History of ICT in education

Leinonen (2005) cited in “International Institute for Communication and Development”

(2007:21) outlined four phases in the history of ICT in education:
i. “Late 1970s - early 1980s: Programming: This was the era in which the
pedagogical reason to use the computer focused primarily on programming, assisting
in the development of students’ logic, and mathematics skills.
ii. Late 1980s - early 1990s: Computer Based Learning: When multimedia computers
with graphics and sound applications became available, the computer began being
used to support learning processes in basic subjects such as mathematics, reading and
writing. (
iii. Early 1990s: Web-based Learning: The third wave of using ICT in the education
sector came with the advent of the World Wide Web (WWW). The use of the Web is
partially a product of the challenges in updating content on CD-ROMs. Web-based
information allows for educational content to be updated frequently
iv. Late 1990s: E-Learning: E-learning combines computer-based and web based
learning applications for the student. It also provides facilities for interaction between
the teacher and the student, and between students themselves”.
Pelgrum and Law (2003) cited in Kok (2006) observed that “towards the end of the 1980s,
the term ‘computers’ was replaced by ‘IT’ (Information Technology) signifying a shift of
focus from computing technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information. This was
followed by the introduction of the term ‘ICT’ (Information and Communication
Technology) around 1992, when electronic mail (e-mail) became available to the general
public”. In relation to the history, this study focused on ICT literacy in secondary school set
up and the role it plays in school administration.
Challenges facing the use of ICT in secondary schools in Kenya Kinuthia (2009) notes that
“for ICT to be effectively adopted it requires good governance and appropriation of allocated
government and foreign aid”. In many developing nations lack of ICT policy, poor project
management and corruption has led to ineffective implementation, duplication of efforts and
wastage of technology resources (ibid.).
Visscher (1996: 294) states that “although a number of computer applications supporting
clerical work have been developed in many countries, there is still much to be done in this
area”. This is even truer for applications assisting the school management activities. Since
full utilisation of School Information Systems (SISs) has not been realised, investment in
exploring ways that will lead to more successful systems implementation is needed.
Examples can be alternative design strategies generating better SISs, implementation
approaches that let schools staff benefit more fully in the potential of these systems (ibid.).
The cultural context of ICT adoption, language barriers, and attitudes toward ICT affect the
rate at which it is adopted (Fourie & Alt 2002 cited in Kinuthia 2009). Perceived difficulty in
the integration of ICT in education is based on the belief that technology use is challenging,
its implementation requires extra time and that technology skills are difficult to learn (ibid.).
Gichoya (2005: 183) maintains that as many arguments for ICT planning prove, ICT project
implementation is a complex exercise and more research is needed to identify challenges,
good practice and solutions for successful implementation. Use of ICT in key areas such as
school library, finance and school accounting needs to be adequately researched.
According to Obijiofor and Inayatullah (1998), implementation of ICTs is occurring in a
context where the cultural and institutional barriers are not well addressed. The assumption
often made is that if one purchases a few computers and modems, a post-industrial society
can magically result. Africans and those in the Asia-Pacific are generally in the position of
consumers and thus in a position where they cannot yet define media in their terms (ibid.). In
relation to this, it’s worth noting that ICT implementation handicaps are unique in different
set ups. This study intended to establish the pertinent challenges affecting effective and
efficient use of ICT in the administration of secondary schools in Kirinyaga County, Kenya.