ME8099 ROBOTICS Mechanical Engineering 2020-21

Unit III
Sensors and Machine Vision
 Used for interaction with the environment
 To receive information from the environment
 To manipulate: send signals to various joints necessary

Categories:
 Tactile sensors
 Proximity and range sensors
 Miscellaneous sensors and sensor-based systems
 Machine vision system

Sensor is a transducer used to make a measurement of a physical variable.

Measured variable Output signal
Calibration

Characteristics of Sensing device:

Range:
Minimum and maximum change in input signal to which the sensor can respond

Good if it possesses a wide operating range

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Response:
How quick the change is sensed

Should be instantaneous

Accuracy:
Should reflect the quantity exactly, Input must be measured or sensed properly

Should be as high as possible

Sensitivity:
Change in output exhibited for a unit change in input

Should be as high as possible

Linearity:
Should exhibit same sensitivity over its entire operating range
Necessary qualities of sensor:
Should not disturb the quantity sensed or measured
Should be suitable for the environment
Must sustain even if there is excess signal
Must be handy
Must be economic
Must have ease of operation

Basic types of sensors

Tactile sensors
Tactile sensors are also called as contact sensors are brought in contact with the object to
obtain signal to measure the necessary qualities as Force sensors, torque sensors, touch sensors,
position sensor.
Used to obtain information associated with the physical contact between a manipulator hand and
objects in workspace
Information by contact could give:
 location of object,
 recognition of object
 force exerted by manipulator

Contact sensors can be further classified into two as

 touch sensors , i.e. binary sensor, which is also known as binary sensors
 Force sensors i.e. force sensors, which is also known as analog sensors
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Non-tactile sensors
Non-tactile sensors are also called as contactless sensors, which sense the signals remotely,
with in specific range, this can measure magnetic fields, infrared and ultraviolet rays, electrical
fields, ultrasonic sound waves or electromagnetic waves. There are other methods to measure, they
are :
 Electro-optical imaging sensors,
 Proximity sensors
 Range imagining sensors.
 Touch sensors ( Binary sensors)

Touch sensors are switches that respond to the presence or absence of an object.
It provides binary output signal which indicates whether or not contact has been made with the
object
It indicates when contact is made without regard to the magnitude of the contacting force.
Devices such as limit switches, micro switches are used, multiple binary touch sensors can be used
on the inside or outside surface of each finger to provide further tactile information.

Position and displacement sensors

Used as components of the robot control system
The position of each joint in order to calculate the position of the end-effector.
The movements of the joints can be either linear or angular (rotary)
Position sensors could be absolute or incremental(displacement sensor)
Potentiometers
Analog devices for linear and angular
Output voltage is proportional to the position of a wiper (between wiper and ground)
Voltage is applied across the resistive element.
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Vo=K.θ
Vo = output voltage
K = voltage constant of the potentiometer
in units per radian (angular)
in volts per mm (linear)
θ= position of the wiper with referenc

 Potentiometeres are relatively inexpensive

 They are temperature sensitive, which affects accuracy as well
 Wiper could create wear and also electrical noise

Encoders
Non-contact type position sensors
Encoders give digital signal, they are either incremental or absolute type.
Encoeder disc has alternate transparent and opaque stripes aligned radially.
A photo transmitter is placed at one side of encoder disc which transmits light source. Generally
two sets of photo transmitters used along with receivers.
Photo receivers are placed on the other side of the encoder disc to receive the light from the
transmitter.
Usually the two sets of photo transmitters and receivers aligned 90° out of phase.
By counting the number of pulses and by adding or subtracting based on its direction. It is
possible to use the encoder for position information with respect to a known starting position.
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Absolute encoders
Position can be known in absolute terms
More tracks, corresponding sets of transmitters and receivers
Strips are usually aligned
Resolution=2n, where n is number of tracks.

Figure illustrates a 3-bit encoder

1- ON -through transparent region
2- OFF-through opaque region
Here in the mentioned transition at particular places more changes are noted: 1-2, 3-
4, 5-6. These changes could make malfunctions and hence it is designed to have just one
change in a transition, such a transition is called gray scale. This is as shown below.

The gray scale has only one change in a transition.

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Gray code disc increases reliability but requires the use of additional decoder circuit.

In practice, when the photo cells become skewed from the radial line which could create
malfunction.

Linear Variable Differential Transformer

It is a position sensor, the construction shows a primary coil excited with an A.C. source and two
secondary, .there is a movable core
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Construction:
Stage 1: core in central location, voltage will be some in secondary, Output in null position.
Stage 2: when core moves to right end, amplitude of voltage is S1 and S2 vary resulting in
output change.
Stage3: when core moves to left end (vice versa) similar but voltage out in positive phase.
A.C. output of LVDT can be converted to D.C. using rectifiers.
Force sensors
Measuring force is necessary to perform certain operation as
Grouping and object
Loading, unloading
Assembly
Force is a vector quantity (magnitude with direction)
Wrist sensing: with straight gauges mounted between arm and end-effector
Joint sensing: measuring Cartesian components of force and torque acting on robot joint.
Joints driven by D.C. motor- armature current can be used to sense.
Contact surface sensing: array of force sensing element can sense the shape and other info
about contact surface.
Wrist sensors
Force sensing wrist is to provide information about three components Fx, Fy and Fz and
three moments Mx, My and Mz applied at the end of the arm.
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With the help of the six components, the robot controller can obtain the exact amount of
forces and moments being applied a the wrist.
The force calculated must be computed properly to perform complex jobs.
Wrist sensors are
 Small
 Sensitive
 Light in weight
 Compact in design

Forces acting on wrist, moment are measured by gauges, through the information
computation can be carried out by the robot controller or by specified amplifier.

When there is no contact on the sides of the hole, the sensing pads will receive no force
accommodation, based on the pattern on sensing pad the controller give movements to
correct the action.
Based on the force (reaction) the controller guides it to keep the roller roll and follow the
edge.
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End effector is required to follow an edge of an irregular surface

Plunger is moved against the spring,

The plunger is connected to a code wheel.
When plunger moves it results in rotation of the wheel, which gives an output proportional
to the sensor force.
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Classification of sensors and their functions.

Senosrs can be broadly classified in two:
 Internal state sensors
 External state sensors

Where the external states sensors are further classified based on their function method as
 Non-contact sensors
 Contact sensors
The chart given below shows the broad classification with brief description about it
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Pneumatic switch sensors.

Fingers are fitted internally with a source of pneumatic (or liquid) pressure
‗Skin‘ - a flexible membrane is used to cover the sensor, beneath that lies a thin metal sheet
from a diaphragm which can make contact with the electrode.
The diagram shows the insertion of a peg in the provision.
The binary distribution of forces caused by the peg on the finger is sensed and this is used to
modify the gripper‘s orientation so as to facilitate insertion.
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Proximity and Range sensors

 May be located on the end effector or wrist.
 The presence of an object can be sensed by a proximity sensor. It is used to control the
motion of a manipulator arm.
 Range sensors are used to sense and measure the distance between the objects and the
sensing device, which is used to locate the work piece. Ranges from several millimeter to
several feet.
 Proximity sensors do not make any physical contact to sense the object. They are designed
with various techniques, such as
 Optical devices
 Acoustics
 Eddy currents
 Magnetic fields, etc.

Photoelectric proximity sensor

 These kind of sensor senses the presence of an object
without making physical contact.
 Distance of object can be measured using the reflecting
light.
 In case of presence of object in the region, light received
will exceed threshold value.
 This uses visible(incandescent light) and invisible (infra red)
light sources.
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Another optical approach

Located the part with the help of the distance of separation between the source and point of
reception.
D=l/2 tanθ
Based on the use of electric fields
When sensing objects are brought near the object, it creates an alternating magnetic field in a small
region
This field induces eddy currents through conducting object
Eddy current produces their own magnetic field
These eddy current interacts with the primary field to change is flux density
Probe detects the change in the flux density and this
Based on the use of magnetic field
It is simple in construction
Permanent magnet is made either as sensor or object to be detected
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With the presence of magnetic field, it completes the magnetic circuit and activates the reed switch.
Use of acoustics
Ultrasonic frequency (above 20,000Hz) beyond the range of human hearing
Made at one end of cylindrical chamber with an acoustic emitter
Waves pass the cavity, get altered in the presence of obstacle if any.
Microphone receives and senses the change in sound pattern.

Slip sensor for robot gripper

Strain gauges measure strain on the lever, measures the effort required to close the finger.
Rubber padded pulley rolls when the object slips and will make the potentiometer sense the
movement.
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The signal obtained is digitized and fed to a microprocessor.
When there is a slip, the micro processor detects and sends signal to input output module of the
robot controller.
Range imaging sensor.
A light source ranges in this sensor.
LASER is used for scanning
Two major methods to range:
Based on transmitting a laser pulse and measuring the time of arrival of the reflected (beam) signal.
Based on transmitting an amplitude modulated laser beam and measuring the phase shift of the
reflected signal.

Can be used to sense metallic work piece with the help of inductive proximity swithches. Contour
can be prepared simultaneously on two planes.
Grid picture may be prepared.
Tactile array sensors
It is a special type of force sensor composed of a matrix of force-sensing elements
Force data provides
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 Presence of
object
 Object‘s
contact area, location, shape, orientation.
 Pressure and
pressure distribution
 Magnitude of
force and its location

Construction:
 Array of
conductive elastomer pads,
 Deflection in
the pad is proportional to the applied force
 Electrical
resistance changes according to its deflection.
 Measuring
the resistance information about shape can be determined.
 As the
number of pads in the array is increased the resolution of the displayed information
improves.

Opto-electronic sensors
A linear array of opto-electronic sensors consisting of photo transistors acting as detectors.
For continuous generation (pattern recognition)
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Light falls on base of NPN transistor

 Connected in
Darlington configuration
 Voltage at
the common collector of each element will be low or high depending on whether the
transistor is ON or OFF.
 Voltage
signal are fed to a microprocessor system through different input output lines of P10 port.
 When
contour picture is obtained, object features like area, perimeter, centre of area can be found.

Robot vision system

Also known as computer vision , machine vision.
Many potential industrial applications in future would be more.
Vision system consists of:
1. the camera
and digitizing hardware
2. digital
camera
3. hardware and
software to interface.

Function:
Sensing and digitizing image data
Image processing and analysis
Application
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Sensing and Digitizing

Input of vision data – camera
With special lighting techniques
Image of sufficient contrast for later processing
30 frames per second, European standard 25fps.
Image is digitized analog to digital convertor digital image known as frame of vision data
captured by hardware device called frame grabber.
Frame:
Consists of matrix of data representing projections of the scene sensed by the camera.
Element of matrix  picture elements pixels
A single pixel is the projection of a small portion of the scene which reduces the portion to a single
value.
The value is a measure of light intensity
Each pixel intensity is converted into a digital value.
Image processing
Digital image matrix for each frame is storedimage processinganalysis
Several hundred thousand bytes of raw image dataseveral hundred bytes
Hence the data size is reduced by around thousand times
Imaging devices
Principal device used are
Television cameras:
1) consisting either of a tube (Vidicon tube)
2) solid state cameras Change Coupled Device(CCD), Charge Injection Devices (CID)
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3) Silicon bipolar sensor cameras

Solid state cameras possess a number of advantages over tube cameras such as

Lighter weight, smaller size, longer life and lower power consumption.

However resolution of certain tubes is still beyond the capabilities of solid state cameras.