Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Afonso 2003
Afonso 2003
www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng
a
LEPAE, Departamento de Engenharia Quımica, Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
b
Escola Superior Agraria de Ponte de Lima, Instituto Polit
ecnico de Viana do Castelo, Ref
oios, 4990-706 Ponte de Lima, Portugal
c
Technical University of Liberec, Faculty of Textiles, Halkova 6, 46117 Liberec, Czech Republic
d
Departamento de Engenharia de Polımeros, Universidade do Minho, 4800-058 Guimar~ aes, Portugal
Received 25 February 2000; received in revised form 19 November 2001; accepted 24 June 2002
Abstract
In the present work an experimental investigation was conducted to obtain a correlation for the determination of convective heat
transfer coefficients of stirred yoghurt in a plate heat exchanger. A rheological study was carried out in order to characterise the
stirred yoghurt flow behaviour, evaluating its dependency both on shear rate and temperature. A shift in the temperature depen-
dency was evidenced at 25 °C. It is also shown that the material shows a complex flow behaviour, changing from a Bingham fluid to
a power-law fluid at shear stresses in excess of approximately 6.7 Pa. As regards the heat transfer behaviour of the non-Newtonian
stirred yoghurt a correlation for the convective heat transfer coefficient was obtained that reveals the large effects of the thermal
entry length due to the high Prandtl numbers and to the short length of the plate heat exchanger.
Ó 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Nomenclature
a water content by weight (in decimal units) R ideal gas constant (J mol1 K1 )
Ap heat transfer area of one plate (m2 ) Re Reynolds number (–)
At overall heat transfer area (m2 ) T temperature (K)
aT displacement factor (–) u flow velocity (m s1 )
b plate spacing (m) U overall heat transfer coefficient (W m2 K1 )
C constant (–) w plate width (m)
cp specific heat (kJ kg1 K1 ) xp plate thickness (m)
De hydraulic diameter (m)
Greek symbols
E activation energy (J mol1 )
DTln mean logarithm temperature difference (K)
F correction factor (–)
c_ shear rate (s1 )
h convective heat transfer coefficient
gapp apparent viscosity (Pa s)
(W m2 K1 )
k thermal conductivity (W m1 K1 )
K1 , K2 consistency index (Pa sn )
q density (kg m3 )
L length (m)
r shear stress (Pa)
m, m0 , p exponent of the dimensionless number
r0 yield stress (Pa)
Mv volumetric flowrate (m3 s1 )
mv volumetric flowrate per channel (m3 s1 ) Subscripts
n flow behaviour index (–) cw cold water
Nc number of channels per pass (–) g generalised
Np total number of plates of the heat exchanger hw hot water
(–) in inlet
Nu Nusselt number (–) out outlet
Pr Prandtl number (–) p plate
q heat transfer rate (W) yog yoghurt
experimental conditions and methodologies, often not Sandham, Hallam, & Walton, 1997; Kho & M€ uller-
specified, makes it difficult to apply those results to a Steinhagen, 1999) and plate type (Rene et al., 1991).
different particular situation under study. The purpose of the present work is to complement
Plate heat exchangers are most suitable for liquid– some of the information described above by gathering
liquid heat transfer duties that require uniform and reliable information to predict heat transfer rates of
rapid heating or cooling, as is often the case when stirred yoghurt during the cooling process in plate heat
treating thermally sensitive fluids such as food fluids. exchangers. In order to do so, an experimental investi-
The industrial development of plate heat exchangers was gation was conducted in order to obtain a correlation
considerable in recent years, particularly in the food for the determination of convective heat transfer coef-
industry for viscous food fluids, but the information ficients of stirred yoghurt in a plate heat exchanger.
available for the design of plate heat exchangers using
real food fluids, such as stirred yoghurt, is somewhat
scanty. 2. Experimental description
Some studies were published focusing on heat trans-
fer in plate heat exchangers using non-food fluids 2.1. Rheological characterisation
with viscous Newtonian and non-Newtonian, mainly
pseudoplastic characteristics (Bassiouny & Martin, The methods used to assess the temperature effect on
1984a,b; Delplace, 1995; Kho & M€ uller-Steinhagen, the rheological properties of yoghurt are essentially
1999; Leuliet, Maingonnat, & Lalande, 1987, 1990; similar to those reported previously by Afonso and
Muley, Manglik, & Metwally, 1999; Rene, Leuliet, & Maia (1999). Here the experimental procedure is only
Lalande, 1991; Rene & Lalande, 1987). For such fluids, briefly summarized. The experiments were performed in
the performances of plate heat exchangers both from a a VISCOMETERS model ELV-8 with a TCU-3 mod-
thermal and hydraulic viewpoint, have been determined ule, using coaxial cylinders with spindle TL7.
as a function of hydraulic diameter (Leuliet et al., 1990); Samples of stirred yoghurt were collected in the
pressure drop (Leuliet et al., 1987); flow distribution and experimental set-up, downstream of the plate heat
arrangement type (Bassiouny & Martin, 1984a,b; Heggs, exchanger used in the cooling stage. The temperature
I.M. Afonso et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 57 (2003) 179–187 181
Fig. 1. Experimental set-up (B1: positive pump; B2, B3: centrifuge pumps; P: plate heat exchanger; RA: electric resistance; RF: water refrigerating
unit; Rg: multichannel microprocessor device; T1: fermentation tank; TA: hot oil tank; V1, V2, V3: globe valves).
182 I.M. Afonso et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 57 (2003) 179–187
The experiments for the determination of heat mensions (6:5 6:5) cm and 0.03 mm of thickness were
transfer coefficients of the stirred yoghurt included two prepared. Each bag was filled with 25.0 ml of yoghurt
successive main stages: the stirred yoghurt production sample thermally stabilized at a controlled room tem-
and the heat transfer experiments. The tests in the plate perature of 20 °C, removing the air bubbles. Finally, the
heat exchanger with stirred yoghurt were carried out bags were sealed in an appropriate thermal apparatus.
according to the procedure described above for the For each yoghurt sample five bags were prepared.
evaluation of the heat transfer coefficients of the water. The sample bag was put on the bottom plate of
The ‘‘generalised’’ Reynolds number (which take into the ALAMBETA and the analysis was started up
account the rheological behaviour) of the yoghurt varied when the measuring system of the apparatus (the upper
from 0.51 to 14.47 (corresponding to shear stresses be- plate) contacted with the bag. After an average time
tween 24 and 59 Pa). interval of 2 min, the measuring cycle was concluded,
The plate heat exchanger and the inlet/outlet piping and the thermal parameter (thermal conductivity) was
were insulated to reduce heat losses. Further heat registered. The operating conditions were optimized
transfer experiments were carried out in order to according to the description in the equipment manual.
determine the pressure drop along the plate heat ex-
changer.
3. Heat transfer analysis
2.3. Stirred yoghurt production
The determination of the convective heat transfer
Yoghurt was made from reconstituted low-heat non- coefficient of stirred yoghurt in the plate heat exchanger
fat dry milk supplied by a local dairy plant. This milk was based on the following assumptions: average con-
contained 55.7% (w/w) lactose, 34.0% (w/w) protein and stant thermal properties (thermal conductivity and spe-
1.5% (w/w) fat (values were supplied by the producer). cific heat) and convective heat transfer coefficients along
In each experiment, 50 l of reconstituted milk with the heat exchanger, negligible internal heat generation
total solids content adjusted to 12% and 7% (w/w) sugar and negligible free convection.
were prepared. The milk was heated to 95 °C for 5 min In the present study the plate heat exchanger was
in an autoclave, cooled to 45 °C and transfered to the operating with a parallel arrangement and in counter-
fermentation jacketed tank, where it was innoculated current. Thus, the volumetric flowrate of each fluid can
with a local dairy yoghurt starter culture (3% (v/v)), and be expressed in terms of the number of channels per
incubated at 43–45 °C until the yoghurt coagulum was pass, as follows:
formed and the desired pH value (pH 4.4–4.6) was
reached. This was achieved within 3–3 h 30 min. Then, Mv
mv ¼ ð1Þ
the yoghurt coagulum was broken manually by means Nc
of a perforated stirrer, by stirring the coagulum twenty where Nc is the number of channels per pass, for each
five times times in slow helicoidal movements. This was fluid, defined as
done in order to insure that the yoghurt coagulum
was completely broken and that whey incorporation was Np 1
Nc ¼ ð2Þ
promoted. After this operation, the stirred yoghurt was 2
circulated through the plate heat exchanger where it where Np is total number of plates of the heat exchanger.
was cooled down by the cold water stream. The number of channels per pass is equal for the two
fluids.
2.4. Determination of thermal conductivity The heat transfer design equation is
q ¼ At FU DTln ð3Þ
Thermal conductivity of the stirred yoghurt was de-
termined using a thermal device ALAMBETA VS ST where At is the heat transfer area of the exchanger and U
ZCHV (SENSORA Instruments & Consulting, Lib-
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
erec, Czech Republic, Hes, Ara ujo, & Djulay, 1996). It is assumed that no significant heat exchange takes
ALAMBETA enables the measurement of the following place between the equipment and the surrounding air.
thermal parameters: thermal conductivity, thermal ab- The factor F, used to correct the mean logarithm
sortivity, thermal resistance, sample thickness. temperature difference, was determined graphically
Thermal measurements were carried out with yo- (Raju & Bansal, 1986)
ghurt samples previously prepared as outlined below,
F ¼ 0:942
repeating each experiment three times for each yoghurt
sample. If the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is expressed
Sample preparation obeyed a strict procedure. in terms of the convective and conductive parameters,
Firstly, square polypropylene bags with average di- then Eq. (3) can be rewritten as
I.M. Afonso et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 57 (2003) 179–187 183
! shear rate and temperature, correlated by the following
1
q ¼ At F x DTln ð4Þ general equation (Barnes, Hutton, & Walters, 1989):
1 1
hcw
þ kpp þ hyog
gapp ¼ ½gapp ðc_ Þ eðE=RT Þ ð11Þ
The total heat transfer area, At , is calculated by the
where gapp is the apparent viscosity of stirred yoghurt,
following equation:
gapp ðc_ Þ is the term that takes into account the de-
At ¼ Ap ðNp 2Þ ð5Þ pendency of viscosity on shear rate, E (J mol1 ) is the
where Ap is the heat transfer area of one plate (0.015 m2 , activation energy, R is the constant of ideal gas
value supplied by the producer), and (Np 2) is the (R ¼ 8:31451 J K1 mol1 ) and T the absolute tempera-
number of plates really involved in the heat transfer ture (K). The rheological model is obtained by fitting the
process. above equation to the experimental data, at a reference
From the experimental data (inlet and outlet tem- temperature.
peratures of cold and hot fluids, volumetric flowrates of The specific heat of stirred yoghurt is assumed con-
the two fluids, total number of plates used, thermo- stant and is estimated by using the following Siebel
physical properties: specific heat, thermal conductivity correlation (Sweat, 1986):
and density) of each fluid, it is possible to determine the cp ¼ 3:35a þ 0:84 ð12Þ
heat transfer rate in the plate heat exchanger (q). The 1 1
where cp (kJ kg K ) is the specific heat of a food at a
convective heat transfer coefficients are then calculated
temperature higher than its freezing temperature, a is the
from Eq. (4).
water content of the food, and the constant term 0.84
The hydraulic diameter in the heat exchanger chan-
represents the specific heat of the total solids content
nels (De ) is defined for the plate heat exchanger in terms
(dry matter) of the food material.
of plate spacing, b (Cß engel, 1998)
De ¼ 2b ð6Þ
In the determination of the convective heat transfer 4. Results and discussion
coefficient of the cold water, using hot water as the heat
source, the film heat transfer coefficients of the two 4.1. Rheological features of the stirred yoghurt
fluids were related as follows:
p m Fig. 2 shows the flow curves of the stirred yoghurt,
Rehw Prhw at different temperatures. The yoghurt samples used in
hhw ¼ hcw m0
ð7Þ
Recw Prcw the rheological characterisation were collected from the
plate heat exchanger operating under hydrodynamic
where hhw is the convective heat transfer coefficient of
shear stress conditions similar to the industrial ones
the hot water, and m and m0 are the Prandtl number
(flowrate: 50 ml s1 ; number of plates: 5). From Fig. 2, it
exponents that equal 0.4 or 0.3, for hot and cold water,
is possible to observe that the apparent viscosity de-
respectively (C
ß engel, 1998).
creased with increasing temperature, the effect being
From Eq. (7) it is possible to obtain a correction
p m m0 more pronounced for temperatures above 30 °C. The
factor, ðRehw =Recw Þ ðPrhw =Prcw Þ, necessary to introduce
study of the temperature influence on the flow behaviour
the effects of the viscosity and flowrate differences on
of stirred yoghurt was based on the method previously
heat transfer, particularly on the convective heat trans-
reported (see details in Afonso & Maia, 1999), which
fer coefficients.
follows the method proposed by Mendelson (Nielsen,
In the case of the convective heat transfer coeffcient
1977) to predict the flow behaviour, at different tem-
of stirred yoghurt, ‘‘generalised’’ dimensionless numbers
peratures, by means of the superimposition of the flow
should be used so that the non-Newtonian behaviour of
curves into a reference curve (the ‘‘master curve’’). The
stirred yoghurt is taken into account
master curve was determined at a reference temperature
Nu ¼ CRepg Prgm ð8Þ of 20 °C, and the temperature effect was evaluated
by means of the Arrhenius temperature model. The
where the ‘‘generalised’’ Reynolds and Prandtl numbers displacement factor is mathematically defined as
are given by aT ¼ c_ ðreferenceÞ=c_ ðT Þ where c_ ðreferenceÞ is the shear
uqDe rate at the reference temperature at a defined shear stress
Reg ¼ ð9Þ
gapp and c_ ðT Þ is the shear rate at a determined temperature T,
at the same shear stress. The displacement factor de-
cp gapp
Prg ¼ ð10Þ pendency on temperature can be observed in Fig. 3,
k which shows the existence of two distinct regions, cor-
The generalisation of these dimensionless numbers is responding to different temperature dependencies. A
obtained by introducing the viscosity dependency on the shift in the temperature dependency is evidenced at
184 I.M. Afonso et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 57 (2003) 179–187
where r0 is the yield stress (Pa), K1 and K2 are the heat exchanger and the heat transfer rate between the
consistency indices (Pa sn ) and n is the flow behaviour two liquids was calculated from the measured flowrates
index (–). So, at shear stresses lower than 6.7 Pa, the and temperatures.
stirred yoghurt exhibits a Bingham viscoplastic behav- Differences between the rates of heat transfer to the
iour with a yield stress (r0 ) of approximately 0.54 Pa and cold water and from the hot water were observed, evi-
a consistency index (K1 ) of 1.45 Pa s. At shear stresses dencing the occurrence of some heat exchange with the
higher than 6.7 Pa, the stirred yoghurt exhibited a strong surrounding air. This was more significant (7%) when a
shear-thinning character described by a power-law higher number of plates was used, due to the increasing
model with the following parameters: K2 ¼ 3:65 Pa s0:42 surface area in contact with the exterior, despite the
and n ¼ 0:42. insulation used in order to minimize the heat losses.
The value obtained for the flow behaviour index For cold water, the semi-empirical correlation ob-
(n ¼ 0:42), at shear stresses higher than 6.7 Pa, tained for the convective heat transfer coefficient was
emphazises the pronounced pseudoplastic character of
Nu ¼ 0:218Re0:59 Pr0:4 ; R2 ¼ 0:9697 ð15Þ
stirred yoghurt. This value is comparable to values
mentioned in the literature (ranging from 0.12 to 0.41), assuming that the Prandtl number exponent is m ¼ 0:4.
obtained with different rheological models, for example, These results confirmed other conclusions published in
Hershel–Bulkley (Benezech & Maingonnat, 1992, 1993) the literature for Newtonian fluids (Raju & Bansal,
and power-law (Rohm & Kovac, 1995; Hassan, Frank, 1986).
Schmidt, & Shalabi, 1996; Hess, Roberts, & Ziegler, Once the correlation for the water convective coeffi-
1997). cient was established, experiments were carried out to
cool the yoghurt using cold water in the exchanger.
4.2. Convective heat transfer coefficients The experiments for the determination of pressure
drop along the plate heat exchanger showed that the
In order to assess the experimental error associated friction factor depended on the Reynolds number to the
with the determination of the thermal conductivity, a set power )1.15, which is close enough to the theoretical
of experiments with water was carried out, and the value for laminar flow ()1.0) to suggest that this is
values thus obtained were compared to the values re- indeed the flow regime present inside the plate heat
ported in the literature. The average experimental value exchanger.
obtained for the thermal conductivity of water, at 20 °C, Table 2 shows the values of the heat transfer rate in
was 0.606 W m1 K1 , which is quite close to the value each experiment characterised by a given total number
reported in the literature, 0.597 W m1 K1 (C ß engel, of plates and Reynolds number, as a function of the
1998). volumetric flowrates of each fluid. As in the heat
The thermal conductivity measured for the stirred transfer experiments with water only, heat losses were
yoghurt was 0.523 W m1 K1 (average value), which is more significant (8%) when increasing the total number
comparable to the value supplied by a producer of of plates.
industrial equipment for the dairy industry, 0.510
W m1 K1 (APV Portugal, 1998). Table 2
The specific heat of stirred yoghurt, calculated by Average values of the amount of heat transfered (q), Reynolds num-
means of Eq. (12) considering the average water content bers of the cold water (Recw ) and stirred yoghurt (Reyog ) and total plate
of stirred yoghurt as 80% (w/w), was 3.52 kJ kg1 K1 . number of each heat transfer experiment carried out in the plate heat
exchanger
It was assumed that within the temperature ranges of
the plate heat exchanger, the thermal conductivities and Total plate Recw (–) Reyog (–) q (W)
the specific heats of the cooling water and the stirred number
yoghurt were approximately constant. 15 395 0.51 2739.7
The density dependency of the stirred yoghurt on 15 366 0.75 3070.3
15 431 1.71 4079.3
temperature was also measured, at the temperature
13 422 0.82 3279.6
range under study. A weak dependency on temperature 13 441 2.09 4487.9
was observed. The density values of the stirred yoghurt 13 497 3.20 4617.3
ranged from 1042 to 1071 kg m3 . 11 428 1.25 2766.7
Knowledge of the convective heat transfer coefficients 11 565 2.76 3831.1
11 565 4.85 4124.0
of the cooling water was needed in order to evaluate the
7 784 3.51 2525.8
yoghurt convective coefficients in the plate exchanger 7 893 9.43 3289.9
(there was no assurance that the existing correlations for 7 856 11.32 3106.1
Newtonian fluids could be applied to the particular plate 5 1259 6.36 2188.7
heat exchanger used in the present work). For this 5 1151 9.19 2264.0
5 1144 14.47 2600.0
purpose, cold and hot water were circulated through the
186 I.M. Afonso et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 57 (2003) 179–187
Ramos, from the Vila do Conde Unit for their collab- Hes, L., Araujo, M., & Djulay, V. (1996). Effect of mutual bonding of
oration. textile layers on thermal insulation and thermal-contact properties
of fabric assemblies. Textile Research Journal, 60, 245–250.
Hess, S. J., Roberts, R. F., & Ziegler, G. R. (1997). Rheological
properties of nonfat yogurt stabilized using Lactobacillus delbrueckii
sp. bulgaricus producing exopolysaccharide or using commercial
References stabilizer systems. Journal of Dairy Science, 80, 252–263.
Kalab, M., Wojtas, P. A., & Told, B. E. P. (1983). Development of
Arshad, M., Paulsson, M., & Dejmek, P. (1993). Rheology of buildup, microstructure in set-style nonfat yoghurt––a review. Food Micro-
breakdown, and rebodying of acid casein gels. Journal of Dairy structure, 2, 51–66.
Science, 76, 3310–3316. Kho, T., & M€ uller-Steinhagen, H. (1999). An experimental and
Afonso, I. M., & Maia, J. M. (1999). Rheological monitoring of numerical investigation of heat transfer fouling and fluid flow in
structure evolution and development of stirred yoghurt. Journal of flat plate heat exchangers. Transactions of the Institution of
Food Engineering, 42, 183–190. Chemical Engineers, part A, 77, 124–130.
APV-Portugal. (1998). Private communication. Leuliet, J.-C., Maingonnat, J.-F., & Lalande, M. (1987). E tude de la
Barnes, H. A., Hutton, J. F., & Walters, K. (1989). An introduction to Perte de Charge dans des E changeurs de Chaleur a Plaques
rheology. Rheology series. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Traitant des Produits Non-Newtoniens. Revue Generale de Ther-
Bassiouny, M. K., & Martin, H. (1984a). Flow distribution and mique Fr., 308–309, 445–450.
pressure drop in plate heat exchangers-I. U-type arrangement. Leuliet, J.-C., Maingonnat, J.-F., & Lalande, M. (1990). E coulements
Chemical Engineering Science, 39(4), 693–700. et Transferts dans les E changeurs a Plaques Traitant des Produits
Bassiouny, M. K., & Martin, H. (1984b). Flow distribution and Visqueux Newtoniens et Pseudoplastiques. The Canadian Journal
pressure drop in plate heat exchangers-II. Z-type arrangement. of Chemical Engineering, 68, 220–229.
Chemical Engineering Science, 39(4), 701–704. Lucey, J. A., Teo, C. T., Munro, P. A., & Singh, H. (1997).
Benezech, T., & Maingonnat, J. F. (1992). Flow properties of Rheological properties at small (dynamic) and large (yield)
stirred yogurt: modelling and influence of cooling conditions. In deformations of acid gels made from heated milk. Journal of Dairy
P. Moldenaers & R. Keunings (Eds.), Theoretical and applied Research, 64, 591–600.
rheology proceedings XIth international congress on rheology, Muley, A., Manglik, R. M., & Metwally, H. M. (1999). Enhanced heat
Brussels, Belgium. London: Elsevier. transfer characteristics of viscous liquid flows in a chevron plate
Benezech, T., & Maingonnat, J. F. (1993). Flow properties of stirred heat exchanger. Journal of Heat Transfer, 121, 1011–1017.
yoghurt: structural parameter approach in describing time-depen- Nielsen, L. E. (1977). Polymer rheology. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
dency. Journal of Texture Studies, 24, 455–473. Parnell-Clunies, E., Kakuda, Y., deMan, J. M., & Cazzola, F. (1988).
Benezech, T., & Maingonnat, J. F. (1994). Characterization of the Gelation of yogurt as affected by heat treatment of milk. Journal of
rheological properties of yoghurt––a review. Journal of Food Dairy Science, 71, 582–588.
Engineering, 21, 447–472. Raju, K. S. N., & Bansal, J. C. (1986). Design of plate heat exchangers.
Bird, R. B., Armstrong, R. C., & Hassager, O. (1987). Dynamics of In J. W. Palen (Ed.), Heat exchanger sourcebook (pp. 563–582).
polymeric liquids, Vol. 1 (second ed.). New York: John Wiley & Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Sons Inc. Rao, M. A. (1986). Rheological properties of fluid food. In M. A. Rao
Bouzar, F., Cerning, J., & Desmazeaud, M. (1997). Exopolysaccharide & S. S. H. Rizvi (Eds.), Engineering properties of food (pp. 1–47).
production and texture-promoting abilities of mixed-strain starter Basel: Marcel-Dekker, Inc.
sultures in yogurt production. Journal of Dairy Science, 80, 2310– Rene, F., & Lalande, M. (1987). E changeur de Chaleur a Plaques et
2317. Joints. Resolution Numerique des E quations DÕE
change Thermi-
C
ß engel, Y. A. (1998). Heat transfer: a practical approach. International que entre les Differents Canaux. Revue Generale Thermique Fr.,
edition. Boston: WCB/McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. 311, 577–583.
Corrieu, G., No€el, Y., & Maingonnat, J. F. (1985). Liquides alimen- Rene, F., Leuliet, J. C., & Lalande, M. (1991). Heat transfer to
taires complexes caracterisation rheologique et traitement thermi- Newtonian and non-Newtonian food fluids in plate heat exchang-
que. Revue Generale de Thermique, 279, 229–240. ers: experimental and numerical approaches. Transactions of the
Delplace, F. (1995). Identification des echangeurs de chaleur a plaques: Institution of Chemical Engineers, 69, Part C, 115–126.
application a lÕetude de lÕencrassement par produits laitiers. Uni- Rohm, H., & Kovac, A. (1994). Effects of starter cultures on linear
versite Henri Poincare, Nancy. viscoelastic and physical properties of yogurt gels. Journal of
Edwards, M. F. (1988). Heat transfer in plate heat exchangers at low Texture Studies, 25, 311–329.
Reynolds numbers. In S. Kakacß (Ed.), Low Reynolds number forced Rohm, H., & Kovac, A. (1995). Effects of starter cultures on small
convection in channels and bundles applied to heat exchangers (pp. deformation rheology of stirred yoghurt. Lebensmittel-Wissens-
23–37). Turkey: NATO Advanced Study Institute. chaft und-Technologie-Food Science and Technology, 28, 319–322.
Hallstr€om, B., Skj€oldebrand, C., & Tr€ag
ardh, C. (1988). Heat Transfer R€
onneg ard, E., & Dejmek, P. (1993). Development and breakdown of
and Food Products. Essex: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd. structure in yoghurt studied by oscillatory rheological measure-
Hassan, A. N., Frank, J. F., Schmidt, K. A., & Shalabi, S. I. (1996). ments. Le Lait, 73, 371–379.
Rheological properties of yogurt made with encapsulated nonropy Sweat, V. E. (1986). Thermal properties of foods. In M. A. Rao & S. S.
lactic cultures. Journal of Dairy Science, 79, 2091–2097. H. Rizvi (Eds.), Engineering properties of food (pp. 49–87). Basel:
Heggs, P. J., Sandham, P., Hallam, R. A., & Walton, C. (1997). Local Marcel Dekker, Inc.
tranfer coefficients in corrugated plate heat exchanger channels. Tamime, A. Y., & Robinson, R. K. (1988). Fermented milks and their
Transactions of the Institution of Chemical Engineers, 75, Part A, future trends. Part II. Technological aspects (review). Journal of
641–645. Dairy Research, 55, 281–307.