heonl
yac
cept
abl
efor
ms.T
heonl
ythi
ng
i
mpor
tanti
sthat
,what
evermet
hodones
elec
ts,i
tmu
str
emai
ncons
ist
ent
.
Wr
iti
ngt
hef
inaldr
aft
:Thi
scons
tit
utest
hel
asts
tep.T
hef
inaldr
afts
hou
ldbewr
itt
en
i
nac
onc
iseandobj
ect
ives
tyl
eandi
nsi
mpl
elangu
age,avoi
dingvagu
eexpr
ess
ionss
uch
as“
its
eems
”,“
ther
emaybe”
,andt
hel
i
keones
.Whi
l
ewr
iti
ngt
hef
inaldr
aft
,the
r
esear
chermu
stavoi
d abs
trac
tter
minol
ogyand t
echni
calj
argon.I
l
lus
trat
ionsand
exampl
esbas
edonc
ommonex
per
ienc
esmu
stbei
ncor
por
atedi
nthef
inaldr
aftas
t
heyhappent
obemos
tef
fec
tivei
ncommu
nic
ati
ngt
her
esear
chf
indi
ngst
oot
her
s.A
r
esear
chr
epor
tshou
ldnotbedu
ll
,bu
tmu
stent
hus
epeopl
eandmai
ntai
nint
ere
stand
mu
sts
howor
igi
nal
i
ty.I
tmu
stber
emember
edt
hatever
yrepor
tshou
ldbeanat
tempt
t
osol
ves
omei
ntel
l
ect
ualpr
obl
em andmu
stc
ont
ribu
tet
othes
olu
tionofapr
obl
em
andmu
staddt
otheknowl
edgeofbot
hther
esear
cherandt
her
eader
.
L
AYOUTOFT
HERES
EARC
HREP
ORT
Any
body
,whoi
sreadi
ngt
her
esear
chr
epor
t,mu
stnec
ess
ari
l
ybec
onvey
edenou
gh
abou
tthes
tudys
othathec
an pl
acei
tini
tsgener
als
cient
ifi
ccont
ext
,ju
dget
he
adequ
acyofi
tsmet
hodsandt
husf
orm anopi
nionofhows
eri
ous
lyt
hef
indi
ngsar
eto
bet
aken.F
ort
hispu
rpos
ether
eist
heneedofpr
operl
ayou
toft
her
epor
t.T
hel
ayou
t
oft
her
epor
tmeansast
owhatt
her
esear
chr
epor
tshou
ldc
ont
ain.Ac
ompr
ehens
ive
l
ayou
toft
her
esear
chr
epor
tshou
ldc
ompr
ise(
A)pr
eli
minar
ypages
;(B)t
hemai
ntext
;
and(
C)t
heendmat
ter
.Letu
sde
alwi
tht
hem s
epar
atel
y.
(
A)P
rel
i
minar
yPages

I
nit
s pr
eli
minar
y pages t
he r
epor
tshou
ldc
arr
ya t
itl
e and dat
e,f
oll
owed by
ac
knowl
edgement
sint
hef
orm of‘
Pref
ace’or‘
For
ewor
d’.T
hent
her
eshou
ldbeat
abl
e
ofc
ont
ent
sfol
l
owedbyl
i
stoft
abl
esandi
l
lus
trat
ionss
othatt
hedec
isi
on-
makeror
any
bodyi
nter
est
edi
nreadi
ngt
her
epor
tcaneas
il
yloc
atet
her
equ
iredi
nfor
mat
ioni
n
t
her
epor
t.

(
B)Mai
nText

T
hemai
ntextpr
ovi
dest
hec
ompl
eteou
tli
neoft
her
esear
chr
epor
tal
ongwi
thal
ldet
ail
s.
T
itl
eoft
her
esear
chs
tudyi
srepeat
edatt
het
opoft
hef
irs
tpageoft
hemai
nte
xtand
t
henf
oll
owst
heot
herdet
ail
sonpagesnu
mber
edc
ons
ecu
tivel
y,begi
nni
ngwi
tht
he
s
econdpage.Eac
hmai
nsec
tionoft
her
epor
tshou
ldbegi
nonanew page.T
hemai
n
t
extoft
her
epor
tshou
ldhavet
hef
oll
owi
ngs
ect
ions
:

(
i)I
ntr
odu
cti
on;(
ii
)St
atementoff
indi
ngsandr
ecommendat
ions
;(i
i
i)T
her
esu
lts
;(i
v)
T
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsdr
awnf
rom t
her
esu
lts
;and(
v)T
hes
ummar
y.

(
i)I
ntr
odu
cti
on:T
hepu
rpos
eofi
ntr
odu
cti
oni
stoi
ntr
odu
cet
her
esear
chpr
ojec
ttot
he
r
eader
s.I
tshou
ldc
ont
ainac
lears
tat
ementoft
heobj
ect
ivesofr
esear
chi
.e.
,enou
gh
bac
kgr
ound s
hou
ld be gi
ven t
o make c
leart
othe r
eaderwhy t
he pr
obl
em was
c
ons
ider
edwor
thi
nves
tigat
ing.Abr
iefs
ummar
yofot
herr
elevantr
esear
chmayal
so
bes
tat
eds
othatt
hepr
esents
tudyc
anbes
eeni
nthatc
ont
ext
.Thehy
pot
hes
esofs
tudy
,
i
fany
,andt
hedef
ini
ti
onsoft
hemaj
orc
onc
ept
sempl
oyedi
nthes
tudys
hou
ldbe
expl
i
cit
lys
tat
edi
nthei
ntr
odu
cti
onoft
her
epor
t.

T
hemet
hodol
ogyadopt
edi
ncondu
cti
ngt
hes
tudymu
stbef
ull
yexpl
ained.T
hes
cient
ifi
c
r
eaderwou
ldl
i
ket
oknow i
ndet
ailabou
tsu
cht
hing:How wast
hes
tudyc
arr
iedou
t?
Whatwasi
tsbas
icdes
ign?I
fthes
tudywasanexper
iment
alone,t
henwhatwer
ethe
exper
iment
almani
pul
ati
ons
?Ift
hedat
awer
ecol
l
ect
edbymeansofqu
est
ionnai
resor
i
nter
views
,thenexac
tlywhatqu
est
ionswer
eas
ked(
Thequ
est
ionnai
reori
nte
rvi
ew
s
chedu
lei
sus
ual
l
ygi
veni
nanappendi
x)?I
fmeas
urement
swer
ebas
edonobs
ervat
ion,
t
henwhati
nst
ruc
tionswer
egi
vent
otheobs
erver
s?Regar
dingt
hes
ampl
eus
edi
nthe
s
tudyt
her
eaders
hou
ldbet
old:Whower
ethes
ubj
ect
s?Howmanywer
ether
e?
How wer
etheys
elec
ted?Al
lthes
equ
est
ionsar
ecr
uci
alf
ores
timat
ingt
hepr
obabl
e
l
i
mit
sofgener
ali
zabi
l
ityoft
hef
indi
ngs
.Thes
tat
ist
icalanal
ysi
sadopt
edmu
stal
sobe
c
lear
lys
tat
ed.I
naddi
ti
ont
oal
lthi
s,t
hes
copeoft
hes
tudys
hou
ldbes
tat
edandt
he
bou
ndar
yli
nesbedemar
cat
ed.T
hevar
iou
sli
mit
ati
ons
,underwhi
cht
her
esear
chpr
ojec
t
wasc
ompl
eted,mu
stal
sobenar
rat
ed.
(
i)S
i t
atementoff
indi
ngsand r
ecommendat
ions
:Af
teri
ntr
odu
cti
on,t
her
esear
ch
r
epor
tmu
stc
ont
ainas
tat
ementoff
indi
ngsandr
ecommendat
ionsi
nnon-
tec
hni
cal
l
angu
ages
othati
tcanbeeas
il
yunder
stoodbyal
lconc
erned.I
fthef
indi
ngshappent
o
beext
ens
ive,att
hispoi
ntt
heys
hou
ldbepu
tint
hes
ummar
isedf
orm.
(
ii
i)Res
ult
s:Adet
ail
edpr
esent
ati
onoft
hef
indi
ngsoft
hes
tudy
,wi
ths
uppor
tingdat
a
i
nthef
orm oft
abl
esandc
har
tst
oget
herwi
thaval
i
dat
ionofr
esu
lts
,ist
hene
xts
tep
i
nwr
iti
ngt
hemai
ntextoft
her
epor
t.T
hisgener
all
ycompr
isest
hemai
nbodyoft
he
r
epor
t,ext
endi
ngovers
ever
alc
hapt
ers
.Ther
esu
lts
ect
ionoft
her
epor
tshou
ldc
ont
ain
s
tat
ist
icals
ummar
iesandr
edu
cti
onsoft
hedat
arat
hert
hant
her
aw dat
a.Al
lthe
r
esu
ltss
hou
ldbepr
esent
edi
nlogi
cals
equ
enc
eands
pli
ttedi
ntor
eadi
l
yident
ifi
abl
e
s
ect
ions
.Al
lrel
evantr
esu
ltsmu
stf
indapl
acei
nther
epor
t.Bu
thow onei
stodec
ide
abou
twhati
srel
evanti
sthebas
icqu
est
ion.Qu
iteof
tengu
idanc
ecomespr
imar
il
yfr
om
t
her
esear
chpr
obl
em and f
rom t
hehy
pot
hes
es,i
fany
,wi
thwhi
cht
hes
tudywas
c
onc
erned.Bu
tul
ti
mat
elyt
her
esear
chermu
str
elyonhi
sownj
udgementi
ndec
idi
ngt
he
ou
tli
neofhi
srepor
t.“
Never
the
les
s,i
tiss
til
lnec
ess
aryt
hathes
tat
esc
lear
lyt
he
pr
obl
em wi
th whi
ch hewasc
onc
erned,t
hepr
ocedu
rebywhi
ch hewor
ked on t
he
pr
obl
em,t
hec
onc
lus
ionsatwhi
chhear
rived,andt
hebas
esf
orhi
sconc
lus
ions
.”
(
iv)I
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
her
esu
lts
:Towar
dtheendoft
hemai
ntext
,ther
esear
chers
hou
ld
agai
npu
tdownt
her
esu
ltsofhi
sres
ear
chc
lear
lyandpr
eci
sel
y.Hes
hou
ld,s
tat
ethe
i
mpl
i
cat
ions t
hatf
low f
rom t
he r
esu
lts of t
he s
tudy
,fort
he gener
alr
eaderi
s
i
nter
est
edi
nthei
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
oru
nder
standi
ngt
hehu
manbehavi
our
.Su
chi
mpl
i
cat
ions
mayhavet
hreeas
pec
tsass
tat
edbel
ow:
(
a)A s
tat
ementoft
hei
nfer
enc
esdr
awn f
rom t
hepr
esents
tudywhi
ch maybe
expec
tedt
oappl
yins
imi
l
arc
irc
ums
tanc
es.
(
b)T
hec
ondi
ti
onsoft
hepr
esents
tudywhi
chmayl
i
mitt
heext
entofl
egi
ti
mat
e
gener
ali
zat
ionsoft
hei
nfer
enc
esdr
awnf
rom t
hes
tudy
.
(
c)T
hcr
elevantqu
est
ionst
hats
til
lremai
nunans
wer
edornewqu
est
ionsr
ais
edbyt
he
s
tudyal
ongwi
ths
ugges
tionsf
ort
heki
ndofr
esear
cht
hatwou
ldpr
ovi
deans
wer
sfor
t
hem.
I
tisc
ons
ider
edagoodpr
act
icet
ofi
nis
hther
epor
twi
tha s
hor
tconc
lus
ion whi
ch
s
ummar
isesandr
ecapi
tul
atest
hemai
npoi
ntsoft
hes
tudy
.Thec
onc
lus
iondr
awnf
rom
t
he s
tudy s
hou
ld be c
lear
lyr
elat
ed t
othe hy
pot
hes
es t
hat wer
est
ated i
nthe
i
ntr
odu
ctor
ysec
tion.Att
hes
amet
ime,af
orec
astoft
hepr
obabl
efu
tur
eoft
hes
ubj
ect
andani
ndi
cat
ionoft
heki
ndofr
esear
chwhi
chneedst
obedonei
nthatpar
tic
ularf
iel
d
i
sus
efu
landdes
irabl
e.
v)S
( ummar
y:I
thasbec
omec
ust
omar
ytoc
onc
ludet
her
esear
chr
epor
twi
thaver
y
br
iefs
ummar
y,r
est
ingi
nbr
ieft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em,t
hemet
hodol
ogy
,themaj
or
f
indi
ngsandt
hemaj
orc
onc
lus
ionsdr
awnf
rom t
her
esear
chr
esu
lts
.
(
C)EndMat
ter
Att
heendoft
her
epor
t,appendi
cess
hou
ldbeenl
i
stedi
nres
pec
tofal
ltec
hni
caldat
a
s
uchasqu
est
ionnai
res
,sampl
einf
ormat
ion,mat
hemat
icalder
ivat
ionsandt
hel
i
ke
ones
.Bi
bli
ogr
aphyofs
our
cesc
ons
ult
eds
hou
ldal
sobegi
ven.I
ndex(
anal
phabet
ical
l
i
sti
ngofnames
,pl
acesandt
opi
csal
ongwi
tht
henu
mber
soft
hepagesi
nabookor
r
epor
tonwhi
cht
heyar
ement
ione
dordi
scu
ssed)s
hou
ldi
nvar
iabl
ybegi
venatt
heend
oft
her
epor
t.T
heval
ueofi
ndexl
i
esi
nthef
actt
hati
twor
ksasagu
idet
other
eader
f
ort
hec
ont
ent
sint
her
epor
t.
T
YPESOFREP
ORT
S
Res
ear
chr
epor
tsvar
ygr
eat
lyi
nlengt
handt
ype.I
n eac
hindi
vidu
alc
ase,bot
hthe
l
engt
h and t
hef
orm ar
elar
gel
ydi
ctat
ed byt
hepr
obl
emsathand.F
ori
nst
anc
e,
bu
sines
sfi
rmspr
eferr
epor
tsi
nthel
ett
erf
orm,j
ustoneort
wopagesi
nlengt
h.Banks
,
i
nsu
ranc
e or
gani
sat
ionsand f
inanc
iali
nst
itu
tionsar
e gener
all
yfond oft
he s
hor
t
bal
anc
e-s
heett
ype oft
abu
lat
ion f
ort
hei
rannu
alr
epor
tst
othei
rcu
stome
rsand
s
har
ehol
der
s.Mat
hemat
ici
anspr
efert
owr
itet
her
esu
ltsoft
hei
rinves
tigat
ionsi
nthe
f
orm ofal
gebr
aicnot
ati
ons
.Chemi
stsr
epor
tthei
rres
ult
sins
ymbol
sandf
ormu
lae.
S
tudent
sofl
i
ter
atu
reu
sual
l
ywr
itel
ongr
epor
tspr
esent
ingt
hec
rit
icalanal
ysi
sofs
ome
wr
iterorper
iodort
hel
i
kewi
thal
i
ber
alu
seofqu
otat
ionsf
rom t
hewor
ksoft
he
au
thoru
nderdi
scu
ssi
on.I
nthef
iel
dofedu
cat
ionandps
ychol
ogy
,thef
avou
rit
efor
mis
t
her
epor
tont
her
esu
ltsofexper
iment
ati
onac
compani
edbyt
hedet
ail
eds
tat
ist
ical
t
abu
lat
ions
.Cl
i
nic
alps
ychol
ogi
stsands
oci
alpat
hol
ogi
stsf
requ
ent
lyf
indi
tnec
ess
aryt
o
makeu
seoft
hec
ase-
his
tor
yfor
m.
Newsi
temsi
nthedai
l
ypaper
sar
eal
sof
ormsofr
epor
twr
iti
ng.T
heyr
epr
esent
f
irs
thandon-
thes
ceneac
cou
ntsoft
heevent
sdes
cri
bedorc
ompi
l
ati
onsofi
nter
views
wi
th per
sonswho wer
e on t
he s
cene.I
nsu
chr
epor
tst
hef
irs
tpar
agr
aph u
sual
l
y
c
ont
ainst
hei
mpor
tanti
nfor
mat
ioni
ndet
ailandt
hes
ucc
eedi
ngpar
agr
aphsc
ont
ain
mat
eri
alwhi
chi
spr
ogr
ess
ivel
yles
sandl
essi
mpor
tant
.
Book-
revi
ewswhi
ch anal
yzet
he c
ont
entoft
he book and r
epor
ton t
he au
thor
’s
i
ntent
ions
,hi
ssu
cces
s or f
ail
urei
n ac
hievi
ng hi
s ai
ms,hi
slangu
age,hi
sst
yle,
s
chol
ars
hip,bi
asorhi
spoi
ntofvi
ew.
S
uchr
evi
ewsal
so happen t
o bea ki
nd ofs
hor
trepor
t.T
her
epor
tspr
epar
ed by
gover
nme
ntalbu
reau
s,s
pec
ialc
ommi
ssi
ons
,and s
imi
l
arot
heror
gani
sat
ions ar
e
gener
all
yver
ycompr
ehens
iver
epor
tsont
hei
ssu
esi
nvol
ved.S
uchr
epor
tsar
eus
ual
l
y
c
ons
ider
edasi
mpor
tantr
esear
chpr
odu
cts
.Si
mil
arl
y,P
h.D.t
hes
esanddi
sser
tat
ionsar
e
al
soaf
orm ofr
epor
t-wr
iti
ng,u
sual
l
ycompl
etedbys
tudent
sinac
ademi
cins
tit
uti
ons
.
T
he above nar
rat
ion t
hrows l
i
ght on t
he f
actt
hat t
he r
esu
lts of a r
esear
ch
i
nves
tigat
ionc
anbepr
esent
edi
nanu
mberofway
svi
z.,at
echni
calr
epor
t,apopu
lar
r
epor
t,anar
tic
le,amonogr
aphoratt
imeseveni
nthef
orm ofor
alpr
esent
ati
on.
Whi
chmet
hod(
s)ofpr
esent
ati
on t
obeu
sedi
n apar
tic
ulars
tudydependson t
he
c
irc
ums
tanc
esu
nderwhi
cht
hes
tudyar
oseandt
henat
ureoft
her
esu
lt.A t
s echni
cal
r
epor
tisu
sedwheneveraf
ullwr
itt
en r
epor
toft
hes
tudyi
srequ
iredwhet
herf
or
r
ecor
dkeepi
ngorf
orpu
bli
cdi
ssemi
nat
ion.A popu
larr
epor
tisu
sedi
fther
esear
ch
r
esu
ltshavepol
i
cyi
mpl
i
cat
ions
.Wegi
vebel
ow af
ew det
ail
sabou
tthes
aidt
wot
ypes
ofr
epor
ts:
(
A)T
echni
calRepor
t
I
nthe t
echni
calr
epor
tthe mai
n emphas
isi
son (
i)t
he met
hodsempl
oyed,(
it)
as
sumpt
ionsmadei
nthec
our
seoft
hes
tudy
,(i
i
i)t
hedet
ail
edpr
esent
ati
onoft
he
f
indi
ngsi
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
rli
mit
ati
onsands
uppor
tingdat
a.
Agener
alou
tli
neofat
echni
calr
epor
tcanbeasf
oll
ows
:
.S
1 u
mmar
yofr
esu
lts
:Abr
iefr
evi
ewoft
hemai
nfi
ndi
ngsj
usti
ntwoort
hreepages
.
.Nat
2 ureoft
hes
tudy
:Des
cri
pti
onoft
hegener
alobj
ect
ivesofs
tudy
,for
mul
ati
onof
t
hepr
obl
em i
noper
ati
onalt
erms
,thewor
kinghy
pot
hes
is,t
het
ypeofanal
ysi
sand
dat
arequ
ired,et
c.
.Met
3 hodsempl
oyed:S
pec
ifi
cme
thodsu
sedi
nthes
tudyandt
hei
rli
mit
ati
ons
.For
i
nst
anc
e,i
nsampl
i
ngs
tudi
eswes
hou
ldgi
vedet
ail
sofs
ampl
edes
ignvi
z.,s
ampl
esi
ze,
s
ampl
esel
ect
ion,et
c.
4.Dat
a:Di
scu
ssi
onofdat
acol
l
ect
ed,t
hei
rsou
rces
,char
act
eri
sti
csandl
i
mit
ati
ons
.If
s
econdar
ydat
aar
eus
ed,t
hei
rsu
itabi
l
ityt
othepr
obl
em athandbef
ull
yas
ses
sed.I
n
c
aseofas
urvey
,themanneri
nwhi
chdat
awer
ecol
l
ect
eds
hou
ldbef
ull
ydes
cri
bed.
.Anal
5 ysi
sofdat
aandpr
esent
ati
onoff
indi
ngs
:Theanal
ysi
sofdat
aandpr
esent
ati
on
oft
hef
indi
ngsoft
hes
tudywi
ths
uppor
tingdat
aint
hef
orm oft
abl
esandc
har
tsbe
f
ull
y nar
rat
ed.T
his
,inf
act
,happenst
o be t
he mai
n bodyoft
he r
epor
tus
ual
l
y
ext
endi
ngovers
ever
alc
hapt
ers
.
.C
6 onc
lus
ions
:Adet
ail
eds
ummar
yoft
hef
indi
ngsandt
hepol
i
cyi
mpl
i
cat
ionsdr
awn
f
rom t
her
esu
ltsbeexpl
ained.
.Bi
7 bli
ogr
aphy
:Bi
bli
ogr
aphyofvar
iou
ssou
rcesc
ons
ult
edbepr
epar
edandat
tac
hed.
.T
8 ec
hni
calappendi
ces
:Appendi
cesbe gi
ven f
oral
ltec
hni
calmat
ter
srel
ati
ng t
o
qu
est
ionnai
re, mat
hemat
icalder
ivat
ions
, el
abor
ati
on on par
tic
ular t
echni
que of
anal
ysi
sandt
hel
i
keones
.
9.I
ndex:I
ndexmu
stbepr
epar
edandbegi
veni
nvar
iabl
yint
her
epor
tatt
heend.
T
heor
derpr
esent
edaboveonl
ygi
vesagener
ali
deaoft
henat
ureofat
echni
calr
epor
t;
t
heor
derofpr
esent
ati
onmaynotnec
ess
ari
l
ybet
hes
amei
nal
lthet
echni
calr
epor
ts.
T
his
,inot
herwor
ds,meanst
hatt
hepr
esent
ati
onmayvar
yindi
ffer
entr
epor
ts;even
t
hedi
ffer
ents
ect
ionsou
tli
nedabovewi
l
lnotal
way
sbet
hes
ame,norwi
l
lal
lthes
e
s
ect
ionsappeari
nanypar
tic
ularr
epor
t.
I
tshou
ld,however
,ber
emember
edt
hateveni
nat
echni
calr
epor
t,s
impl
epr
esent
ati
on
andr
eadyavai
l
abi
l
ityoft
hef
indi
ngsr
emai
nani
mpor
tantc
ons
ider
ati
onandass
uch
t
hel
i
ber
alu
seofc
har
tsanddi
agr
amsi
scons
ider
eddes
irabl
e.
(
B)P
opu
larRepor
t
T
hepopu
larr
epor
tisonewhi
chgi
vesemphas
isons
impl
i
cit
yandat
trac
tivenes
s.T
he
s
impl
i
fic
ati
on s
hou
ld be s
oughtt
hrou
gh c
lear wr
iti
ng,mi
nimi
zat
ion of t
echni
cal
,
par
tic
ular
lymat
hemat
ical
,det
ail
sandl
i
ber
alu
seofc
har
tsanddi
agr
ams
.At
trac
tive
l
ayou
tal
ongwi
thl
argepr
int
,manys
ubheadi
ngs
,evenanoc
cas
ionalc
art
oonnow and
t
heni
sanot
herc
har
act
eri
sti
cfeat
ureoft
hepopu
larr
epor
t.
Bes
ides
,ins
uchar
epor
temphas
isi
sgi
venonpr
act
icalas
pec
tsandpol
i
cyi
mpl
i
cat
ions
.
Wegi
vebel
owagener
alou
tli
neofapopu
larr
epor
t.
.T
1 hef
indi
ngsandt
hei
rimpl
i
cat
ions
:Emphas
isi
nther
epor
tisgi
venont
hef
indi
ngsof
mos
tpr
act
icali
nter
estandont
hei
mpl
i
cat
ionsoft
hes
efi
ndi
ngs
.
.Rec
2 ommendat
ionsf
orac
tion:Rec
ommendat
ionsf
orac
tion on t
hebas
isoft
he
f
indi
ngsoft
hes
tudyi
smadei
nthi
ssec
tionoft
her
epor
t.
.Obj
3 ect
iveoft
hes
tudy
:Agener
alr
evi
ewofhowt
hepr
obl
em ar
isei
spr
esent
edal
ong
wi
tht
hes
pec
ifi
cobj
ect
ivesoft
hepr
ojec
tunders
tudy
.
4.Met
hodsempl
oyed:A br
iefand non-
tec
hni
caldes
cri
pti
on oft
he met
hodsand
t
echni
quesu
sed,i
ncl
udi
ngas
hor
trevi
ew oft
hedat
aonwhi
cht
hes
tudyi
sbas
ed,i
s
gi
veni
nthi
spar
toft
her
epor
t.
.Res
5 ult
s:T
hiss
ect
ionc
ons
tit
utest
hemai
nbodyoft
her
epor
twher
eint
her
esu
ltsof
t
hes
tudyar
epr
esent
edi
ncl
earandnon-
tec
hni
calt
ermswi
thl
i
ber
alu
seofal
lsor
tsof
i
l
lus
trat
ionss
uchasc
har
ts,di
agr
amsandt
hel
i
keones
.
.T
6 ec
hni
calappendi
ces
:Mor
ede
tai
l
edi
nfor
mat
iononmet
hodsu
sed,f
orms
,et
c.i
s
pr
esent
edi
nthef
orm ofappendi
ces
.Bu
ttheappendi
cesar
eof
tennotdet
ail
edi
fthe
r
epor
tisent
irel
ymeantf
orgene
ralpu
bli
c.
T
her
ecanbes
ever
alvar
iat
ionsoft
hef
ormi
nwhi
chapopu
larr
epor
tcanbepr
epar
ed.
T
heonl
yimpor
tantt
hingabou
tsu
char
epor
tist
hati
tgi
vesemphas
isons
impl
i
cit
yand
pol
i
cyi
mpl
i
cat
ionsf
rom t
heoper
ati
onalpoi
ntofvi
ew,avoi
dingt
het
echni
caldet
ail
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lsor
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otheext
entpos
sibl
e.
ORALP
RES
ENT
ATI
ON
Att
imes or
alpr
esent
ati
on of t
he r
esu
lts of t
he s
tudy i
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ider
ed ef
fec
tive,
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tic
ular
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ncas
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i
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ecommendat
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ult
s.T
he
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esi
nthef
actt
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and-
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isi
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teru
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i
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i
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ions
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n demer
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esent
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on i
sthel
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manentr
ecor
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ail
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ustpos
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ethatt
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f
indi
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rom peopl
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n
or
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efer
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ent
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li
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eadyou
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umsi
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i
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ions
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t
echni
quef
oll
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iti
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Res
ear
chesdoneon gover
nment
alac
cou
ntoron behal
fofs
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orpu
bli
cor
pr
ivat
eor
gani
zat
ionsar
eus
ual
l
ypr
esent
edi
nthef
orm oft
echni
calr
epor
ts.
MEC
HANI
CSOFWRI
TINGARES
EARC
HREP
ORT
T
her
ear
ever
ydef
ini
teands
etr
uleswhi
chs
hou
ldbef
oll
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ntheac
tualpr
epar
ati
on
oft
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ydec
ided,t
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hou
ldbe
s
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o,andnodevi
ati
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rit
eri
aoff
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hou
ldbe
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idedass
oonast
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eri
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ort
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ese
arc
hpaperhavebeenas
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ed.T
he
f
oll
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ngpoi
ntsdes
ervement
ions
ofarast
hemec
hani
csofwr
iti
ngar
epor
tar
e
c
onc
erned:
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1 i
zeandphy
sic
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ign:T
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scr
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hou
ldbewr
itt
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ledpaper812
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i
nsi
ze.I
fiti
stobewr
itt
enbyhand,t
henbl
ackorbl
ue-
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kinks
hou
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sed.A
mar
ginofatl
eas
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hal
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hou
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ighthandoft
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gins
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t
opandbot
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hepapers
hou
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ble.I
fthemanu
scr
ipti
stobet
yped,
t
henal
lty
pings
hou
ldbedou
ble-
spac
edonones
ideoft
hepageonl
yexc
eptf
ort
he
i
nser
tionoft
hel
ongqu
otat
ions
.
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2 r
ocedu
re:Var
iou
sst
epsi
nwr
iti
ngt
her
epor
tshou
ldbes
tri
ctl
yadher
ed(
Alls
uchs
teps
haveal
readybeenexpl
ainedear
li
eri
nthi
schapt
er).
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3 ay
out
:Keepi
ngi
nvi
ewt
heobj
ect
iveandnat
ureoft
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obl
em,t
hel
ayou
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he
r
epor
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ldbet
hou
ghtofanddec
idedandac
cor
dingl
yadopt
ed(
Thel
ayou
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r
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er
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em).
4.T
reat
mentofqu
otat
ions
:Qu
otat
ionss
hou
ldbepl
acedi
nqu
otat
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ksanddou
ble
s
pac
ed,f
ormi
ngani
mmedi
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het
ext
.Bu
tifaqu
otat
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ider
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e
l
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ndent
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ncht
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ightoft
henor
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extmar
gin.
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5 hef
oot
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es:Regar
dingf
oot
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ewt
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oll
owi
ngs
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a)T
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oot
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rpos
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z.,t
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dent
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eri
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otat
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ynec
ess
aryt
othe
bodyoft
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uppl
ement
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ue.I
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oot
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e
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itat
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ntand
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ldal
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ewt
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oot
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nte
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i
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se off
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ors
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ars
hip doesnotneed t
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b) F
oot
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aced att
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hepage on whi
cht
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efer
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e or
qu
otat
ionwhi
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dent
ifyors
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ementends
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ecu
stomar
il
ysepar
ated
f
rom t
het
ext
ualmat
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eofhal
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i
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i
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(
c)F
oot
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ld be nu
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ecu
tivel
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l
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ng wi
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epar
atel
y.T
henu
mbers
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i
ne,s
ayatt
heendofa
qu
otat
ion.
Att
hef
ootoft
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,agai
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oot
not
enu
mbers
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ldbei
ndent
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ypeda
l
i
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i
ne.T
hus
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mber
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stbeu
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atet
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e
i
nthet
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orr
espondi
ngnot
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epti
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s
tat
ist
icalt
abl
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mer
icalmat
eri
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isk(
*)
ort
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i
keonemaybeu
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eventc
onf
usi
on.
(
d)F
oot
not
esar
eal
way
sty
pedi
nsi
ngl
espac
ethou
ght
heyar
edi
videdf
rom one
anot
herbydou
bles
pac
e.
.Doc
6 ument
ati
ons
tyl
e:Regar
dingdoc
ument
ati
on,t
hef
irs
tfoot
not
eref
erenc
etoany
gi
venwor
kshou
ldbec
ompl
etei
nit
sdoc
ument
ati
on,gi
vingal
lthees
sent
ialf
act
sabou
t
t
heedi
ti
onu
sed.S
uchdoc
ument
aryf
oot
not
esf
oll
ow agener
als
equ
enc
e.T
hec
ommon
or
dermaybedes
cri
bedasu
nder
:
(
i)Regar
dingt
hes
ingl
e-vol
umer
efer
enc
e
1
.Au
thor
’snamei
nnor
malor
der(
andnotbegi
nni
ngwi
tht
hel
astnameasi
na
bi
bli
ogr
aphy
)fol
l
owedbyac
omma;
2
.Ti
tl
eofwor
k,u
nder
li
nedt
oindi
cat
eit
ali
cs;
3
.Pl
aceanddat
eofpu
bli
cat
ion;
4.P
agi
nat
ionr
efer
enc
es(
Thepagenu
mber
).
Exampl
e
J
ohnGas
s ,Mas
ner ter
soft
heDr
ama,NewYor
k:DoverP
ubl
i
cat
ions
,Inc
.195
4,p.3
15.
(
i)Regar
i dingmu
lti
vol
umedr
efer
enc
e
1
.Au
thor
’snamei
nthenor
malor
der
;

2
.Ti
tl
eofwor
k,u
nder
li
nedt
oindi
cat
eit
ali
cs;

3
.Pl
aceanddat
eofpu
bli
cat
ion;

4.Nu
mberofvol
ume;

5
.Pagi
nat
ionr
efer
enc
es(
Thepagenu
mber
).

(
ii
i)Regar
dingwor
ksar
rangedal
phabet
ical
l
y

F
orwor
ksar
rangedal
phabet
ical
l
ysu
chasenc
ycl
opedi
asanddi
cti
onar
ies
,nopagi
nat
ion
r
efer
enc
eisu
sual
l
yneeded.I
nsu
chc
asest
heor
deri
sil
l
ust
rat
edasu
nder
:

Exampl
e1

“
Sal
amanc
a,”Enc
ycl
opaedi
aBr
itanni
ca,1
4thEdi
ti
on.

Exampl
e2

“
Mar
yWol
l
stonec
raf
tGodwi
n,”Di
cti
onar
yofnat
ionalbi
ogr
aphy
.Bu
tift
her
eshou
ldbe
adet
ail
edr
efer
enc
etoal
ongenc
ycl
opedi
aar
tic
le,vol
umeandpagi
nat
ionr
efe
renc
e
maybef
oundnec
ess
ary
.

(
iv)Regar
dingper
iodi
cal
sref
erenc
e

1
.Nameoft
heau
thori
nnor
malor
der
;

2
.Ti
tl
eofar
tic
le,i
nqu
otat
ionmar
ks;
3
.Nameofper
iodi
cal
,under
li
nedt
oindi
cat
eit
ali
cs;

4.Vol
umenu
mber
;

5
.Dat
eofi
ssu
anc
e;

6
.Pagi
nat
ion.

(
v)Regar
dingant
hol
ogi
esandc
oll
ect
ionsr
efer
enc
e

Qu
otat
ionsf
rom ant
hol
ogi
esorc
oll
ect
ionsofl
i
ter
arywor
ksmu
stbeac
knowl
edgednot
onl
ybyau
thor
,bu
tal
sobyt
henameoft
hec
oll
ect
or.

(
vi)Regar
dings
econd-
handqu
otat
ionsr
efer
enc
e

I
nsu
chc
asest
hedoc
ume
ntat
ions
hou
ldbehandl
edasf
oll
ows
:
1
.Or
igi
nalau
thorandt
itl
e;
2
.“qu
otedorc
itedi
n,”
;
3
.Sec
ondau
thorandwor
k.
Exampl
e
J
.F.J ,L
ones i
fei
nPl
oynes
ia,p.1
6,qu
ot nHi
edi stor
yoft
hePac
ifi
cOc
eanar
ea,byR.
B.
Abel
,
p.1
91.
(
vi)C
i as
eofmu
lti
pleau
thor
shi
p
I
fther
ear
emor
ethant
woau
thor
soredi
tor
s,t
heni
nthedoc
ument
ati
ont
henameof
onl
ythef
irs
tisgi
venandt
hemu
lti
pleau
thor
shi
pisi
ndi
cat
edby“
etal
.”or“
andot
her
s”.
S
ubs
equ
entr
efer
enc
est
othes
amewor
kneednotbes
odet
ail
edass
tat
edabove.I
f
t
hewor
kisc
itedagai
nwi
thou
tanyot
herwor
kint
erveni
ng,i
tmaybei
ndi
c edasi
at bid,
f
oll
owedbyac
ommaandt
hepagenu
mber
.As
ingl
epages
hou
ldber
efer
redt
oasp.
,
bu
tmor
ethanonepageber
efer
redt
oaspp.I
fther
ear
esever
alpagesr
efer
redt
oat
as
tret
ch,t
hepr
act
icei
stou
seof
tent
hepagenu
mber
,forexampl
e,pp.1
90f
f,whi
ch
meanspagenu
mber1
90andt
hef
oll
owi
ng pages
;bu
tonl
yforpage1
90andt
he
f
oll
owi
ngpage‘
190f
’.Romannu
mer
icali
sgener
all
yus
edt
oindi
cat
ethenu
mberoft
he
vol
umeofabook.Op.c
it.(
oper
aci
tat
o,i
nthewor
kci
ted)orL
oc.c
it.(
loc
oci
tat
o,i
n
t
hepl
acec
ited)ar
etwooft
hever
yconveni
entabbr
evi
ati
onsu
sedi
nthef
oot
not
es.Op.
c
it.orL
oc.c
it.af
tert
hewr
iter
’snamewou
lds
ugges
tthatt
her
efer
enc
eist
owor
kby
t
hewr
iterwhi
chhasbeenc
itedi
ndet
aili
nane
arl
i
erf
oot
not
ebu
tint
ervenedbys
ome
ot
herr
efe
renc
es.
7
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nct
uat
ionandabbr
evi
ati
onsi
nfoot
not
es:T
hef
irs
tit
em af
tert
henu
mberi
nthe
f
oot
not
eist
heau
thor
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veni
nthenor
mals
ignat
ureor
der
.Thi
sisf
oll
owedby
ac
omma.Af
tert
hec
omma,t
het
itl
eoft
hebooki
sgi
ven:t
hear
tic
le(
suc
has“
A”,
“
An”
,“T
he”et
c.)i
somi
ttedandonl
ythef
irs
twor
dandpr
opernou
nsandadj
ect
ives
ar
ecapi
tal
i
zed.T
het
itl
eisf
oll
owe
dbyac
omma.

I
nfor
mat
ionc
onc
erni
ngt
heedi
ti
oni
sgi
vennext
.Thi
sent
ryi
sfol
l
owedbyac
omma.
T
hepl
aceofpu
bli
cat
ioni
sthens
tat
ed;i
tmaybement
ionedi
nanabbr
evi
atedf
orm,i
f
t
hepl
acehappenst
obeaf
amou
sones
uchasL
ond.f
orL
ondon,N.
Y.f
orNewYor
k,N.
D.
f
orNew Del
hiands
oon.T
hisent
ryi
sfol
l
owedbyac
omma.T
hent
henameoft
he
pu
bli
sheri
sment
ionedandt
hise
ntr
yisc
los
edbyac
omma.I
tisf
oll
owedbyt
hedat
e
ofpu
bli
cat
ioni
fthedat
eisgi
venont
het
itl
epage.I
fthedat
eappear
sint
hec
opy
right
not
iceont
her
ever
ses
ideoft
het
itl
epageorel
sewher
eint
hevol
ume,t
hec
omma
s
hou
ldbeomi
ttedandt
hedat
eenc
los
edi
nsqu
arebr
acket
s[c1
978
],[
197
8].T
hee
ntr
yis
f
oll
owedbyac
omma.T
henf
oll
owt
hevol
umeandpager
efer
enc
esandar
esepar
ated
byac
ommai
fbot
har
egi
ven.Aper
iodc
los
est
hec
ompl
etedoc
ument
aryr
efer
enc
e.
Bu
tones
hou
ldr
emembert
hatt
hedoc
ument
ati
onr
egar
dingac
knowl
edgement
sfr
om
magaz
inear
tic
lesandper
iodi
call
i
ter
atu
ref
oll
ow adi
ffer
entf
orm ass
tat
ede
arl
i
er
whi
l
eexpl
aini
ngt
heent
riesi
nthebi
bli
ogr
aphy
.

8
.Us
eofs
tat
ist
ics
,char
tsandgr
aphs
:Aj
udi
ci
ousu
seofs
tat
ist
icsi
nres
ear
chr
epor
tsi
s
of
tenc
ons
ider
edavi
rtu
efori
tcont
ribu
tesagr
eatdealt
owar
dst
hec
lar
ifi
cat
ionand
s
impl
i
fic
ati
onoft
hemat
eri
alandr
esear
chr
esu
lts
.Onemaywel
lremembert
hata
good pi
ctu
rei
s of
ten wor
th mor
ethan a t
hou
sand wor
ds.S
tat
ist
ics ar
eus
ual
l
y
pr
esent
edi
nthef
orm oft
abl
es,c
har
ts,bar
sandl
i
ne-
graphsandpi
ctogr
ams
.Su
ch
pr
esent
ati
ons
hou
ldbes
elfexpl
anat
oryandc
ompl
etei
nit
sel
f.I
tshou
ldbes
uit
abl
eand
appr
opr
iat
elooki
ngt
othepr
obl
em athand.F
inal
l
y,s
tat
ist
icalpr
esent
ati
ons
hou
ldbe
neatandat
trac
tive.

9.T
hef
inaldr
aft
:Revi
si
ngandr
ewr
iti
ngt
her
oughdr
aftoft
her
epor
tshou
ldbedone
wi
thgr
eatc
arebef
orewr
iti
ngt
hef
inaldr
aft
.Fort
hepu
rpos
e,t
her
esear
chers
hou
ld
pu
ttohi
msel
fqu
est
ionsl
i
ke:Ar
ethes
ent
enc
eswr
itt
eni
nther
epor
tcl
ear
?Ar
ethey
gr
ammat
ical
l
ycor
rec
t?Dot
heys
ayNwhati
smeant
’?Dot
hevar
iou
spoi
ntsi
ncor
por
ated
i
nther
epor
tfi
ttoget
herl
ogi
cal
l
y?“
Havi
ngatl
eas
tonec
oll
eagu
ereadt
her
epor
tju
st
bef
oret
hef
inalr
evi
si
oni
sext
remel
yhel
pfu
l.S
ent
enc
est
hats
eem c
rys
tal
-cl
eart
othe
wr
itermaypr
ovequ
itec
onf
usi
ngt
oot
herpeopl
e;ac
onnec
tiont
hathads
eemeds
elf
evi
dentmays
tri
keot
her
sasanon-
sequ
itu
r.Af
riendl
ycr
iti
c,bypoi
nti
ngou
tpas
sages
t
hat s
eem u
ncl
ear or i
l
logi
cal
,and per
haps s
ugges
ting way
s of r
emedy
ing t
he
di
ffi
cul
ti
es,c
anbeani
nval
uabl
eai
dinac
hievi
ngt
hegoalofadequ
atec
ommu
nic
ati
on.
”
1
0.Bi
bli
ogr
aphy
:Bi
bli
ogr
aphys
hou
ldbepr
epar
edandappendedt
other
esear
chr
epor
t
asdi
scu
ssedear
li
er.

1
1.P
repar
ati
onoft
hei
ndex:Att
heendoft
her
epor
t,ani
ndexs
hou
ldi
nvar
iabl
ybe
gi
ven,t
heval
ueofwhi
chl
i
esi
nthef
actt
hati
tac
tsasagoodgu
ide,t
other
eader
.
I
ndexmaybepr
epar
edbot
hass
ubj
ecti
ndexandasau
thori
ndex.T
hef
ormergi
vest
he
namesoft
hes
ubj
ect
-topi
csorc
onc
ept
sal
ongwi
tht
henu
mberofpagesonwhi
cht
hey
have appear
ed or di
scu
ssed i
nthe r
epor
t,wher
eas t
he l
att
er gi
ves t
he s
imi
l
ar
i
nfor
mat
ionr
egar
dingt
hename
sofau
thor
s.T
hei
ndexs
hou
ldal
way
sbear
ranged
al
phabet
ical
l
y.S
omepeopl
epr
efert
opr
epar
eonl
yonei
ndexc
ommonf
ornamesof
au
thor
s,s
ubj
ect
-topi
cs,c
onc
ept
sandt
hel
i
keones
.

PREC
AUT
IONSF
ORWRI
TINGRES
EARC
HREPORT
S
Res
ear
chr
epor
tisac
hannelofc
ommu
nic
ati
ngt
her
esear
chf
indi
ngst
other
eader
sof
t
her
epor
t.Agoodr
esear
chr
epor
tisonewhi
chdoest
hist
askef
fic
ient
lyandef
fec
tivel
y.
Ass
uchi
tmu
stbepr
epar
edkeepi
ngt
hef
oll
owi
ngpr
ecau
tionsi
nvi
ew:
1
.Whi
l
edet
ermi
ningt
hel
engt
hoft
her
epor
t(s
inc
eres
ear
chr
epor
tsvar
ygr
eat
lyi
n
l
engt
h),ones
hou
ldkeepi
nvi
ew t
hef
actt
hati
tshou
ldbel
ongenou
ght
ocove
rthe
s
ubj
ectbu
tshor
tenou
ght
omai
ntai
nint
eres
t.I
nfac
t,r
epor
t-wr
iti
ngs
hou
ldnotbea
meanst
olear
ningmor
eandmor
eabou
tles
sandl
ess
.
2
.Ar
esear
chr
epor
tshou
ldnot
,ift
hisc
anbeavoi
ded,bedu
ll
;its
hou
ldbes
uchast
o
s
ust
ainr
eader
’si
nter
est
.
3
.Abs
trac
tter
minol
ogyandt
echni
calj
argons
hou
ldbeavoi
dedi
nar
esear
chr
epor
t.
T
her
epor
tshou
ldbeabl
etoc
onveyt
hemat
terass
impl
yaspos
sibl
e.T
his
,inot
her
wor
ds,meanst
hatr
epor
tshou
ldbewr
itt
eni
nanobj
ect
ives
tyl
eins
impl
elangu
age,
avoi
dingexpr
ess
ionss
uchas“
its
eems
,”“
ther
emaybe”andt
hel
i
ke.
4.Reader
sar
eof
teni
nter
est
edi
nac
qui
ri
ngaqu
ickknowl
edgeoft
hemai
nfi
ndi
ngs
andass
ucht
her
epor
tmu
stpr
ovi
dea r
eadyavai
l
abi
l
ityoft
hef
indi
ngs
.Fort
his
pu
rpos
e,c
har
ts,gr
aphsandt
hes
tat
ist
icalt
abl
esmaybeu
sedf
ort
hevar
iou
sre
sul
tsi
n
t
hemai
nrepor
tinaddi
ti
ont
othes
ummar
yofi
mpor
tantf
indi
ngs
.
5
.Thel
ayou
toft
her
epor
tshou
ldbewel
lthou
ghtou
tandmu
stbeappr
opr
iat
eandi
n
ac
cor
danc
ewi
tht
heobj
ect
iveoft
her
esear
chpr
obl
em.
6
.Ther
epor
tss
hou
ldbef
reef
rom gr
ammat
icalmi
stakesandmu
stbepr
epar
eds
tri
ctl
y
i
nac
cor
danc
ewi
tht
het
echni
quesofc
ompos
iti
onofr
epor
t-wr
iti
ngs
uchast
heu
seof
qu
otat
ions
,foot
not
es,doc
ument
ati
on,pr
operpu
nct
uat
ionandu
seofabbr
evi
ati
onsi
n
f
oot
not
esandt
hel
i
ke.
7
.Ther
epor
tmu
stpr
esentt
hel
ogi
calanal
ysi
soft
hes
ubj
ectmat
ter
.Itmu
str
efl
ecta
s
tru
ctu
rewher
eint
hedi
ffer
entpi
ecesofanal
ysi
srel
ati
ngt
other
esear
chpr
obl
em f
it
wel
l
.
8
.Ar
esear
chr
epor
tshou
lds
how or
igi
nal
i
tyands
hou
ldnec
ess
ari
l
ybeanat
temptt
o
s
olves
omei
ntel
l
ect
ualpr
obl
em.I
tmu
stc
ont
ribu
tet
othes
olu
tionofapr
obl
em and
mu
staddt
othes
tor
eofknowl
edge.
9.T
owar
dst
heend,t
her
epor
tmu
stal
sos
tat
ethepol
i
cyi
mpl
i
cat
ionsr
elat
ingt
othe
pr
obl
em u
nderc
ons
ider
ati
on.I
tisu
sual
l
ycons
ider
eddes
irabl
eift
her
epor
tmakesa
f
orec
astoft
hepr
obabl
efu
tur
eoft
hes
ubj
ectc
onc
ernedandi
ndi
cat
est
heki
ndsof
r
esear
chs
til
lneedst
obedonei
nthatpar
tic
ularf
iel
d.
1
0.Appendi
cess
hou
ldbeenl
i
stedi
nres
pec
tofal
lthet
echni
caldat
aint
her
epor
t.
1
1.Bi
bli
ogr
aphyofs
our
cesc
ons
ult
edi
samu
stf
oragoodr
epor
tandmu
stnec
ess
ari
l
y
begi
ven.
1
2.I
ndexi
sal
soc
ons
ider
edanes
sent
ialpar
tofagoodr
epor
tandass
uchmu
stbe
pr
epar
edandappendedatt
heend.
1
3.Repor
tmu
stbeat
trac
tivei
nappear
anc
e,neatandc
lean,whet
hert
ypedorpr
int
ed.
1
4.C
alc
ulat
ed c
onf
idenc
eli
mit
s mu
st be ment
ioned and t
he var
iou
scons
trai
nts
exper
ienc
edi
ncondu
cti
ngt
her
esear
chs
tudymayal
sobes
tat
edi
nther
epor
t.
1
5.Obj
ect
iveoft
hes
tudy
,thenat
ureoft
hepr
obl
em,t
hemet
hodsempl
oyedandt
he
anal
ysi
stec
hni
quesadopt
edmu
stal
lbec
lear
lys
tat
edi
nthebegi
nni
ngoft
her
epor
tin
t
hef
orm ofi
ntr
odu
cti
on.
L
ayou
tofr
esear
chr
epor
t

L
ayou
toft
her
epor
tmeansast
owhatt
her
ese
arc
hrepor
tshou
ldc
ont
ainandl
ookl
i
ke.
Ac
ompr
ehens
ivel
ayou
toft
her
esear
chr
epor
tshou
ldc
ompr
ise

 P
rel
i
minar
ypages
 T
hemai
ntext
 T
heendmat
ter
1
)Pr
eli
minar
ypages
I
nthi
spar
tther
epor
tshou
ldc
arr
y

 T
itl
e
 Ac
knowl
edgment(
thi
scanbei
nthef
orm ofpr
efac
eandf
orwar
d,i
nlar
ger
s
tudy
)
 T
abl
eofc
ont
ent
  L
istoft
abl
es(
figu
r )1
es
2
)Mai
ntext
T
hemai
ntextpr
ovi
dest
hec
ompl
eteou
tli
neoft
her
esear
chr
epor
tal
ongwi
thal
ldet
ail
s.
T
itl
eoft
her
esear
chi
srepeat
edatt
het
opf
oll
owedbyabs
trac
tandt
henf
oll
owst
he
ot
herdet
ail
sonpagesnu
mber
edc
ons
ecu
tivel
ybegi
nni
ngwi
ths
econdpage.Eac
hmai
n
s
ect
ionoft
her
epor
tshou
ldbegi
nonanewpage.

Mai
ntextc
anhavet
hef
oll
owi
ngs
ect
ions

 I
ntr
odu
cti
on
o Bac
kgr
oundoft
hes
tudy
o Rat
ional
e
 Obj
ect
ives
 L
ite
rat
ureRevi
ew
 Mat
eri
alandMet
hodol
ogy
o Dat
a(ormat
eri
al)
o Met
hodol
ogyu
sed,
o L
imi
tat
ionoft
hes
tudy
 Res
ult
sanddi
scu
ssi
on(
ins
omec
ases
,Empi
ri
calAnal
ysi
s)
 S
ummar
y,C
onc
lus
ionandRe
commendat
ionor
o C
onc
ludi
ngc
ommentor
S
inc
e,s
omeoft
hemai
nsec
tionsoft
her
epor
thavebeenexpl
ainedi
nsomedet
aili
n
c
hapt
erf
ours
ect
iont
wo,her
eat
tempt
swer
emadet
oexpl
ainonl
ysel
ect
edpar
tsof
t
her
epor
t,whi
chneeds
pec
ialat
tent
ions
.
I
ntr
odu
cti
on:t
hemaj
ors
ubdi
vis
ionsoft
hispar
tar
egener
all
ytheoness
howni
nthe
pr
opos
al:s
tat
ementoft
hepr
obl
em,s
igni
fi
canc
eoft
hes
tudy
,andt
heor
gani
zat
ionof
t
hes
tudy
.Thi
spar
toft
hes
tudys
hou
ldbel
uci
dcompl
eteandc
onc
ise.I
thast
obe
wr
itt
eni
nal
i
vel
yands
timu
lat
ingmanneri
nor
dert
oar
ous
ethei
nter
estoft
her
eader
t
ogot
hrou
ght
her
epor
t.
L
iter
atu
reRevi
ew:t
hisi
sa s
ect
ion f
ordoc
ument
ati
on wi
thi
nsi
ghtt
heor
eti
caland
empi
ri
cali
nves
tigat
iont
hathadbe
enc
arr
iedou
tasr
elat
edt
othes
tudyathand
Mat
eri
aland Met
hodol
ogy orDat
a and Met
hodol
ogy
:thi
s par
tinc
ludes det
ail
ed
des
cri
pti
onoft
hemanneri
nwhi
chdec
isi
onhavebeenmadeabou
tthet
ypeofdat
a
neededf
ort
hes
tudy
,thet
ool
sandappr
oac
hesu
sedf
ort
hei
rcol
l
ect
ionandt
hemet
hod
bywhi
cht
heyhavebeenc
oll
ect
ed,j
ust
ifi
cat
ionoft
hes
elec
tionoft
hepar
tic
ularmet
hod
ofdat
acol
l
ect
ion.Def
ini
ti
onoft
hepopu
lat
ion,t
hes
ampl
i
ngt
echni
quesu
sedt
osel
ect
s
ampl
eel
ement
swi
thi
tsf
ullj
ust
ifi
cat
ion,t
hes
izeoft
hes
ampl
eandt
her
ati
onalf
or
t
hes
ize,s
tat
ist
icalt
ool
sus
edt
oanal
yzet
hedat
ather
ati
onalf
oru
singt
hem wi
l
lbe
deal
tindet
aili
nthi
ssec
tion.

L
imi
tat
ions
:Nor
epor
tisper
fec
t,s
oiti
simpor
tantt
oindi
cat
eit
simpl
i
cat
ions
.Ift
her
e
wer
epr
obl
emswi
th non-
res
pons
eer
ror
s,ors
ampl
i
ng pr
ocedu
res
,theys
hou
ld be
di
scu
ssed.

T
hedi
scu
ssi
onofl
i
mit
ati
ons
hou
ldavoi
dover
emphas
izi
ngt
heweaknes
s,t
hou
gh

I
tsai
mshou
ldbet
opr
ovi
dear
eal
i
sti
cbas
isf
oras
ses
singt
her
esu
lts
.

Res
ultandDi
scu
ssi
on:Adet
ail
edpr
esent
ati
onoft
hef
indi
ngsoft
hes
tudy(
ther
esu
lts
oft
hedat
aanal
ysi
s)wi
ths
uppor
tingdat
aint
hef
orm oft
abl
esandc
har
tst
oget
her
wi
thaval
i
dat
ionofr
esu
lts
.Inot
herwor
dsi
nthi
ssec
tiont
hedat
aispr
esent
edi
n
t
abl
esandf
igu
resf
oll
owedbynar
rat
ivedi
scu
ssi
onandj
ust
ifi
cat
ions
.Twot
hingsmay
r
equ
ires
pec
ialat
tent
ionwhi
l
ewr
iti
ngt
hispar
toft
her
epor
t.

 T
abl
est
hatar
etool
engt
hymaybet
terbepl
acedi
ntheappendi
x
 T
abl
esandf
igu
ress
hou
ldbeexpl
ained.Ast
abl
esandf
igu
resar
eexpec
tedt
o
bes
elfexpl
anat
ory
,thet
ext
ualdi
scu
ssi
ons
hou
ldnotbeadu
pli
cat
eoft
he
t
abl
e.Onl
yimpor
tantf
act
sthatl
eadt
ogener
ali
zat
ionwi
l
lbedi
scu
ssed.
T
hiss
ect
iongener
all
ycompr
isest
hebodyoft
her
epor
t,ext
endi
ngovers
ever
als
ub-
s
ect
ions
.

I
tshou
ldc
ont
ains
tat
ist
icals
ummar
iesandr
edu
cti
onsoft
hedat
arat
hert
hant
her
aw
dat
a.Al
lres
ult
sshou
ld bepr
esent
ed i
nlogi
cals
equ
enc
esand di
vided i
ntor
eadi
l
y
i
dent
ifi
abl
esec
tions
.Al
lrel
evantr
esu
ltsmu
stf
indapl
acei
nther
epor
t.

S
ummar
yandC
onc
lus
ion:T
owar
dtheendoft
hiss
ect
ion,t
her
esear
chers
hou
ldagai
n
pu
tdownt
her
esu
ltsofhi
sres
ear
chc
lear
lyandpr
eci
sel
y.T
hispar
tbegi
nswi
thabr
ief
r
est
atementoft
hepr
obl
em,t
hehy
pot
hes
is,des
cri
pti
onoft
hepr
obl
em anddi
scu
ssi
on
off
indi
ngsandc
onc
lus
ionoft
hes
tudy
.Mos
treader
sski
pot
herdet
ail
soft
her
epor
t
andmaypr
efert
oreadonl
ythi
spar
tinor
dert
ogetanover
view oft
hes
tudyand
j
udgei
tsr
elevanc
e.T
hus
,its
hou
ldbewr
itt
en wi
thmaxi
mum di
l
igenc
e,c
lar
ityand
br
evi
ty.Mor
eover
,thi
ssec
tionmu
stf
ocu
sat
tent
iont
o

 Annou
ncet
heac
cept
anc
eort
her
ejec
tionoft
hes
tat
edhy
pot
hes
is.
 S
impl
yunans
wer
edqu
est
iont
hatwer
erai
sedi
ndu
ecou
rseoft
hes
tudyand
whi
chr
equ
iredf
urt
heri
nves
tigat
ioni
nther
ear
erel
evantt
othi
spar
t.
Ar
esear
chers
hou
ldal
sos
tat
ethei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatf
lowsf
rom t
her
esu
ltst
hes
tudyf
or
t
hegener
alr
eaderi
sint
eres
tedi
nthei
mpl
i
cat
iont
hatf
oru
nder
standi
ngt
hehu
man
behavi
or.

S
uchi
mpl
i
cat
ionmayhavet
hreeas
pec
tsass
tat
edbel
ow:

 As
tat
ementt
he i
nfer
enc
esdr
awn f
rom t
he pr
esents
tudy whi
ch may be
expec
tedt
oappl
yins
imi
l
arc
irc
ums
tanc
es
 T
hec
ondi
ti
onoft
hepr
ese
nts
tudy
,whi
chmayl
i
mitt
heext
entoft
hel
egi
ti
mat
e
gener
ali
zat
ionoft
hei
nfer
enc
esdr
awnf
rom t
hes
tudy
.
 T
her
elevantqu
est
ionst
hats
til
lremai
nunans
wer
edornewqu
est
ionsr
osebyt
he
s
tudyal
ongwi
ths
ugges
tionf
ort
heki
ndofr
esear
cht
hatwou
ldpr
ovi
deans
wer
f
ort
hem.
Gener
all
y,i
tisc
ons
ider
edasagoodpr
act
icet
ofi
nis
hther
epor
twi
thas
hor
tconc
lus
ion,
whi
chs
ummar
izeandr
ecapi
tul
atest
hemai
npoi
ntsoft
hes
tudy
.Thec
onc
lus
iondr
awn
f
rom t
hes
tudys
hou
ldbec
lear
lyr
elat
edt
othehy
pot
hes
isort
hepr
obl
em t
hatar
est
ated
i
nthei
ntr
odu
ctor
ysec
tion.

Att
hes
amet
imes
,af
orec
astoft
hepr
obl
em f
utu
reoft
hes
ubj
ectandi
ndi
cat
ionoft
he
ki
ndofr
esear
ch,whi
chneedst
obedonei
nthos
epar
tic
ularf
iel
ds,i
sus
efu
landde
sir
abl
e.
C
onc
lus
ions ar
e opi
nion bas
ed on t
he r
esu
lts
, wher
e as r
ecommendat
ions ar
e
s
ugges
tionsf
orac
tion.

Rec
ommendat
ion:I
nac
cor
danc
ewi
tht
her
esu
ltoft
heou
tcomeoft
her
esear
chwor
ka
r
esear
che
rmayf
orwar
d(s
ugges
t)pos
sibl
esol
uti
ont
hatmayal
l
evi
atet
hepr
obl
em i
n
qu
est
ion.T
he r
ecommendat
ion t
o be ac
cept
abl
eits
hou
ld meet t
he f
oll
owi
ng
r
equ
irement
s;

 S
hou
ldbec
learandu
nambi
guou
s
 Needt
ober
eal
i
sti
c,pl
aus
ibl
eandoper
ati
onal
 S
hou
ldpoi
ntou
tther
espons
ibl
ebodyt
otr
ans
lat
ethes
ugges
teds
olu
tioni
nto
pr
act
ice
 S
hou
ldbemodes
tthanas
ser
tive
3
)Endmat
ter
:
Her
e bel
ong s
ect
ions l
i
ke:Ref
erenc
es (
bibl
i
ogr
aphy
):I
tshou
ld be bas
ed on
al
phabet
icall
i
sti
ngofnamesandAppendi
x

Qu
est
ions
1
.Wr
ite a br
iefnot
e on t
he ‘
tas
k ofi
nter
pret
ati
on’i
nthe c
ont
extofr
esear
ch
met
hodol
ogy
.
2
.“I
nter
pret
ati
oni
saf
undament
alc
omponentofr
esear
chpr
oces
s”,Expl
ain.Whys
o?
3
.Des
cri
be t
he pr
ecau
tionst
hatt
he r
esear
chers
hou
ldt
ake whi
l
eint
erpr
eti
ng hi
s
f
indi
ngs
.
4.“
Int
erpr
etat
ioni
sanar
tofdr
awi
ngi
nfer
enc
es,dependi
ngu
pont
hes
kil
loft
he
r
esear
che
r”.El
uci
dat
ethegi
vens
tat
ementexpl
aini
ngt
het
echni
queofi
nter
pret
ati
on.
5
.“I
tisonl
ythr
ough i
nter
pret
ati
on t
he r
esear
cherc
an expos
ethe r
elat
ionsand
pr
oces
sest
hatu
nder
li
ehi
sfi
ndi
ngs
”.Expl
ain,gi
vingexampl
es.
6
.Expl
aint
hes
igni
fi
canc
eofar
esear
chr
epor
tandnar
rat
ethevar
iou
sst
epsi
nvol
ved
i
nwr
iti
ngs
uchar
epor
t.
7
.Des
cri
be,i
nbr
ief
,thel
ayou
tofar
esear
chr
epor
t,c
over
ingal
lrel
evantpoi
nts
.
8
.Wr
iteas
hor
tnot
eon‘
Doc
ument
ati
on’i
nthec
ont
extofar
esear
chr
epor
t.
9.Ment
ion t
he di
ffer
entt
ypesofr
epor
t,par
tic
ular
ly poi
nti
ng ou
tthe di
ffe
renc
e
bet
weenat
echni
calr
epor
tandapopu
larr
epor
t.
1
0.Wr
ites
hor
tnot
esont
hef
oll
owi
ng:
(
a)T
het
echni
quesofwr
iti
ngr
epor
t;
(
b)C
har
act
eri
sti
csofagoodr
esear
chr
epor
t;
(
c)Bi
bli
ogr
aphyandi
tsi
mpor
tanc
einc
ont
extofr
esear
chr
epor
t;
(
d)Rewr
iti
ngandpol
i
shi
ngofr
epor
t.