Gas Turbine

Content:

1- Introduction and various types of turbines.

2- Various types of gas turbines (radial, axial flow, …), Micro-gas turbines and their use.

3- Gas turbine cycles, Open and closed cycle gas turbines

4- Jet engine applications of gas turbines:

Turbo-prop engines, Turbo-fan engines, Turbo-shaft engines, turbo chargers and turbojet
engines, ….

5- Analysis of gas turbines:

Velocity diagrams and power calculations; Thermodynamic cycles; Stage analysis; losses;
efficiency; Zero reaction and 50% reaction stages; performance curves and characteristics;
dimensional analysis; examples and workshop hands-on cases.

6- Design issues, vibration problems, fouling, blade tip leakage and blade shrouding, blade
cooling, etc.

7- Operating problems
1-Introduction and Various Types of Turbines.

A turbine is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it
into useful work.

A turbine is a turbo-machine with at least one moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a
shaft or drum with blades attached [1]. Moving fluid acts on the blades so that they move and
impart rotational energy to the rotor.

Turbine shaft or drum with blades

 General Classification of Turbines

2- Direction of flow direction:-

1-According to the energy used:- 2-a Axial flow
1-a Impulse turbine 2-b Radial in axial out
1-b Reaction turbine 2-c Inward flow
2-d Outward flow

3- According to the fluid used 4- According to the specific speed

3-a Water Turbine 4-a Low specific speed ( <50) Pelton wheel
(Pelton Wheel, Francis, Kaplan) 4-b Medium specific speed
3-b Gas Turbine (50 < Ns< 250) Francis
3-c Steam Turbine 4-c High Specific speed ( >250) Kaplan

5- According to the head available to the inlet of turbine

5-a High Head Turbine (250-1800m), Pelton Wheel
5-b Medium Head Turbine (50-250m), Francis Turbine
5-c Low Head Turbine ( <50m), Kaplan Turbine
Categories of Gas Turbines
The simple-cycle gas turbine is classified into five broad groups:

1-Frame Type Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines.

The frame units are the large power generation units ranging from 3 MW to 480 MW in a
simple cycle configuration, with efficiencies ranging from 30–46%.

The overall pressure ratio of these units varied from 5:1 for the earlier units to 35:1 for the
units in present-day service.

The industrial turbine consists of :-

1- a 15–17 stage axial-flow compressor
2- multiple can-annular combustors
each connected to the other by cross-
over tubes. The cross-over tubes help
propagate the flames from one
combustor can to all the other chambers
and also assure an equalization of the
pressure between each combustor
chamber.

Figure 1. A frame type gas turbine (Siemens proven SGT5-

4000F gas turbine, Shuweihat S3 CCGT plant, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates)
2- Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines Aero-derivative.

These are power generation units, which originated in the aerospace industry as the prime
mover of aircraft.

These units have been adapted to the electrical generation industry by removing the bypass
fans, and adding a power turbine at their exhaust.

These units range in power from 2.5 MW to about 50 MW. The efficiencies of these units
can range from 35–45%.
Aero-derivative gas turbines consist of two basic
components:
1- an aircraft derivative gas generator, and

2- a free-power turbine [4].

The gas generator serves as a producer of gas
energy or gas horsepower. The gas generator is
derived from an aircraft engine modified to burn
industrial fuels.

A cross section of an aero-derivative gas turbine engine

3-Industrial Type-Gas Turbines.

These vary in range from about 2.5 MW–15 MW. This type of turbine is used extensively in
many petrochemical plants for compressor drive trains.

The efficiencies of these units are in the low 30%. Industrial Type Gas Turbines are medium-
range gas turbines and usually rated between 5–15 MW.

These units are similar in design to the large heavy-duty gas turbines; their casing is thicker
than the aero-derivative casing but thinner than the industrial gas turbines [2]. They usually are
split-shaft designs that are efficient in part load operations.
Efficiency is achieved by letting the gasifier section (the section which produces the hot gas)
operate at maximum efficiency while the power turbine operates over a great range of speeds.
The compressor is usually a 10–16 stage subsonic axial compressor, which produces a
pressure ratio from about 5:1–15:1.

Most American designs use can-annular

(about 5–10 combustor cans mounted in a
circular ring) or annular-type combustors.
Most European designs use side
combustors and have lower turbine inlet
temperatures compared to their American
counterparts. A medium size industrial gas turbine.
4-Small Gas Turbines.
These gas turbines are in the range from about 0.5 MW–2.5 MW. They often have centrifugal
compressors and radial inflow turbines. Efficiencies in the simple cycle applications vary from
15–25%.
Many small gas turbines which produce below 5 MW are designed similarly to the larger
turbines already discussed; however, there are many designs that incorporate centrifugal
compressors or combinations of centrifugal and axial compressors as well as radial-inflow
turbines [2].
A small turbine will often consist of a
single-stage centrifugal compressor
producing a pressure ratio as high as
6:1, a single side combustor where
temperatures of about 1800 ◦F (982
◦C) are reached, and radial-inflow
turbines.

A small radial-flow gas turbine cutaway showing

the turbine rotor
5-Micro-Turbines.

These turbines are in the range from 20 kW–350 kW. The growth of these turbines has been
dramatic from the late1990s, as there is an upsurge in the distributed generation market. Micro-
turbines usually refers to units of less than 350 kW.

The micro-turbines can be either axial-flow or centrifugal radial inflow units. The initial cost,
efficiency, and emissions will be the three most important criteria in the design of these units.
The micro-turbines on the market today range from about 20–350 kW.

Today’s micro-turbine uses radial-flow

turbines and compressors. To improve
the overall thermal efficiency
regenerators are used in the micro-
turbine design, and in combination with
absorption coolers, or other thermal loads
very high efficiencies can be obtained.

A compact micro-turbine schematic

 Major Gas Turbine Components
1-Compressors “turbo-compressors”
A compressor is a device, which pressurizes a working fluid. In this type of compressor,
energy is transferred energy dynamic means from a rotating member to the continuously
flowing fluid.

The two types of compressors used in gas turbines are axial and centrifugal. Nearly all gas
turbines producing over 5 MW have axial-flow compressors [5]. Some small gas turbines
employ a combination of an axial compressor followed by a centrifugal unit.

Axial-flow compressor Combination of an axial compressor Centrifugal

followed by a centrifugal unit compressor
2-Regenerators

Heavy-duty regenerators are designed for applications

in large gas turbines in the 1–50 MW range. The use of
regenerators in conjunction with industrial gas turbines
substantially increases cycle efficiency and provides an
impetus to energy management by reducing fuel
consumption up to 30%.

The term “regenerative heat exchanger” is used for this

system in which the heat transfer between two streams is
affected by the exposure of a third medium alternately to
the two flows. The heat flows successively into and out of
the third medium, which undergoes a cyclic temperature .

In a recuperative heat exchanger each element of heat-transferring surface has a constant

temperature and, by arranging the gas paths in contraflow, the temperature distribution in
the matrix in the direction of flow is that giving optimum performance for the given heat-
transfer conditions. This optimum temperature distribution can be achieved ideally in a
contraflow regenerator and approached very closely in a cross-flow regenerator.
3-Combustors
All gas turbine combustors perform the same function: they increase the temperature
of the high-pressure gas.
The gas turbine combustor uses very little of its air (10%) in the combustion process. The rest
of the air is used for cooling and mixing. New combustors are also circulating steam for
cooling purposes.

The combustor is a direct-fired air heater in which

fuel is burned almost stoichiometrically with one-third
or less of the compressor discharge air. Combustion
products are then mixed with the remaining air to
arrive at a suitable turbine inlet temperature.

Despite the many design differences in

combustors, all gas turbine combustion chambers
have three features:
(1) a recirculation zone,
(2) a burning zone (with a recirculation zone,
which extends to the dilution region),
and (3) a dilution zone [2], casing.
There are different methods to arrange combustors on a gas turbine. Designs fall into four
categories:

1. Tubular (side combustors)

2. Can-annular
3. Annular
4. External (experimental)

Can-annular

Tubular (side combustors)

Annular External Combustor

4-Turbine Expander Section
There are two types of turbines used in gas turbines. These consist of the axial-flow type and
the radial-inflow type. The axial-flow turbine is used in more than 95% of all applications.
The two types of turbines—axial-flow and radial-inflow turbines—can be divided further into
impulse or reaction type units.

Impulse turbines take their entire enthalpy drop through the nozzles, while the reaction turbine
takes a partial drop through both the nozzles and the impeller blades.

4-a Radial-Inflow Turbine:-

The radial-inflow turbine, or inward-flow radial turbine, has been in use for many years, the
inward-flow radial turbine is used for smaller loads and over a smaller operational range
than the axial turbine. The inward-flow radial turbine has many components similar to a
centrifugal compressor.

Components of a Radial Inflow Turbine

 4-b Axial-Flow Turbines:-

The axial-flow turbine has flow, which enters and leaves in the axial direction.
There are two types of axial turbines:
impulse type and
reaction type.
The impulse turbine has its entire enthalpy drop in the nozzle; therefore it has a very high
velocity entering the rotor. The reaction turbine divides the enthalpy drop in the nozzle and
the rotor.

Most axial-flow turbines consist of more than

one stage: the front stages are usually
impulse (zero reaction) and the later stages
have about 50% reaction.
The impulse stages produce about twice the
output of a comparable 50% reaction stage,
while the efficiency of an impulse stage is
less than that of a 50% reaction stage.
Gas Turbine Cycles
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS-TURBINE ENGINES

Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the

compressor, where its temperature and pressure are
raised.
The high-pressure air proceeds into the combustion
chamber, where the fuel is burned at constant
pressure.

The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the An open-cycle gas-turbine engine.
turbine, where they expand to the atmospheric
pressure while producing power .

The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown

out (not recirculated), causing the cycle to be
classified as an open cycle.

A closed-cycle gas-turbine engine

Combined steam and gas cycles
In which gas turbine exhaust supplying energy to the steam boiler.
Combined steam and gas cycles
In which gas turbine exhaust supplying energy to the steam boiler.

Gas Turbine
Combined steam and gas cycles
In which gas turbine exhaust supplying energy to the steam boiler.
Combined steam and gas cycles
In which gas turbine exhaust supplying energy to the steam boiler.

Steam Turbine
Ideal Cycles
Simple gas turbine cycle
All four processes of the Brayton cycle are executed in steady flow devices; thus,
they should be analyzed as steady-flow processes. When the changes in kinetic and
potential energies are neglected, the energy balance for a steady-flow process can be
expressed, on a unit–mass basis, as:
(𝑞𝑖𝑛 − 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − (𝑤𝑖𝑛 − 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) = ℎ𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 − ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 (1)
Therefore, heat transfers to and from the working fluid are:-
q𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 (2)
and
q𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 (3)

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Brayton cycle under the cold-air standard
assumptions becomes:-
𝑇4
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑝 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 𝑇1 𝑇 −1
1
η𝑡ℎ,𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = =1− =1− =1−
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑝 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑇
𝑇2 3 − 1
𝑇2

Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and P2 =P3 and P4 = P1. Thus,

(𝐾−1)/𝐾 (𝐾−1)/𝐾
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝑃3 𝑇3
= = = (5)
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑃4 𝑇4 T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal
Brayton cycle.
Simple gas turbine cycle
the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give
1
η𝑡ℎ,𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑦𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 1 − 𝐾−1 (6)
𝑟𝑝 𝐾
where
𝑃3
𝑟𝑝 = (7)
𝑃4
is the pressure ratio and k is the specific heat ratio

T-s and P-v diagrams for the ideal

Brayton cycle.
Simple gas turbine cycle
EXAMPLE 1 The Simple Ideal Brayton Cycle
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas
temperature is 300 K at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-
standard assumptions, determine
(a) the gas temperature at the exits of the compressor and the turbine,
(b) the back work ratio, and
(c) the thermal efficiency.

Analysis The T-s diagram of the ideal Brayton cycle described is shown in Fig. 18. We
note that the components involved in the Brayton cycle are steady-flow devices.

(a) The air temperatures at the compressor and turbine exits are determined from
isentropic relations:

Process 1-2 (isentropic compression of an ideal gas):

𝑇1 = 300 𝐾 → ℎ1 = 300.19 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑟1 = 1.386
𝑃2
𝑃𝑟2 = 𝑃𝑟1 = 8 1.386 = 11.09 → 𝑇2 = 540 𝐾 ( 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 )
𝑃1
T-s diagram for the Brayton cycle
ℎ2 = 544.35 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

Process 3-4 (isentropic expansion of an ideal gas):

𝑇3 = 1300 𝐾 → ℎ3 = 1395.97 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑟3 = 330.9
𝑃4
𝑃𝑟4 = 𝑃𝑟3 = 1/8 330.9 = 41.36 → 𝑇4 = 770 𝐾 ( 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 )
𝑃3
ℎ4 = 789.37 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

(b) To find the back work ratio, we need to find the work input to the compressor
 𝑃1
EXAMPLE 1 The Simple Ideal Brayton
ℎ2 = 544.35 Cycle
𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
A gas-turbine power plant operating on an ideal Brayton cycle has a pressure ratio of 8. The gas
Process 3-4 (isentropic
temperature is 300 Kexpansion of an ideal gas):
at the compressor inlet and 1300 K at the turbine inlet. Utilizing the air-
𝑇3 = 1300 𝐾 → ℎ3 = 1395.97 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
standard assumptions, determine
𝑃𝑟3 = 330.9
(a) the gas𝑃temperature
4
at the exits of the compressor and the turbine,
𝑃𝑟4back
(b) the = work𝑃 = 1/8 330.9 = 41.36 → 𝑇4 = 770 𝐾 ( 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 )
𝑃3 𝑟3 ratio, and
(c) the thermal efficiency. ℎ4 = 789.37 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔

(b) To find the back work ratio, we need to find the work input to the compressor
and the work output of the turbine:
𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 544.35 − 300.19 = 244.16 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ3 − ℎ4 = 1395.97 − 789.37 = 606.60 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Thus,
𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 244.16
𝑟𝑏𝑤 = = = 0.403
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 606.60
That is, 40.3 percent of the turbine work output is used just to drive the compressor.
(a) The thermal efficiency of the cycle is the ratio of the net power output to the
total heat input:
𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2 = 1395.97 − 544.35 = 851.62 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 606.60 − 244.16 = 362.4 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Thus,
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 362.4
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 0.426 𝑜𝑟 42.6%
𝑞𝑖𝑛 851.62
The thermal efficiency could also be determined from T-s diagram for the Brayton cycle
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑞𝑖𝑛
Where
𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ4 − ℎ1 = 789.37 − 300.19 = 489.2 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
The actual gas-turbine cycle differs from the ideal Brayton cycle on several accounts. For one thing, some pressure drop
during the heat-addition and heat rejection processes is inevitable.
More importantly, the actual work input to the compressor is more, and the actual work output from the turbine is less
because of irreversibilities.

The deviation of actual compressor and turbine behavior from the idealized isentropic behavior can be accurately accounted
for by utilizing the isentropic efficiencies of the turbine and compressor

𝑤𝑠 ℎ2𝑠 − ℎ1
η𝑐 = = (8)
𝑤 𝑎 ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1
and
𝑤𝑎 ℎ 3 −ℎ 4𝑎
η𝑡 = = (9)
𝑤𝑠 ℎ 3 −ℎ 4𝑠

where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the compressor and the turbine,
respectively,

and 2s and 4s are the corresponding states for the isentropic case.

The deviation of an actual gas-turbine cycle

from the ideal Brayton cycle as a result of
irreversibilities.
Effect of pressure losses on gas turbine performance

In practical, The combustor and the heat addition process incur

pressure losses and therefore the heat addition is not a constant
pressure process in a practical gas turbine cycle.

Similarly, the heat sink in a practical gas turbine cycle is the

atmosphere, and the ductwork to remove the exhaust gases from
the gas turbine will also incur a pressure loss

Furthermore, practical gas turbines normally operate on open

cycles and air is drawn in continuously to provide fresh working
fluid for the gas turbine. As a result, there is also a pressure loss
in the inlet system.
The combustion pressure loss varies from about 1% of the
compressor discharge pressure for an industrial gas turbine to
about 5% for an aeroderived gas turbine.

Inlet and exhaust losses are much smaller and a typical pressure
loss is about 10 mBar.

Pressure losses that occur in the combustion, inlet and exhaust systems reduce the turbine work output and increase the
compressor work absorbed,
EXAMPLE 2 An Actual Gas-Turbine Cycle
Assuming a compressor efficiency of 80 percent and a turbine efficiency of 85 percent,
determine
(a) the back work ratio,
(b) the thermal efficiency, and
(c) the turbine exit temperature of the gas-turbine cycle discussed in Example 1.

Solution The Brayton cycle discussed in Example 1 is reconsidered. For specified turbine
and compressor efficiencies, the back work ratio, the thermal efficiency, and the turbine exit
temperature are to be determined.
𝑤𝑠 244.16
Compressor: 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 = = = 305.20 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝜂𝑐 0.80
Turbine: 𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝜂𝑡 𝑤𝑠 = 0.85 606.60 = 515.61𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Thus,
𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 305.20
𝑟𝑏𝑤 = = = 0.592
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 515.61

That is, the compressor is now consuming 59.2 percent of the work produced by the
turbine (up from 40.3 percent). This increase is due to the irreversibilities that occur
within the compressor and the turbine.
T-s diagram of the gas-turbine cycle
 (b) In this case, air leaves the compressor at a higher temperature and enthalpy, (b) In this case, air leaves the compressor at a higher t
which
(b) In
are this case,to
determined airbeleaves the compressor at a higher temperature and enthalpy, are
which
determined to be
are determined to be𝑤 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 = ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 → ℎ2𝑎 = ℎ1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 = ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 → ℎ2𝑎 = ℎ1 + 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛
𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 ,𝑖𝑛 = ℎ2𝑎 − ℎ1 → ℎ2𝑎 = ℎ1 + 𝑤𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝,𝑖𝑛 = 300.
= 300.19 + 305.2
= 605.39
= 300.19 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
+ 305.2 ( 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇 = = 605.
2𝑎
598 𝐾) = 605.39 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 ( 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇2𝑎 = 598 𝐾)
598 𝐾)
thus, thus,
thus, 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2𝑎 = 1395.97 − 605.39 = 790.58 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = ℎ3 − ℎ2𝑎 = 1395.97 − 605.39
𝑤𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑖𝑛 == ℎ𝑤3𝑜𝑢𝑡
− ℎ−2𝑎𝑤= 1395.97 − 605.39 = 790.58 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑖𝑛 = 515.61 − 305.20 = 210.41𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 515.61 − 305.2
and 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑤𝑖𝑛 = 515.61 − 305.20 = 210.41𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔 and
and 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 210.41 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 210.41
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 210.41 = 0.266 𝑜𝑟 26.6% 𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 0.266
𝜂𝑡ℎ = 𝑞𝑖𝑛 = 790.58 = 0.266 𝑜𝑟 26.6% 𝑞𝑖𝑛 790.58
𝑞𝑖𝑛 790.58

(c) The air temperature at the turbine exit is determined from an energy balance on the
turbine:
𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ℎ3 − ℎ4𝑎 → ℎ4𝑎 = ℎ3 − 𝑤𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 1395.97 + 515.61
= 880.36 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Then, from Table A–17,
𝑇4𝑎 = 853 𝐾