Book I

of Kitdb AI-Fu#ll
 Chapter 1

On the Nine Letters and the Places

The beginner in this science should be first taught the nine letters. These are:

~ AV, £J ~ 'f Y \ (2.1)

When he has known these and memorised them, he is informed that the first
place (2.2) is the place of units, the second of tens, the third of hundreds, and the
fourth of thousands, making four places. The same applies to the rest of the
nine letters. A mark is put under the four to start from it as a first place saying:
"Units, tens, hundreds, thousands", thus ending at the seventh place. A similar
mark is put under the seven, to start therefrom saying: "Units, tens, hundreds",
thus ending at nine. We make him repeat that until he comes to know it, under-
stand it and assimilate it as a fact. This is what the beginner should learn first.
Then he is told that in all numbers we express we use three places and no
more. These are units, tens and hundreds only. These three words are repeated
as from the fourth place, we put a mark under it and say:" Units, tens, hundreds".
Another mark is put under the,seven to start therefrom saying: "Units, tens,
hundreds", thus ending at the nine. These three words are the basis to all
(numbers) that we write or want to know the value of. This way is the shortest
we know and the simplest to express. Those who wish to say: "Units, tens,
hundreds, thousands, ten thousands, hundred thousands, thousand thousands,
... " make it lengthy and unnecessarily repeat again and again, especially with
big numbers of many places, where the word 'thousands' has to be repeated.(2.3)
Then he is taught that saying: 'Units' at the first place means that this place
is the place of units; in it there may fall any of the nine letters, and nothing else.
The second place is that of tens; in it there may again fall any of the nine letters,
but each one of these is a ten. And so with the place of hundreds; therein may
fall (any number) from one to nine, but each one of these is a hundred. Then
he starts (thousands) with the fourth place as he has started the first; and so it
goes.
When he has known that and established it as a matter of fact, he is told to
put anyone of the nine letters in four places. Let him start with the two:
Repeating what was done before, he is told to say: "Units, tens, hundreds,
thousands". The two at which he ends is of what he ended his speech with,
which is 'thousands' ; thus it is two thousand. The two before it is two hundred.
The two before it is twenty. The 'first two are simply two units. We repeat this
to him until he knows it and establishes its meaning in himself. This is the
picture of(2.3) it: 2222.
41
 Book I - Chapter 1 43
42 The Arithmetic 0/ al-Uqlldisl
at the terminal, in between, or in eight places. The nine places can have from
~ow
in four places we set something other than two; for example, three,
gOIng on the same way; similarly with four, five, up to nine, as follows: one to nine.
He thus learns that the nine letters can fall in any place, and so can the zeros.
3333, 4444, 5555, 6666, 7777, 8888, 9999. When he has learnt that and mastered it completely, we draw up for him or
ask him to draw up the nine(2.5) letters and let him read it and state its value.
. Now we change that by putting different letters in the four places and make
This is now easy and he knows it. But if he were to do it at the beginning, he
hIm go ~n the sa~~ way, saying what he said before. This is repeated to him
would find it difficult and strain himself trying to memorise what he may quickly
several tImes. This IS the figure of what can be written to him and he can be
forget. He may run away, finding it difficult to learn. But by the steps we have
asked about:
shown, he learns one letter after another, starting with the easy to learn, and
8643, 3456, 6285, 2985. thus becoming ever eager for more, as he goes on learning and working.
When he has learnt that much, he is dictated something to draw up putting
Th~n he is informed that some of these places may be empty, with no one of
it on the takht, like saying: "Draw up thirty thousand five hundred and sixty",
the. n~ne letters falling in it. If this is the case, in the empty place is set a circle.
that is 30560. Dictating goes on, varying what to draw up on the takht. He is
ThIs IS what the people of this craft call ~ifr.(2.4) This may come at the terminal
made to put that immediately it is stated and he has known the place. Thus if
in the first place, or in the middle. This is a form of numbers with a zero: 6420:
he is ordered to put three thousand four hundred fifty-three, he is ordered to put
7503, 7064. When any number is put to him, he is told to read it and state its
three first to his left, next to the three comes the four hundred which has the
value.
shape of. four; then comes the five and the three, making the form 3453. The
He is also told to drop what is in some place. For example, he is told to put
same applies to bigger (numt:>ers). If he is told to put down five hundred thousand
the fou~ l~tters 7356, and then .drop one of them. If he does that without putting
a zero In Its place, we make hIm put it and note that. six hundred fifty-nine, the form is 500659.
He must practise that in order to do it at ease when he needs it.
We, go on repeating this until he gets skill in it and masters it by practice and That is one way of setting up (numbers). Another way is to insert zeros in
expenence. We vary the letters and set the zero in the first place, in both the the places from the first to the last place mentioned, marking the places of
first a?d the second, and in all three places, as follows: 4860, 6500, 9000, thus thousands' henceforth he inserts every letter in its place. For example, he is told
changmg the fourth letter. In each case he is to read it. The fourth place may to put dow'n two hundred thousand forty-three thousand five hundred eighty-six:
be from one to nine, with zero before it, as follows: 1000,2000,3000,4000,5000, He draws up six zeros like this: 000000, marking the place of thousands. Then
6000, 7000, 8000, 9000. he draws up the two hundred thousand, which is two in the place of the first
Now he is made to put zeros in three places, followed by one. He is asked zero to his left. Then he writes the forty, which is four, beside that, in the place
about that. Its form is 1000. He is made to rub out the first zero and state what of the next zero. Then he writes three, five, eight and six, thus obtaining 243586.
is left, which is lOO, He is made to rub out another zero and state what is left. This applies to all big numbers that he may have to put down.(2.6) When he
When he knows that this is ten, which is 10, he has known the ten, the hundred
has reached this stage, he becomes prepared to move to the higher stage, which
and the thousand. Many a beginner in this science is eager to know the ten and
ask~ a~out i,t at the outset. If he is shown its form at the beginning, he wili find is halving and doubling.
no JustIficatIon for that and will not grasp it as a fact. His knowledge of it will
be mere reproduction and imitation. But if we go with him as we have shown
his knowledge will be that of experience and he will grasp the concept of it. '
We vary the on~ up to nine, having zeros before each letter, and going from
place to place, untIl he knows from ten to ninety, and from hundred to thousand.
These are the forms: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 200 300 400 500
600, 700, 800, 900. ' , , , ,
One more letter i~ n~w added, ~utti~g a mark under the fourth, and repeating
all that has been saId In connectIon WIth the four letters, with the zeros at the
terminal, in between, or in the first four places, so that he will learn that it is
ten thousand. 28534, 83450, 78600, 47000,50000, 10000, 20000, 30000, 40000,
50000,60000,70000,80000,90000,50704,70070,90870,80005.
This is repeated until he learns it and masters it. Then a sixth letter is added
following up. what was d~ before. Similarly, letters are added one by one untii
he reaches DIne places, WIth the letters varied in the places and the zeros falling

Chapter 2
On Doubling and Halving(3.1)
It has been the custom of the people of this craft to begin by doubling unity.
So let him start with it, drawing one and doubling it. We do that saying: 'One
and one make two', and draw two in the place of one. Then we say: 'Two and
two make four', and insert four in the place of two. Similarly we say: ' Four and
four: eight; eight and eight: sixteen'. These take the forms: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16. In the
meantime we speak aloud what we work out. Next we say: 'One and one: two'
and thus double the one beside six and obtain 26; next we say: 'six and six:
twelve', and insert two in the place of six, and have the ten, which is of the
form of one, added to the two to make it three following twO.(3.2) The form of
that is 32.
Here the beginner knows that every ten in any place is one in the next place.
Then he says: 'Three and three: six', and sets six in place of three. Similarly
l He must look into the units place; this should not have odd numbers. If It
we say: 'Two and two: four' and draw up four in place of two. This becomes 64.
Now he starts by doubling the six. He says: 'Six and six: twelve', inserting
two in place of six, and ten, which is one after it. Next, he doubles the four by
saying: 'four and four: eight' inserting eight in place of four. That becomes 128.
In the meantime, he is asked, 'how much have you got?' When he says it,
he is told to double it, speaking it aloud. Thus he says: 'One and one: two; we
insert two in place of one'. Similarly he says: 'Two and two: four'. We insert
four in place of two. Eight and eight: sixteen. We insert six in place of eight,
and add the ten to the four. This becomes 256.
He thus learns that doubling (starts) from the highest (place).
Then he starts by doubling the two, saying: 'Two and two: four', inserting
four in place of two. He says: 'Five and five: ten', putting zero in place of five
and increasing the four by one. Next, he says: 'Six and six: twelve', inserting
two in place of six and having the ten, which is of the form of one, in place
of the zero. This becomes 512.
Similarly he says: 'Five and five: ten', setting a zero in place of five, and one
after the zero. Next he doubles the one in its place and the two in its place. This
is the form: 1024.
He has to repeat this, speaking aloud what he works out and reading what he
obtains. He is to be told repeatedly that ten in any place is one in the next place;
if there is another place, that one is added to it: if not, he has to insert one.
He goes on obtaining more places by more and more duplation until he
masters it thoroughly and grasps its meaning. At some end he stops. There he is
told to halve what he has obtained. Let it be 8192:
He must be told that halving starts from the beginning. Thus he starts by
44
Book I - Chapter 2 4S
saying: 'Half of two is one', and he draws up one in pl~ce of two. Thus ~e says:
, Half of nine is four and a half', and draws up four m the place of n1Oe, and
adds the half which is five, to the one in the first place which is the units place.
He must kno~ that one-half in any place is five in the place before it, in as much
as ten in any place is one in the place after it.(3.3)
In the same way he halves the one saying: 'One-half of one is a half' ~hus
putting zero in its place and adding five to the four. When he halves the eight,
he obtains 4096.
He halves the six by saying: 'One-half of six is three'; he draws up three in
place of six. Now he says: 'One-half of nine is four and a half'. Thus he draws
up four in the place of nine and adds five to the three. Then he halves the four.
This yields 2048.
Now he halves the eight, the four and the two, obtaining 1024.
Then he halves the four, the two and the one, cancelling it and setting its half
as five in the place of zero. He gets 512.
He continues this until he obtains one. If he does not obtain one, he has made
a mistal\e; he must repeat his working. .
does, there is a mistake.
He must go on doubling, as from one, up to any end he chooses, an~ then
halving until he comes back to one. If he does not, he must have made a mistake;
he must repeat his work.
When he has practised that we give him something other than one to double
and halve until he ends with what he was given.
For example, he is given three, and ordered to double it; he en?s his doubling
with 1536. He is now told to halve that; if halving does not end With three, he has
made a mistake and must repeat.
We may give him something other than three; like five ~r seven or nin~ or ten
or any other number. He is told to double and halve untIl he gets practice and
experience. The benefit of this will be seen lat~r. . . .
He should not fail to state the result he obta1Os m each doublIng and halv1Og,
until he ends with one. He should know that the first place, that of units, is
never odd when he starts doubling from one, but is always even. The units
, . '
place is two, four, six or eight. When any of these comes, It does not come aga10
until the number is doubled four times.<3.4)
I

Chapter 3
On Increasing and Decreasing(4.1)
In increasing, the increased and the increased upon are drawn in two lines, one
under .the other, t~e lesser below the greater, with every place under the corre-
spondmg one: umts under units, tens under tens, and so on to the end.
For example, let us add three thousand four hundred fifty-eight to four
thousand five hundred forty-six. We put these as stated, in this form: (4.2) 4546,
3458
each place under the corresponding one. We start by adding the three to the
four, the fo?r to the five, the five to the four, and the eight to the six. Whenever
any place YIelds ten, we make it one in the next.
. Thus it goes with whatever we want (to add). We must start by adding the
hIghest (place), then the next place below it, until we reach the units place. We
thus have added one number to the other.
The addend may ~av~ less ~laces t~an the number added to, and each may
have ze~os at the begmmng or m the mIddle. This does not change what we have
shown m the example.
To nineteen thousand eight hundred fifty-seven, let us add three thousand
four hundred twenty-six. We draw that up as follows: 19857.
3426
. We star~ adding three to nine, saying: 'Three and nine make twelve'; we
msert two m the pla.ce of nine and add the ten to the one to make it two. We
add the four to the eIght, the two to the five, and the six to the seven That gives
23283. . seven and put what remains in place of zero. We have got 69963, which is the
As ~e ~ork we talk aloud our working; it is better that way.
AgaIn, If we want to add two thousand six hundred and seven to twenty-seven
thousand thirty-six, we draw that as follows: 27036.
2607
Now we add the two to the seven, put the six in the place of zero and add
the seven to the six. This becomes 29643. ' we drop seven and are left with three which we add to the one, having four in
So .it always goes: we add the lower to the one above it, starting addition from
the highest (place) and talking out.
In ~u.btra~tion, w~ set up the subtrahend and the subtracted from, as in
addItIon, I~ two hnes, with the subtrahend below, and each place under the
correspondmg one. The subtrahend must be less than the subtracted from
. We start subtraction from the highest, subtracting each place from that above
It. For example, we want to subtract three thousand four hundred fifty-seven
from five thousand seven hundred forty-six. We draw them up as follows: 5746.
3457
46
Book I - Chapter 3 47
Now we start by deducting three from five; the place of five is left with two.
We deduct four from seven; the place of seven is left with three. We want to
decrease the five from what is above it, but what is there does not cover the five:
five is greater than four. We take one from what is after the four; there we find
three and in place of three we leave two. The one which we have taken is ten
with respect to the four. So from ten we subtract the five(4.4) and affix the re-
mainder in the place of four; thus in place of four we have nine. Again, we
want to subtract seven from six; we use the aforesaid (method), taking one from
the nine, which is ten with respect to the six; from it we subtract the seven and
add the remainder of the ten to the six; thus in the place of six we get nine. This
is the form of what remains: 2289.
This applies to whatever we want to subtract. The lower may have less places
than the upper, or they may have zeros at the beginning or in the middle. But
the working is the same as before. In all that we speak out as we work.
As an example, we want to subtract this number, which is 5097, from this
number, which is 75060. We draw them up as follows: 75060. We start by sub-
5097
tracting five from five, putting zero in place of five. We want to subtract nine
from what is above it. We find that it falls short-of that. We have to take one
from what comes next to six; but there and in the place after it, we find nothing.
From the seven we take one; in place of seven, there remains six. The one we
have taken is ten to the zero before it; we take one from it for the other zero,
and put what remains of the ten in place of zero before the six; that is nine.
The one we have taken is ten to the six above the nine; we have taken one from
it and left the rest, which is nine, in place of the other zero. From the ten we
deduct nine and add the remainder to the six, putting seven in place of six.
Now we want to deduct seven from what is above it, but find there nothing.
From the seven we take one, which is ten to the zero; from it we take away
remainder.
Again, if we want to reduce this number: 31200, by this number: 7068, we
draw that up as 31200.
7068
We start by dropping seven from what is above it: from three we take one;
its place.
We want to drop six from what is above it: from the two we take one which
we reduce by six inserting the remainder, which is four in the place of zero,
above the six.
Similarly with the eight: we take one from the four, deduct the eight from it
and insert two above the eight. We have got 24132.
Again, if we want to subtract this number, which is 7953, from this: 20000,
we draw them up as 20000.
7953
We drop seven from what is above it; this is by taking one from the two,
dropping seven therefrom; there remains three in the place of zero. We do the
 48
The Arithmetic of al- Uqlldisl
same thing with the nine, taking one from the three, reducing nine from it, and
there. re~ains one. The same is done with the five: we take the one, putting
zero In Its place, dropping the five and having five above it. We do the same
with the three: we take one, deduct three from it, and have seven left. The
remainder is 12047.
If from one thousand we want to subtract one, we put down the thousand as
1000, and put down the one below the units place, like this: 1000.
1
. W: use what has ~een shown: we take the upper one, take one from it, leaving
nIne In the place of zero. That one is ten to what is before it; we take one from
it leaving nine in the place of zero. That one is ten to what is above the one'
we subtract this one and have nine in the place of zero. What is left is 999
So it goes always, whatever we want (to subtract).
Checking is here possible, as in the case of doubling and halving. If we add
one number to another, find their sum, and want to test it, from the sum we
deduct what we have added. If the remainder is the same as the number we
had before addition, it is right. If not, it is wrong.
Similarly we test subtraction by adding the subtrahend to the remainder. If
the number is regained, it is right.
For example, to this: 57036, we add this: 9786 and obtain 66822. To test that
we subtract the lower from the upper and have left 57036, which is the same as
what we had before.
Again, from 250070 we subtract this: 60897. We draw them up as 250070.
60897
Now we subtract the lower from the upper and have left 189173. We add it
and get 250070, which is the same as the first.
So it goes with addition and subtraction and their checking.
If from thousand thousand thousand we want to subtract thousand thousand
we draw them up: 1000000000. We drop the lower from what is above it and
1000000
have 999 000 000 left. If to this we add what we have subtracted, it is regained. (4.5)
Chapter 4
On Multiplication(5.1)
We start with the multiplication of whole numbers. Multiplication of rubies (5.2)
is to be started with; that is multiplication of numbers from one to ten, equal
or unequal. These must be memorised and learnt. Then comes mu~tiplication of
'
. two places by one, like multiplying 74 by 9. We draw up the nme under the
seven, like this: 74. Now we multiply 9 by 7 and insert the units of the result
9
in place of seven, and the tens after it, thus having 634. Then the nine is shifted
9
and set ~nder the four. It is multiplied by four; the units are inserted in place
of four and the tens are added to the next place. The result is 666, which is the
, 9
result of mUltiplication.
We may keep the nine in mind, without drawing it, because it is one letter.
We multiply it saying: 9 by 7 : 63; insert the three in place of seven and the
sixty after it. We multiply 9 by 4, getting 36; we insert the six in place of four,
and add the thirty to the thirty. The result is the sam~ as be~or.e. .
Similarly, to multiply 86 by 7, we multiply 7 by 8, Insert SIX In .place of eI?ht
and fifty next. Now we multiply 7 by 6, inserting two in place of SIX and addmg
forty to sixty. We obtain 602.
This way goes multiplication of three places or ~our or more than that by one
place. This is like mUltiplying 864 by 6: we multiply the six by each letter alone,
inserting the units of each multiplication in its place and the tens thereafter.
This gives 5184. . .
This applies however we increase the places. Zeros may com.e In the mIdst
or at the beginning. The working is the same. If we want to multtpl~ 7045 by.9,
we mUltiply 9 by 7, inserting the three in place of seven and the SIxty after It.
Then we multiply nine by four, inserting the six in place of the four and the
thirty in place of zero. Then we multiply nine by five. .
Similarly if we want to multiply 6004 by 8 we multIply 8 by 6 and 8 by 4.
That yields 48032.
Again, if we want to multiply 360 by 7, we mUltiply 7 by 3 and then by 6.
That is 2520.
So it goes whether the places are many or few. Zeros may come at the
beginning or in the midst. The working is the same. . . .
If the zero comes with the letter, we shift it and set It at the begmmng of the
upper (line). For example, if we want to multiply ~46 by 70, we ~ove the zero
and set it before the six to obtain 8460. Now, as If the problem IS 8460 by 7.
We multiply 7 by 8, 7 by 4 (and 7by 6). We get 59220.
49

so The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl
If there are two zeros with the letter, we shift them both up and multiply the
letter by all the letters on top. If we want to multiply 435 by 400, we move the
two zeros up, setting them before the five to obtain 43500. Then we mUltiply
4 by 4, 4 by 3 and 4 by 5. We get 174000.
Zeros may also come in both the upper and the lower. We may want to
multiply 7560 by 80. We move the zero which is before the eight and set it before
the zero; we get 75600. Now we multiply 8 by 7, 8 by 5 and 8 by 6. This gives
604800.
There may be many zeros in the lower. For example, we want to multiply
87600 by 9000. We draw the three zeros before the two zeros; this becomes
87600000. We multiply the nine by all the letters and get 788400000.
So it goes with all numbers that have zeros.(5.3)
It may happen that a letter with zeros is to be multiplied by another letter
with zeros. This is like mUltiplying 7000 by 800. We draw up the two zeros before
the three zeros to have 700000. Then we multiply 8 by 7; we get 5600000.
So it goes with all that have zeros; the working is the same.
l
Now we move to multiplication of two places by two places. This is like
mUltiplying 34 by 26. We draw up the six under the three and the two after it,
as follows: 34.
26
We start by multiplying the three by the two; we insert the result above; the
six comes above the two. Then we multiply the three which is above the six by
the six, and insert the result of (multiplying) the six in place of the three. Eight
takes the place of the three, and the ten is added to the six, making it seven. That
becomes 784.
26
Now we move the six, setting it under the four and the two under the eight.
We have 784.
26
Whenever we want to shift a letter, we should not erase it before shifting.
Now we multiply four by two and add that to eight. In place of eight we now
have six, and in place of seven: eight. Next we mUltiply four by six, and insert
that in place of four. The four stays in its place, and twenty is added to the
next place. The six becomes eight, and all that becomes 884.
So it goes with multiplying two places by two places. If we want to multiply
836 by 79, we insert that as follows: 836.
79
Now we mUltiply eight by seven and insert the units of the outcome above
seven and the tens after it. We multiply eight by nine, insert two in place of
eight and add seventy, which is seven, to the six.
Then we shift, setting nine under three, and seven under two. We multiply
three by seven and three by nine.
Next we shift the nine setting it under six, and the seven under seven. We
multiply six by· seven and six by nine. (5.4)
In all that we insert the units of the outcome of each multiplication above it
51
Book I - Chapter 4
and the tens above the tens next to it; whenever a place yields 10, we set it as
one thereafter. We talk as we mUltiply.
The outcome of that is 66044.
Again if we want to multiply 547 by 832, we draw that up (5.5) as follows:
547 setting the first letter of the lower under the last letter of the upper. We
832 . h d
start by multiplying five by eight, obtaining 40. We set the zero above elg tan
the forty after it. We obtain 40 547. We multiply five by three, getting 15; we
832
draw up five above the three and the ten in place of zero; we get 415547. We
832
mUltiply five by two, having ten; we set the zero in place of five, and add the ten
to the five, getting six in its place. We obtain 416047.
832
We shift the two setting it below the four, the three below the zero and the
eight below the six. No letter should be erased before shifting; when we shift it
we erase it.
We multiply four by eight and add the two to the six and the thi~ty.to ~he ~n~.
The form of that before multiplication is 416047; and after mu,tIphcatlon It IS
832
448047. We multiply four by three; we get 12; we insert the two in place of zero
832
and add the ten to the eight. It becomes: 449247.
832
We multiply four by two, obtaining eight which we insert in place of fou~.
Now we shift the two under the seven, the three under the eight and the eIght
under the two. We get 449287. We multiply seven by eight, obtaining 56; we add
832
that to what comes above it: adding the six to the two and the fifty to the nine;
in place of nine, we have four, and the four becomes five. .
We multiply seven by three and seven by two, adding the umts above, the tens
• next, and if any 10 is obtained, we make it one in the next place. At last we get
455104.
832
A zero may be on top. If we want to multiply 9056 by 384, we draw them up as
9056.
384
Now we multiply nine by three, nine by eight and nine by four; we get 3456056.
384
Now we move the four setting it below the five, the eight below the zero a~d
the three below the six; we do not shift to (a place) below zero. We obtaIn
3456056.
384
We mUltiply five by three, getting 15, which we add to the six; there are ways

52 The Arithmetic of al- Uqlldisl
for this addition. One way is to add the ten to the five first and then add the
five to the six. Another way is to add the five to the six first thus obtaining a
ten together with the other ten, and add the two to the five. Another way is to say:
'fifteen and six make 21 '. We thus put one in place of six and the twenty after that.
Then we multiply five by eight, getting 40, to add to the one. We multiply five
by four, getting 20; we put zero in place of five and set the twenty in place of
zero. That becomes 3475206.
384
We shift the four, setting it below the six, the eight below zero and the three
below 2. It becomes 3475206. We multiply six by three, getting 18; we add 18
384
to the two making it 20, to be added to the five; we thus put zero in place of two.
We multiply 6 by 8 and 6 by 4. When that is over we get 3477504.
A zero may come also in the lower line. We may want to multiply 867 by 409.
We draw that up as: 867.
409
We multiply eight by four, inserting two above the four and the thirty after it.
We multiply eight by zero, getting zero, which we put above the zero. We never
multiply the zero by anything to the end of the multiplication except at this
stage, and nothing is multiplied by zero except here; we do this here to preserve
the place and show that it is empty ready to have whatever may later come out
of multiplication.
We multiply 8 by 9, inserting two in place of eight and the seventy in place
of zero.
We now shift and continue the working. At the end we get 354603.
409
The zero may come at the terminal of the lower (number), like mUltiplying
6231 by 740. We put them in the form 6231.
740
We have already shown that if a zero comes as a terminal below we shift it
to the upper line, and multiply as we have described. But here we want to do
this in a way often used by the people of this craft. We mUltiply six by seven,
six by four and six by zero, thus putting zero in place of six. Thus here also we
mUltiply by zero. This way is therefore not good; it- is better to put the zero
from the beginning at the top. We mention this method to show the beginner
how the zero comes at the end as terminal. The method is however in use, and
the beginner must know it.
The zero is shifted under the two, the four under the zero and the seven under
the four. When we multiply two by zero we put zero in the place of two. Then
the zero is shifted under the three. The working is the same as before. At the
end the result is 4610940.
740
Zeros may come in both, at the terminal and in the midst, like multiplying
20406 by S07. We put this as 20406.
507
Book I - Chapter 4 53
We multiply two by five, getting 10; we put a zero above the five and insert
one after the zero. Now we multiply two by zero and put zero above that zero.
We multiply two by seven.
We shift the seven under the four, the zero under zero and the five under
four. We multiply four by five and four by seven; we do not multiply four by
zero, because it is needless, the place being occupied.
Next, we shift seven under c;ix, letting the zero fall under zero and the five
under eight. * When we are through we get 10345842.
Again, if we want to multiply 6040 by 403, we put them as 6040.
403
We multiply six by four, six by zero, and six by three. Then we shift the three
under the four; the zero falls under zero, and the four under eight. We multiply
four by four, and four by three. We do not shift under the zero. The outcome
of multiplication is 2434120.
So it goes with all multiplication, whether the places are many or few, where
zeros occur. Let that be observed, by the will of God.
He who reaches this stage of multiplication may be examined by the question:
what is the product of 9999 by itself? He draws that up as 9999. If he
9999
multiplies and obtains 99980001, we know that he has now attained a high stage.
If during multiplication he gets confused which letter he has multiplied, let
him mark the letter he is multiplying; (5.6) when he has put down the result of
that multiplication and goes on to another, he erases that mark and puts it
under the other (letter), and so on to the end. This occurs when the letters are
the same or the places are too many; in such cases, this device is used.
The beginner may be in doubt when he mUltiplies by a letter whether ~e
should add the product to it. This is not right; he must rub out the letter he IS
multiplying by and insert the product in its. place, inserting the units if any, or
putting a zero in the place of the letter, unless the units of the product are the
same as the letter, in which case it stays in its place.
Then we may give more places or insert zeros. For example, we want to
multiply 94567 by 5786. We put them as 94567.
5786.
We start by multiplying the nine by all the lower line, inserting that as said
before. We move the lower line one place; the six comes under the four. We
multiply the four by all the lower line, and insert that. We move, and so on until
we reach the beginning of the upper line. The answer is 547164662.
Again, if we want to multiply 50903 by 8060, we put them down as 50903.
8060
We move the zero to the top and have 509030.
806
I
• In the original this reads 'four'.
I!
i
54 The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl
We mu.ltiply as before, never moving to a zero. We multiply by the zero only
the first tIme. The product is 410278180.
. So it goes whether the places are many or few. An example of a few places
IS 8657 by I? W~ insert a zero before that number and obtain 86570. If we
want .to mu~tIply It by 100, we insert two zeros.
ThIS apphe~ whenever we have zeros at the terminal; we move them to the
top and multIply the letters by each other, after the zeros have been moved
We thus obtain what we want.(5.7)
Chapter 5
On Division(6.1)
.
Any number halved is divided by two. Taking one-third of a number is dividing
it by three. Similar~y if we want to divide a number by four, we take one-fourth
of it. So it goes with all letters from three to nine. In all division, we seek a
number which if multiplied by the divisor yields a number equal to the dividend.
Let us work out samples to be followed:
We say: 'we want to divide 144 by 6'. Dividing this number by 6 and taking
one-sixth of it are the same. So is saying: 'By how much should 6 be multiplied
to give 144?' or ' (What is) one-sixth of 144?' - All these mean the same.
The working is to assume the six below the four and seek something to
multiply, by six so as to cover the most possible of the fourteen, the one after
the four being 10 with respect to the six. The arrangement is 144. We find that
6
to be 2. Having found out what to multiply by 6, we insert it above the six and
the four, as follows: 2. Now we multiply the two by the six, saying: '2 by
144
6
6: 12'. We drop away the twelve from the fourteen, leaving 2 in the place of
four.
We shift the six setting it below the four. We get 2 . Now we seek something
24
6
to mUltiply by 6 and get 24. We find that four. So we insert four above the four,
in the form: 24. Now we say: 'Six by four is 24', which exhausts the twenty-four,
24
6
leaving nothing. The quotient is on top, which is 24. It is the answer.
To divide any number we wish by any of the nine letters, the working is the
same. Let us divide 469 by 7. We say that all questions asked in the case of six
come here too. We draw up the number, which is 469, and set the seven under
the six. We say that we want to put above the six a number which if we mUltiply
by seven covers the most possible of the forty-six. We find it 6; we insert six
above the six, and say: '6 by 7 is 42'. We drop it from 46; the remainder takes
the place of six; this is 4.
We shift the seven under the nine, making that 6 .
49 ,
7
We seek a number which if multiplied by seven gives 49. We find it seven.
We insert-the- seven above the nine, multiply seven by seven and drop the
product from the above, leaving nothing. The quotient is 67.
55
 56
The Arithmetic 0/ al- Uqlfdisf
Book I - Chapter 5 57
Similarly, if we divide 684 by 9 we get 76.
If the last letter in the upp l' . three left in place of seven. We move the nine under the zero, and seek what to
it. This is like dividing 855 ~ry ~ne; greater than the divisor: we draw this under multiply by 9 so that it covers 30; we find it 3. We draw it above the zero,
. e assume I . We multIply one by five and
855 multiply, drop, and seek what to mUltiply by 9 to cover 36. We find 4. We insert
5 it and multiply; it covers all. The upper line is the quotient. It is 5634.

:~~ ::~ts!~ma :~:~:~~v~u;~~~;gb~h~e:~:e shift the fi~e inserting it under Again, to divide 809007 by 7, we put the seven under the eight, multiply one
by 7, drop from eight, having one left in place of eight, and one above it. We
seven; we draw this above five We If I cover what IS above. We find it move the seven one place under the zero; the one is now ten with respect to the
above. We shift the five. We fi~d w~~ t Ip y se~en by five and dr~p from the seven. We multiply one by 7, drop that from ten, and have three in place of
one. The upper line is the quotient. Its fo;m~~I~Ir:: by 5 and obtaIn five; it is zero; we put the one above the three. We move the seven under the nine and
have 11
39007
~f:~:t~~v~~e~d there may remain so~e~hing less than the divisor. This is to 7
We put the eigh~':~! ~~ pa~ts of th~ .dlvlsor. For example, we divide 977 by 8 We seek the number to multiply by 7 and cover 39; we find it 5. We insert it
multiply 2 by 8, and have :n:I~it ~ tIpl! one b~ 8, drop fro~ 9, move, seek 2:
above the nine. We mUltiply it by seven and drop that from what is above it.
left; of eight it is one-eighth We' t ~~~IfihmultIPlY t',V0 by eIght, and have one
We get 4 left in place of nine. We move the seven under the zero; the four
. ge l' e answer IS 122 and one-eighth.(6.2) becomes 40 with respect to the seven. We seek what to multiply by seven and
cover 40; we find it 5. We insert 5 above the zero, multiply it by seven and drop
. 8 that from above; we have 5 left. We move the seven under the zero, mUltiply
A gaIn, if we divide 7964 by 6 h .
b 6 d . , we assume t e SIX under the seven multi I 7 by 7, drop from above, and have one left in place of zero. We move the seven
y , rop that from 7 and move the six' we obtain (6.3) 1964 W' I' PI Y one under seven, mUltiply 2 by 7, drop that from above and have 3 of 7. That becomes
, . e mu tIp y 3 by
115572. It is the quotient.
6, drop that from what is above it and have one left. We !btain 13 . We move 3
164 7
six under the six and seek wh t t 1. I 6 That is division by one letter. Let us move to division by two letters, starting
of it. We find it ~wo h' ha. o.mu tIP y b~ 6 to cover 16 or the most possible with twelve.
,w IC we Insert above SIX mUltiply b 6 d fi Let us say that we want to divide 4164 by 12. We draw Up the highest (place)
and have 132 left We m th' ' y , rop rom above
44' ove e SIX under the four, and seek the number to under the highest, that is the last place of the divisor, which is the second place,
6 under the last place of the upper. This is if the last letter of the divisor is less
than that under which it is drawn up, as in this case. If it is greater, we move it
mUltiply by 6 so that it covers 44 or the most of it We find 't W
one place forward.
7 by 6, drop that from above. We have left two of six; the ~;;:;~ine ~s ~~~~:IY The one falls under the four, and the two under the one, like this: 4164. Now
2 12
So it goes with all similar (problems). 6 we seek a number to mUltiply by the one and the two so that it covers what is
Zeros may come in the midst or the terminal. The working is th Le above it (Le. above 12); we estimate that. When we find it, which is 3, we draw
us have problems to show that. e same. t up the three above the first letter of the divisor, on top; it falls above the one.
We say that we want to divide 50706 by 9 We ut the . Then we multiply the three by one, and drop that from four, leaving one in its
because it is greater than the five. The five is ~ow tift wit;~ne under the ~ro, place,(6.4) and multiply the three by two, drop that from ten, leaving 4 to add
:': ~~ the ~umher to multiply by 9 and cover tift/we finde:~~~ :~~:;~ to the one, making 5 in its place. The form becomes 3 .
564
h y fi' rop rom abov~, and have 5 left in place of zero. We insert the fiv
ave ound above the nIne and the zero and get 5 We th' e we 12
, . move e nIne under
5706 Now two is moved under six, and one under five. We seek the number to
mUltiply by one to cover the five leaving what is to be covered by multiplying
too 9
~ven ~ seek the number to multiply-by 9 so·that it-covefS- 57' . it by the two. We guess that and find it 4. We draw up the four above six: 34 .
We Insert SIX above the seven, mUltiply 6 by 9, drop that from ab~:ea:~~:! 564
12
 59
BooIc I - Clulpur 5
'8 The Arithmetic of al-Uqndisl
We seek and find 7, which we multiply by the whole line and drop that from
~ow ;e multiply
four by one and drop that from what is above it, and multiply above. We shift and have left: 957.
our y two and dro~ that from above. We are left with eight in place of six. 52376
We move and obtain (34). We seek what to multiply by one and two so that 6547
84 We seek and estimate and find 8. We multiply it by the whole line, and drop
12 that from above; it exhausts all, and the quotient is 9578.
it co~ers what is above. We find it 7. We draw up the seven above the four
multIply seven by one and by two, drop that from above and have nothin ' Again, if we divide 499182480 by 7080, we assume that as: 499182480.
left. The outcome of division is the upper line, which is 347. g 7080
~g~in if we want to divide 72492 by 84 we draw up the divisor under the We seek the number to multiply by 7 and cover 49. We find it seven. We
:~~l~~:~; We find that the last letter of the divisor is greater than the last letter
assume seven above the eight. Now we multiply and drop away. After shifting
there remains 7

we
... the one before the last, because three is greater than the last
~k
remamder
a number to multiply by three and cover what is above it
fi d' 3to W
N

d for multiplying that number by two and el'ght . B'Yguessmg,

suffice .g
~:~in 0: 3582480
7080
We seek what to multiply by seven to exhaust 3. This is not possible We put
w.e n It. ~ raw up three above the first letter of the lower, which is the zero above the two, and shift to obtain 70 . Now we seek and find 5, which
eIght, we draw It up above the last nine. The form becomes 3 3582480
1169976 7080
we multiply by the whole line, dropping out from above. After shifting we get
NI' I 328
~w we mu tIP y three by three, and drop that from what is above three 70S •
multI.ply three by tw~ and drop the product from what is above and so 'th 42480
the eIght. Then we shift. Mter multiplication and shifting it bec;mes 3 WI. 7080
185976 We find nothing to mUltiply by 7 and get 4, because 7 is greater. We therefore
put zero above the eight and shift. We get 7050 . Now we seek and find 6. We
W k . d 328 42480
~ ~ ~n
estImate what to multiply by three leaving what will suffice for
multl~IYlDg It by 2 an? 8. We find it 5. We multiply 5 by three, by 2 and b 8, 7080
droppmg f~om
what IS above. We shift. After multiplication and g shif~n multiply six by the whole line and drop that from above, which gets exhausted,
there remams: 35 . We seek as before, and find 6. We mUltiply 6 by 3 2 8 leaving nothing. The quotient is 70506.
21976 ' , ,
328 Again if we divide 7912309807 by 4586, we draw that up as 7912309807. We
4586
dropping from what is above. We shift and get 356 .
2296 go on as shown before. The quotient is 1725318, and there remain 1459 of
328 4586. The form is like this 1725318.
We seek and find that 7 covers all. 1459
The quotient is the upper line, which is 3567. 4586
This way goes division, whether there are zeros or not, and whether there is a
Again, if we want to divide 62707166 by 6547, we draw that up as 62707166. remainder after division or there is not.

Now we seek ~hat

to multiply by 6 to exhaust 62; we find it 9. ;:'~u1tiPlY
9 by ~he whole line and drop that from what is above it. Mter shifting, th
rem81ns 9 ere
3784166
6547
We se~k.and find 5, which we multiply by the whole line and drop from above
After shiftmg we get 95 . .
510666
6547

Chapter 6
Multiplication of Fractions by Numbers(7,l)
We,mus,t first know the makhraj of fractions from which they are derived They
begIn ,wIth the half which is the first and the greatest; it is from 2. Nex~ come
the thIrd, from 3, t?e ~ourth from 4, the fifth from 5, and so on up to ten.
These are the prInCIpal fractions. The first is the half, the last is the tenth,
and ~toget~er they are 9. Every other fraction goes back to these nine and its
:r e IS (derIved) fro~ them. Thus half of one-sixth, and one-third of one:seventh
ong to these fractIons, and so do all (others), smaller or bigger.
h Every number has a p~rt derived from it. The part may be duplicated and
t us w~ have a part or parts of any number, big or small. ' we divide it by 12. If we want to multiply it by half a seventh we divide it by 14;
HavIng shown the makhraj of fractions, let us see how they are drawn
and how they must be set. up
We ~ay that we draw up the number from which the part is derived and
v:
above I~ e ~raw u~ the part. If we have parts, we set them above the nu:nber
too. ThIs IS lIke saYIng t?ree-sevenths, five-sevenths or the like.
We draw up the fractIons, starting with the half, like this: 1 1 1 1 1, up to
2 34 5 6
one-tenth, which is l~' As for parts, that are more than one [part], these are
[drawn up] as follows: Three fourths is: 3; two-thirds: 2; similarly 4 and 5
4 3 5 7'
and so on for whatever we want, whether fractions or parts.
Numbers greater than ten can be related to, like saying one part of 11,
one part of 13 or one part of 17.
Numbers that parts are related to may be open, so that the part or arts
can be related to them, or not open, which are caHed ~amm and h P .
'part of so and SO'.(7,2) . ere we say.
There may be a w~ole number with the parts; we draw up the whole numbers
on top and the fractIon below, under the units place Thus for d ' h fractions of fractions. We say that their form is by putting them above each
and a half d h . raWlng up t ree
,we raw t at up as follows: 3. Also 7 and a third is as follows: 7,
1 1
2 3
II and one-seventh as 1:, and so on for any number with one part.
7 ~ one out of six and the ninth ~ one out of nine below it, like this: ~.
60
Book I - Chapter 6 61
drawn up I
This applies to setting a number with parts: seven and two parts of eleven are
~ ~I'
11
So it goes with all numbers with part or parts that we want to draw up. This
will be clarified in what follows.
Having shown how to set up fractions, we show how to mUltiply them by a
number. About this mUltiplication we say:
If there is one part, and we want to multiply it by a number, we divide this
number by the number of which the part is derived; the quotient is the answer.
For example, we want to multiply one-eighth by 9754. We divide 9754 by eight
as shown before. We get 1219.(7,3)
2
8
So it is with multiplying a part by a number, if the part is of a number greater
than ten. For example we want to mUltiply one-half one-sixth by this number;
by one-third one-eighth, we divide it by 24; by one-fifth one-seventh, we divide
it by 35.
If we want to multiply part of so and so by a number, we divide that number
by the number of which the part is (derived), whether it is a~amm or open.
For example, we want to multiply one part of 19 by this number; we divide
it by 19.
If we have many parts, we multiply the number of parts, whatever it may be,
by the number by which the parts are to be multiplied, and divide the product
by the number of which the parts are derived. This is like having to multiply
three parts of 19 by that number. We mUltiply 3 by that number and divide the
product by 19; the quotient is the answer.
So it goes with mUltiplying parts, however they may be, by a number. We
draw up the parts and the number of which they are derived, as we have shown.
Then we mUltiply the number of the parts by the number we want to multiply
by; the product is divided by the number of which the parts are derived; whether
the parts are many or few.
Having shown how to set up the part and parts, let us show how to set up
other, starting with the first part expressed as before, and under it the second part
expressed. This is by drawing up the number from which the part is derived, and
above it the part and below it (the other part) and the number from which it is
derived underneath that, as we have shown.
For example, we want to set up one-sixth one-ninth; we draw up the one-sixth
 63
62 The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl Book I - Chapter 6

If we want one-seventh one-eighth; we draw it up as: parts is the same. Having many parts of fractions incurs no difference, for
we set up two-fifths as two of five, and two-sevenths as two parts of seven. And

~.
so it is with fractions of fractions and parts of parts. The set-up of three-fourths
of three parts of eleven is

So it is with a fraction of a fraction.

~.
The fraction may be small, of three numbers. The form is to set them one above
the other, whatever they may be. For example we want to set up half one-seventh
lJj
of one-ninth. We draw up the half, which is one of 2, the seventh below it, which If we want, we may set it up as 3 :. 3.
is one of seven and the ninth below that, which is one of nine. The set-up is: 4 :. 11
Having shown so much of that, which is u~li~ited, we .say that much more
I , will be shown in the working to come, like umfymg these m one number. Now
2 what is so far done is enough, having shown most of the set-up and the form.
1
1 Now we want to show the multiplication of parts by number, for we have been
I bound to, (show) it; we say that the method is to mul.tiply the number o~ the
9 parts by the number and divide by the number from whIch the parts ~re derIved.
So it is with minute fractions, and fractions thereof, however they may differ. For example we want to multiply five-sevenths by 4586. We multIply five by
this number and divide the outcome by 7. So is all multiplication of parts by a
Parts of parts may be stated. The set-up is to draw up one above the other; number.
the parts however they may be, and below them the num1?er from which they We want to show how to combine(7.4) fractions of different parts; for these_
are derived; below that are drawn up t~e other parts. For example we want can be combined and form parts of one number, and so their multiplication by
to set three-quarters of three-sevenths. We draw up three and below it four, then a number follows what we have shown. Thus their combination is needed, for
three and below it seven. It becomes like this: we want to see their multiplication by a number and use that thereafter. We
shall need it for multiplying whole numbers by fractions, and fractions by whole

~.
numbers with fractions, and for all multiplications that follow, whether (the
fractions) are single, or combined to units, or whatever they are.(7.5)

So it goes in all similar cases of this type.

Having shown the set-up of the fraction and the fractions and the part and
parts, we now show how to set up two or more different parts. We say that we
set them up in one row, one opposite the other, in contrast with the bygone to
distinguish this from the preceding. We say that the set-up of one-half and one-
third is to draw up the half as shown and the third opposite to it thus 1 .'. 1,
2 :.3
also one-fourth and one-fifth is 1 .'. 1.
4 :.5
If we want three parts we set them up in one row; thus if we want to draw up
one-fourth, one-fifth and one-seventh, we set that up like this 1 :. 1 :. 1. I

~
4 :. 5 :. 7
So is the set-up of different fractions and fractions of fractions, and different
parts and parts of parts. If we say one-fourth or three-fo~ there is no
difference; each is a part of one of a number; and so the set-up of one part or

Chapter 7
Combining Fractions and Parts
We have shown the set-up of that, and we want to state how to combine them,
because we need it. We say that the method is to draw them up first, and mUltiply
the numbers from which the parts (come); this is in the case of one part of one
part. For example we say: one-seventh of one-ninth. We draw it Up this way:
1 ,
7 The former is like having one-fourth, one-fifth and one-sixth. We draw that
1 up as shown before and get 1 1 1.
9 ,
we multiply seven by nine and get 63; we draw it up beside that or in its place,
and draw up the part above it. So it is in all such cases.
If it is more than one part, we multiply the paits first by each other and get
below that the product of the numbers from which the parts are derived by each
other, drawn up underneath. This is like having three-fourths of five-sevenths.
The form is
We multiply three by five and draw that up beside the three or in its place;
then we multiply 4 by 7 and draw that up below. We get
3 :.15
4 :.
5 :.28
7 120
Accordingly, if there are three fractions, we have to multiply the parts by
each other, draw that up, mUltiply the numbers from which the parts come, by
each other, and draw that up below.(7.6)
In the other way for combining different parts we draw them up as described,
add up the numbers from which the parts come, and draw that up beside the
parts; then we mUltiply the numbers from which the parts come, by each other,
and draw that below the parts.
This is like having one-half and one-third, drawn up as 1 1.
-2 3
We want to add these, that is make them of one number. We add the two
64
Book I - Chapter 7 65
and the three, and draw that up beside the one, multiply 3 by 2 and draw that
up under the five. We get 1 1 5.
236
Similarly if we draw up a third and a fourth, the combination isf1l7l;
, ~
one-fourth and one-fifth: rTl9l.
~
So it is with one part of a number;(7.7) it is adding two single parts of two
numbers. If the parts derived from the numbers are more, these are added
differently. We may have more than two parts of two numbers, like having three
parts of three different numbers or many parts of different numbers ..
As for more than two parts, this is like having three or more fractions to be
combined together. As for more than one part, this is like having parts of a
number drawn up in different places to be combined as parts of one number.
456
One way is to add Up(7.8) two of them, like one-fourth and one-fifth, obtaining,
as said, 9. We draw up the sixth in the same row, having 9 1. We multiply
20 20 6
9 by 6 and draw that up in place of nine, and mUltiply 20 by one and draw that
up in place of one. This device is called the muwashshab. It is often used; let
it therefore be remembered and its name known, to be identified when used or
mentioned. Then we add the top line, getting 74, which we draw up beside the
six. Next we multiply the twenty by the six and draw that up under 74; we get
74. If we want to reduce that, we halve, obtaining [371.
lW ~
Another way is to draw that up as before: 1 1 1; then we(7.9) multiply 5 by
456
6 and draw that up above the four, multiply 4 by 6 and draw that above the five,
and multiply 5 by 4 and draw that above the six. It becomes 30 :. 24 :. 20.
456
We add that; it yields 74. We multiply 4 by 5 by 6; that gives 120. We draw
that beneath and get 74, which is the same as before.
This applies if the parts derived from the numbers are more than one (each).
For example, 3-sevenths and 3-eighths are to be added. We draw that as 3 .'. 3.
7 :.8
Then, we cross-multiply by multiplying 3 by 8 and 3 by 7; we add that. Then
we multiply 7 by 8 and draw that underneath. It becomes 45.
56
For more positions,(7.10) that is more than two positions, let us add these parts:
2 :. 3:. 2. We multiply 2 by 8 by 15, and draw that above the seven in the
7 :. 8 :. 15
place of two, multiply three by seven by fifteen and draw that above the eight,
in the place of three, and multiply 2 by 8 by 7 and draw that above the 15. We
66 TIu! Arltlunetic 0/ al-Uq//dis/
add all that and get 667. Now we multiply 7 by 8 by 15; we get 840, which we
draw beneath. We get 667.
840
So is all addition that we want, whether part or parts, open or tl$amm.
We ~y ~ve parts which when added yield more than one; we do not need
to mentlon It h~re, because we are here concerned with multiplying parts by a
number. What 18 further than that will be mentioned in its place, which is the
next chapter.
Having shown that satisfactorily to him who reaches this stage we say that
the mUltiplication of parts, whatever they may be, by a number is by multiplying
these parts by the number and dividing the product by the number from which
the parts are derived; the quotient is the answer.
f 3
.~
Chapter 8
On MUltiplying a Number with Fractions by a Number
The way to do that is to draw it first and then mUltiply integers by integers and
fractions by integers and add the two; that is the answer. For example, we want
to multiply 7 and two-thirds by 54. We assume that as 54 7. We multiply 7 by
2
3
54; it yields 378; we multiply the two-thirds by 54 and get 36; we add that and
get 414.
Again, if we want to multiply 9 and three-fourths by 115, we assume that as
115 9,and put the number to be multiplied by the number and fractions in two
4
places; we multiply one place by 9 and the other by three-fourths. We get 1035
and 86 and one-fourth; we add that and get 1121 and one-fourth. That is the
answer.(7 .11)
The numbers may be bigger and the fractions. more. This is like mUltiplying
359 by 12 :. 8.
1 :. 1
4 :.3
Putting one of the two numbers before the other does not make any change.
We assume that as shown and assume the number having no fraction in two
places. We multiply integers by integers, which is 8 (and) 12 by 359. We multiply
the fractions in the other place and get 209 and a fourth and a sixth. We add
this to the former and get the answer.
This is the way to deal with many numbers and minute fractions.
This is one way to deal with such cases. There is another way: We draw up
the two numbers and make the number with the fractions homogeneous, by
resolving it to make it a number of a number. Then we mUltiply the parts by the
number and divide by the number of which the parts come.(7.12)
For example, we want to multiply 27 by 258. We multiply 27 by 4 and to that
3
4
add the three-fourths; that is three; we get 111, under which we draw the
number from which the parts come, which is 4; we obtain 111. Now we multiply
4
258 by 111, which give 28638; we divide this by 4 and get 7159 and a half,
which is the answer.
We may have more numbers and minute fractions; let us. state the methods
thereof:
67
68 The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl
Let us assume that we want(7.13) to multiply 135 by 746:
1 :.1
1 Chapter 9
4:.3
We start by adding the two fractions; that becomes 7 of 12; we draw it under '1
the five; that becomes 135. We mUltiply 135 by 12, which gives 1620, to which
7
12 11
we add the seven; it becomes 1627. '~'i
I~ w~ mUltiply 135 by 3 which is the makhraj of one-third and the result by 4,
·1
whIch IS the makhraj of one-fourth, and add that to the three and the four
;Z
~
:.'.'.1.'·.·.11
the result will be the same as before. ' which the fractions (come) by each other and draw that under the parts ..
We draw the twelve under that. Now we mUltiply 1627 by 746; it yields -rl\1
1213742; we divide that by twelve; it yields 101145 and one-sixth.
Again, we want to mUltiply 286 by 867.
1 1
7 3
We can go on as said before: we add three to seven, put that under six
multiply 3 by 7 and put that under 10, then mUltiply 286 by 21, adding that t~
ten to obtain 6016; we multiply that by 867 to get 5215872. We divide that by
21 ; it yields 248374 and six-sevenths.
If we multiply 286 by 3, the result by 7, and add that to the seven we get
6016. We multiply it by 867 and divide the product by 21; the result is as before.
. If we multiply integers by integers and fractions by integers, by drawing 867
m two places, multiplying one place by 286, to obtain 247962, and the other
place by one-third and one-seventh, in any way, to get 412 and six-sevenths
which we add to that, we get the same thing. ' The same applies to parts. If we want to multiply three-fourths by two-thirds,
There is no advantage in increasing the two numbers, for the process we have
mentioned applies to both big and ~mall (numbers). It becomes difficult with big
(~umbers) for those who use Rumi (methods) for they need housing, working
wIth both hands and keeping (numbers) in mind, whereas those who use this
kind of arithmetic find no toil nor trouble nor keeping, for the small and the
big numbers are treated this same way.(7.U)
If the question involves three fractions with the number, the working is the
same as before, the fractions being combined and related to one number. This
is like multiplying 256 and a half, a fourth and a fifth by 985. We draw that as
256 :. 985. We add the parts and obtain 57 of 60.(7.15) Now the working
III
245
~comes as before: We may multiply integers by integers and fractions by
mtegers, and add; or we may resolve the number with the fractions, add the
parts and multiply that by the other number, to divide the product by the
number of which the fractions come. Both ways give the answer 253095 and a
h~f an<i qQart~l'~
So it is in all like cases.
Multiplying Fractions by Fractions
I
The way is to draw the fractions as shown before, and then to multiply the part
or parts by each other, put that in the middle; and multiply the numbers from
For example, we want to multiply one-half by one-half. We draw the half ~n
two places like this: I 1 1. Next we multiply one by one, and draw that ID
242
between, and multiply two by two and draw that under the one. It becomes as
shown.
Again if we want to multiply one-third by one-third, we draw that as 1 1;
· 3 3
next we multiply one by one and insert that in between, and multiply three by
three and draw that under the one. It becomes like this: 1 1 1.
393
The same way is multiplying one-third by one-fifth: 1 1. We assume them as
3 5
shown, and multiply. It becomes 1 1 1.
3 15 5
Again one-seventh by one-eighth is one part of 56; and so is all multiplication
'.~ of one part by one part.
we assume them as 3 2 and then multiply 3 by 2 and put that in between, and
4 3
multiply 4 by 3 and draw that below it. We get 3 6 2.
4 12 3
So it goes with all multiplication of parts by parts that we wish.
If we want to multiply three-fifths by four-sevenths, we draw that as 3 4,
5 7
multiply 3 by 4 and draw that beside the parts, and multiply five by 7 and draw
that below. We get 12 of 35, which is the answer: 3 4 12.
5 7 35
So is also the multiplication of parts if they are different and combined. They
are added and transferred to parts of one number. ,
For example we want to multiply one-third and one-fourth by one-fifth and
one-tenth. We draw that as 1 1 :. 1 1. We add the third and the fourth to
3 4 :.5 10
make them of one number, and so we do with the fifth and the tenth; they become
7 :. 15. Now we multiply 7 by 15 and insert that beside them, and multiply
12 :. 50
69
70 The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl

12 by 15 and insert that below. We get 105.

600
1
I
Book I - Chapter 9 71

09 :.20. We multiply 9 by 20 and get 180, multiply 10 by 27 and get 270,

!~d"d;~W that as 180 which is the same as 18. By removing the two zeros,
Again, if we want to multiply two-thirds and one-seventh by one-half and
270 27
one-ninth, we assume that as 2 I :. I 1. We multiply the two which is above
which we do not need, it becomes' as you see.
3 7 :.2 9
This way should similar (questions) be worked out.
the three by 7 and insert that in place of two, mUltiply the one which is above
the seven by 3 and place that in place of one, add the fourteen and the three
and insert that on top in place of the parts, and mUltiply the three by the seven
and place that under the seventeen. We get 17.
21
We do the same with the other; we obtain 11.
18
We multiply 17 by 11 and get 187, and mUltiply 21 by 18 and get 378. We
draw this below and obtain 187.
378
This way goes the multiplication of fractions by fractions and parts by parts.
We have shown the multiplication of one fraction by one fraction and of two
fractions by two fractions. We must show the multiplication of three fractions
by three fractions. That comprises the multiplication of three fractions by two
fractions or more.
We assume that we want to multiply a haIf, a fourth and a fifth by two-thirds,
a fifth and a tenth.
We draw them as I I 1 :. 2 I 1.
, i
2 4 5 :. 3 5 10
We add them. This is by mUltiplying 4 by 5 and inserting that above the two,
multiplying 2 by 5 and inserting that above the four, mUltiplying 2 by 4 and
inserting that above the five, and adding these; we get 38. Then we mUltiply 2
by 4 by 5, get 40 and insert that below. We halve both and get 19 and 20.
We do the same with the other: We multiply the ten by 5 and by the two and
insert that above the three; multiply the ten by the three and insert that above
the five, multiply the three by five and insert that above the ten. We add that
and get 145. We multiply three by 5 by 10 and insert that below. We take one-fifth
of each and get 30 and 29.
We draw them like this: 19 29.
20 30
It has turned out to be: How much is (the product of) 19 of 20 by 29 of 301
We multiply 19 by 29 and get 551, multiply 20 by 30 and get 600, and draw
that below; we get 551.
600
So is all multiplication of fractions and parts; the process is the same.
Again, if we want to multiply one-half, one-third and two-thirds of one-tenth
by two-thirds and two-thirds of one-ninth, we draw that as follows:
1 I 1 .'. 2 2.
2 3 15 .'. 3 27
We combine each of these so that it becomes parts of one number. They become
 73
Book I - Chapter 10

Chapter 10 We may multiply 265 by 21, add seventeen, multiply by 4 and divide by 105;
we get the same result.
Again, if we want to multiply 769 and two-thirds and two-thirds of one-ninth
On Multiplying a Number with Fractions by a half, a fourth and a fifth, we draw them like this(7.17) 769:. 0 . We
2 2 :. 1 1 1
by Fractions
27 3 .·.24 5
add the two-thirds and the two-thirds of one-ninth; they become 60 of 81.
For that there are two ways. One is to mUltiply the fractions by the number and
We draw that under the number. We add the fractions; they become 57 of 60.
the fractions by the fractions. The second is to make them homogeneous, multiply
one by the other and divide by the product of the number of which one part We draw them like this: 769 O.
60 57
comes by the number of which the other part comes.
81 60
Working saves us the trouble of talking. Let us assume that we want to
multiply 23 by one-third and one-fourth. We add the third and fourth and get We have two methods:
We multiply 769 by 57 and divide by 60; we get 730 and 33 of 60, we draw
03
04 it like this \ 730 r'1.18)
7 of 12. We multiply 23 by 4 and add the three-fourths; we get 95 of 4. We 33
multiply 95 by 7 and divide the product by the product of 12 by 4. We get 13 60
We multiply 57 by 60, and draw below that the product of 81 by 60; that
and 41 of 48.
We may multiply the third and fourth by 23; we get 13 and a fourth and a becomes 3420. We add this to the former, which is \ 730 \. Before addition, we
sixth. Then we mUltiply the fractions by the fractions and get 21 of forty-eight. 4860 . 33
We add and get the same as before. 60
In these two ways we work out all (sums) whether big or small. draw that as 730 0 .(7.19) To add the parts, we multiply 33 by 81; that gives
Again, if we want to mUltiply two-thirds and a fourth by 126 and a third and
33 3420
a fifth, we draw that(7.16) as follows: 11 by 126. We multiply 11 by 126 and
60 4860
12 8 2673, which we add to 3420; it becomes 6093 of 4860. The parts are more than
15 the number from which they come; we elevate one which we add to the integer.
divide by 12; we get 115 and a half. We multiply 11 by 8 and below it draw the
Of the parts there remains 1233. We draw that as 731 .
product of 12 by 15; we get 88. We add half the, 180 to 88 and get 178 of 180. 1233
180 4860
The answer is 115 and 178 of 180.
~e other way is to mUltiply 126 by 15 and add the eight; we get 1898. We
By the other method, we draw that after adding the parts in. this way:
multIply that by 11 and get 20878. We divide that by the product of 15 by 12 769:. O. We multiply 769 by 81 and add to that the parts, whIch are 60;
which is 180; we get the same as before. ' 60 57
81 60
Also if we want to multiply 265 and two-thirds and a seventh by a half, a fifth
and a tenth, we draw them like this: 265 1 1 1, adding the two-thirds and
w.
it gives: 62349, which we multiply by 57; it gives ~553893. e d~vide it by the
product of 81 by 60, which is 4860. The outcome IS 731, whIch IS the same as
17 2 5 10 1233
21 4860
one-seventh to obtain 17 of 21. We add the fractions and obtain 4 of 5. We draw
the former.
that as 265 0 .
17 4 What has been mentioned is enough. There is no advantage in making the
21 5 numbers greater or the parts smaller, because the working is the same a~ with
small numbers. What is of advantage is the working; for this we have mentIoned
We mUltiply the number by four-fifths and obtain 212. We multiply 17 by 4,
two methods. So when a question comes the simpler and quicker can be used.
draw 105 below it and add that. We draw them like this 212.
H bolh.meth9QS are used and the answers agree, the working is correct. Let that
68
105 be a standard to build similar cases upon.
72
 Book I - Chapter 11 75
Chapter 11
multiply 25 by 21 and add 17; it becomes 542. We multiply 18 by 108 and add
35; we get 1979. We multiply one by the other; we get 1072618. We divide that
by the product of 21 by 108, which is 2268. The result is 472 and 2122 of 2268.
MUltiplying a Number with Fractions This is its form: 472.
by a Number with Fractions 2122
2268
We s~y that the way is to draw them, make the fractions of one number each Again, if we want to multiply 57 and a half, a fourth and an eighth by 32
combme numbers to fractions, mUltiply and divide by the product of the tw~ and a half, a fifth and a tenth, we assume that as follows: 57.'. 32.
numbers of which the parts are. derived. 1 1 1 :. 1 1 1
For .example, we want to mUltiply 7 and a half by 5 and a third. We assume 2 4 8 :. 2 5 10
them lIke this: li1J5. We mUltiply 7 by two and add the one which is the one- We start by mUltiplying 57 by 2, by 4 and by 8; to that we add the product of
1 1 '
4 by 8, the product of 2 by 8 and the product of 2 by 4. The total is 3704.
2 3
We multiply 2 by 4 by 8 and draw that below. It becomes 3704. Because both
?a1f; th~t becomes 15 with 2 below. We mUltiply 5 by 3 and add the third, which 64
IS one; It .becomes 16 with 3 below. We multiply 16 by 15 and divide by 6. The can be halved, we halve them successively until we obtain 463.
outcome IS 40. 8
Again, we want to multiply 19 by 13. If we add the parts, we find them 7 of 8. We mUltiply 57 by 8 and add the 7;
1 1 1 1 it becomes 463.
3 4 2 5 8
We a?d their fractions; one becomes 7 of 12, and the other 7 of 10. The form We do the same with the other. We get 328. Their form is 463 328. We
of that IS 19 .'. 13. 10 8 10
7 7 multiply one by the other and divide by the product of 8 by 10. We get 1898
12 10 and 24 of 80. This is its form: 1898.
We have shown how that addition is performed. 24
We multiply 19 by 1~ and add 7 to that; it becomes 235. We mUltiply 13 by 80
10 and add ~~e seven; It becomes 137. We multiply one by the other; we get This applies to bigger numbers and smaller parts. That involves nothing other
32195. We dIvIde that by the product of 12 by 10, which is 120. The outcome is than what we have mentioned; for in this, the small and the big are alike.
268 and 35 of 120.
For combining (7.20) them there is another way: we draw them like this Let us multiply 167 and two-thirds and two-thirds of one-tenth by 149 and
19:. 13. one-third and one-half of one-ninth. We draw that as follows: 167 149.
1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1
34 2 5 3 15 3 18
We start by mUltiplying 19 by 3 and the product by 4; to that we add the We add the parts; one becomes 11 of 15, and the other 7 of 18. We draw them
three and the four. It becomes like the former. Below it we draw the product of like this: 167.'.149 . We multiply 167 by 15 and add 11; it becomes 2516 parts of
3 by 4. We do the same with the other; we multiply 13 by 2 and by 5, and add 11:. 7
the three and the five to that. It becomes like the former. We go on as before 15:. 18
and get the same result. 15. We multiply the other by 18 and add the seven; that becomes 2689 parts of
Also we want to mUltiply 25 and two-thirds and one-seventh by 18 and one- 18. We mUltiply one by the other and get 6765524. We multiply 15 by 18 and
fourth and two-thirds of one-ninth. We draw them this way; 25 \ 18. We add divide that by it; we get 25057 and there remains 204 of 270.
2 1 1 2 So it is with all similar problems, the small and the big being alike; let that
3 7 4 27 be a standard to follow by the will of God.
the parts and draw them under the number. It becomes: 25 18. We
17 35
21 108
74
 Chapter 12
-I
" ;+
:...
· 1···.:
·
On Extracting Roots of Numbers.(8.1)
Open and A~amm(8.2)
What is required here is the number which if multiplied by itself gives the
number whose root we want to know. For every number mUltiplied by itself is
the root of the product. If any number which has a root is mUltiplied by a
number which has a root, the product has a root.
If we are given a number and we want to extract its root, we draw it, note
its places and seek the root from the odd places, which are the first, the third,
the fifth. We say as usual, starting from the first place: 'Is, is not, is, is not'
and so on to the end of what we have. Starting at the first place, 'is' falls on
the odd places. The giv~n places are either odd or even. If they are odd, we seek
the root as from the last place. If they are even, we seek the root as from the
place before the last, for there 'is' lies.
When we reach the last place having a root, we seek a number such that if
we multiply it by itself, it exhausts what is above it or most of it. This is either
of one place or of two, and the greatest that we may find is nine, and the least
is one. Having found it by estimation we multiply it by its like and cast out the
product from what is above it, keeping the remainder.
Then we move that one place, after having doubled it in its place. It falls
under a p~ace which has no root. We seek a number to draw under the preceding
place, whIch has a root, such that if we mUltiply it by that doubled number and
?y itself, it exhausts what is above it. Ifwe find it we draw it, multiply it and shift
It, when doubled one place. He goes on doing that until he reaches the first place.
If that number whose root we sought has a root, it leaves nothing. If it has no
root, a residue remains, and the root is that of the greatest number in it which
has a root. We halve what we have doubled, and what we get is the root.
For example, we try to find the root of 576. We start from the six saying:
'Is, is not, is', which falls under the five. We seek a number to draw under the
five so that if we multiply it by its like, it exhausts most of the five. We find it
2. We insert it under the five, mUltiply it by its like and cast that out of the five.
There remains one in place of five. We double the two in its place, shift the four
~nder the seven, and s~ek a.nu~ber to draw under the six so that if we mUltiply
It by the four and by Itself It wIll exhaust what is above it. We find it four. We
mUltiply four by four, get 16, cast that out from above. We mUltiply 4 by itself
and drop that from above; nothing remains. We halve the four which we have
doubled. The root is 24.(8.3)
Again, if we want to extract the root of the number 186624, we start from
the four saying: is, is not, until we reach the eight where 'is' falls. If we count
the places and seek the root under-the odd one, it wmbe good.
Now we seek a number which if we mUltiply by itself, it will exhaust most of
76
Book 1 - Chapter 12
the eighteen. We find it four. We draw the four under the eight, multiply it by
77
its like, and drop that from eighteen; there remains 2 in place of the eight.
We double the four and move it under 6. We seek a number which if we
mUltiply by eight and by itself it will exhaust what is above it. We find it 3. We
mUltiply 3 by 8 and by itself, and drop that from above. There remains 7 above
the three and one above the eight.
We double the three, and move it one place, under the two; the eight falls
under the seven. We seek a number to assume under the four, so that if we
mUltiply it by eight, six and itself, it will exhaust all that is above, or most of it.
We find it 2. We draw the two under the four, multiply two by 8, and drop that
from what is above. There remains one in place of seven. We mUltiply two by
6 and drop that from what is above it; there remains nothing except the four.
We multiply 2 by its like and drop that from what is above it; nothing remains.
We halve what we have doubled, which are the six and the eight. We get 432,
which is the root of that. (8.4)
Again, if we want to extract the root of 93636, we count the places and find
them odd; we know that the root is at the end. Under the nine we put a number
which if multiplied by its like gives 9; it is three, we multiply three by itself,
and drop that from above; the nine goes.
We double the three and move it under the three. We find no number to assume
under the six so that if we multiply it by six, it exhausts what is above. We have
to put a zero under the six.
We move the zero under the three and the six under the six, and seek a number
which if we multiply by six, it exhausts what is above it, and if we mUltiply by
itself, it exhausts what remains. We find it 6. We draw it under the six. We
mUltiply six by six and drop that from above, and multiply the six by itself
and drop that from what is above it. It is annihilated, and nothing remains of
the whole. We halve what was doubled, which is the six. The root is 306.(8.5)
Again, if we want to extract the root of 64112049, we count the places, and
find them even. We go back to the four and draw under it a number which if we
multiply by its like, it exhausts what is above it. We find it 8. We draw the eight
under the four, mUltiply it by its like and drop that from what is above the
eight; there remains nothing above the eight.
We double the eight in its place and move it one place, under the last one;
the six falls under the one, and the one after the six stands with nothing above it,
like this 112049. Here we cannot assume under the one anything to multiply
16
by the one which has nothing above it. We put a zero under the one. We move
the zero under two, the six and the one. We seek what to multiply by one and
six; here also we find nothing that satisfies this multiplication, because the lower
is greater than the upper. We put under the zero another zero, and move
another place. Again, we seek a number to put under the nine so that if we
mUltiply it by one, it exhausts what is above it, which is 11, leaving what is
sufficient to cover multiplication by the six and multiplying it by itself. We find
that IlumbeI 7. "Ne draw the-seven--uru:ler the nine. We multiply sevm by one,
and drop that from above, leaving four in place of one. We mUltiply 7 (by 6
78 The Arithmetic of a/-Uq/ldisl Book 1 - Chapter 12 79

and drop that from above 6; nothing remains. We multiply 7) by its like and remain the two zeros. We halve what we have doubled, which is the six; it
drop that from above; nothing remains. We halve what we have doubled. The becomes 3. The outcome is 302. Take half the (number of) zeros which have
root is 8007. remained; that is one zero. We set it before the two, at the beginning of the
Again, if we want to extract the root of 102400, under the zero we draw 3, root. The root becomes 3020.
multiply it by its like, drop that from the ten; one is left in place of zero. Again if we want to extract the root of 84640000, we find the root of the
We double the three, move it under the 2, and under the four draw 2, which number apart from the zeros, that is 8464, as shown before. The root is 92.
we multiply by 6 and by itself. The above is exhausted. We halve the six and Now we take half the zeros, that is two zeros. We set them at the beginning,
draw .half the zeros before the two. The result is the root, which is 320. before the two. That becomes 9200, which is the root of the number we had.
So is extracting the root of what has a root, together with what its root Let us go that way in all problems we meet, by the will of God.
includes zeros in the middle or at the terminal.
This is also the working in the case of (numbers) which have no root but leave
a residue. This is like having to extract the root of 28475:
Under the two we put one, multiply it by its like, and drop it from the two.
There remains one.
We double the one, move it under the eight, and seek a number to multiply
by 2 and by itself. We find it 6. We multiply 6 by 2 and drop that from above.
We multiply six by its like, and drop that from above. There remains 28.
We double the six, adding the ten to the two, to obtain 32. We move the two
under seven and the three under eight. We seek a number to multiply by three
and two and itself so that it exhausts what is above. We find it 8. We multiply
8 by 3, 8 by 2 and by itself; we drop that from above. There remains 251. We
halve what we have doubled. The root is 168.
Again if we want to extract the root of 5085, we draw 7 under the zero. We
multiply it by its like and drop that from the fifty; there remains one in place
of zero. We double the seven and move; the four falls under eight and the one
under one. We seek and find one. We mUltiply one by one, by four and by
itself and drop that from above. There remains 44. The root is 71.
Again, we want to extract the root of 1640736039. We assume under the six
what to mUltiply by itself so that it exhausts the sixteen. It is 4. We set 4 under
six, mUltiplying it by its like, drop from above, double the four and move it
under four. We seek what to multiply by 8 to make four; we find nothing, it is
impossible. We put zero under the zero, and shift. Now we seek and find 5; we .
mUltiply 5 by 8, and this covers the forty. We multiply it by its like and drop
from above; there remains 8 above the five and 4 above the zero. We double
the five and get zero in place of five and ten in place of zero. We shift; the zero
falls under the six, the one under the eight and the eight under the four. We seek
what to multiply by 8 to make 4 and cover the four. It is impossible. We put a
zero and shift; one zero falls under three, and the other zero under zero, the
one under six and the eight under eight. We seek and find 6. We multiply six
by 8, it exhausts what is above it; 6 by one; it covers the six too. We mUltiply
six by its like. Of all that there remains 3. The root is 40506.
Again, if we want to extract the root of 9120400, we find the root of nine. We
find that what is multiplied by itself to give nine is 3. We multiply it by its like,
drop that, double the three, shift it, under the one, find that there is nothing
to-.multiply by 6 to yield .one,. put a zerO--UIldef.the two,~aDd seek. W~find 2.
We multiply 2 by 6 and 2 by 2 and drop that from above; it exhausts all and there

Chapter 13
On Extracting the Roots of Fractions,
Isolated or Joined to Units
We say that every fraction which is derived from a number that has a root
has also a root, and its root is derived from the root of that number.(8.6) A
number with a fraction is resolved to that fraction and the fraction is added to
it. If that (sum) has a root, and the fraction is of a number having a root, then
it (that is the number with the fraction) has a root which is divided by the root
of the number from which it comes.(8.7)
For example, the fourth is derived from four; its root is derived from the root
of four, which is two; its root is therefore one half.
Similarly, the ninth is derived from nine which has a root. The ninth must
have a root which is derived from the root of nine. It must be a third.
Again, one-half of one-eighth is from 16; its root must be derived from the
root of 16.
So it is with all parts derived from numbers having roots. Fractions having
roots may be of more than one part. Their number must have a root, and the
number from which they are derived must have a root. Their root is the root of
their number divided by the root of the number from which they are derived.(8.8)
Thus a third and a ninth is 4 of 9. The number of parts has a root and the
number from which they come has a root too. Its root is the root of 4 divided
by the root of 9.
When there are fractions derived from a number which does not have a root,
they have no root too. If their number has no root, and the number from which
they are derived has no root, they have no root. If one has a root and the other
has no root, they (that is the fractions) have, no root either.
Thus the third, the fifth, the sixth and the like have no root; similarly three-
fourths, four-sevenths, ten parts of 25, and 16 of 35.
Fractions may be connected with a number. If the fraction or fractions are
derived from a number having a root, the number with the fraction may have a
root. If not, it is not possible. If the fraction is of a number which has a root,
and when we resolve it and add the fraction we get a number having a root, that
number (with the fraction) does certainly have a root, which is the root of the
number divided by the root of the number from which the fractions come.
(This is) like five and one-half of one-eighth. Since the number from which the
fractions come has a root, it is likely that that has a root. We resolve it, by
multiplying the five, the half and the eighth by 16; we get 81. It is therefore a
number having a root. We take the root of 81 and divide it by the root of 16;
we get 2 and a quarter, which is the root of that.
Again, if we are given 14 and one-half of one-eighth, we resolve that and
find it 225-, -whieh has thefOOtf-5-.-- We di"..ide by ther-oot-ef- l6-and get -3- and a
u
half and a fourth, which is the root.
80
Book I - Chapter 13 81
Again, if we are given 538 and one-fifth and one-fifth of one-fifth, which is 6
of 25 we resolve the number and add the six; we get 13456. We extract the root
of th~t and find it 116. We divide that by the root of 25. We get 23 which is the
1
~~~. 5
Similarly, if we want to extract the root of 821 and two-thirds and one-ninth,
we draw that like this: 821. We multiply 821 by 9 and add to that the seven;
7
9
we get 7396. We extract its root and find it 86; we divide it by the root of 9,
which is three. We get 28 and two-thirds, which is the root of that.
Again, if we want to extract the root of 1181 and one-half and one-eighth and
one-eighth of one-eighth, we draw that like this 1181. We multiply 1181 by 64
41
64
and add the forty-one; we get 75625. We extract its root. We get 275; we divide
it by the root of 64, which is 8, and get 34 and a fourth and one-eighth; which is
the root of that.
The number with which the fractions go may have no root, although the
r fractions are of a number which has a root. This is like having 23 and one-ninth
or 25 and one-fourth. If we resolve this, the number (obtained) has no root.
If we want the root of this kind, we resolve it to a place. which has a root,
by mUltiplying it, with its combination, by the number from which the fraction
comes. Then we extract its root by approximation. We divide the result by the
number from which the fraction comes.
For example, we want to extract the root of 18 and one-fifth. We assume that
as 18. We mUltiply 18 by 5 and add the one part; we get 91 of five. It has no
1
5
root, nor does the number of which it comes.We mUltiply that by 5 to make it
of a place having a root. It becomes 455 parts of 25. We now have a number
having no root of a number having a root. We find its root by approximation.
It is 21; with a remainder of 14, which we drop and ignore. We divide the
twenty-one by the root of 25, which is 5; we get 4 and one-fifth, which is the
root of that approximately. If now we take half the remainder, which is 7, find
its ratio to the root obtained, which is 21, we get one-third, we add it to the 21
and divide that by 5; we get 4 and one-sixth and one-tenth, which is nearer than
the former.
Accordingly if we want to extract the root of 23 and six parts of 25, we resolve
it with the parts; it becomes 581 parts of 25. This is a number having no root
of a number having a root. We do not need to reduce it. We find its root ap-
proximately; it is 24. There remains 5 which is ignored. We divide 24 by the root
of 25, which is 5; we get 4 and 4-fifths. This is an approximate root.
This concept requires (still) much working and methods that cannot be
mentiooed--here.-We-shall~that in Book n presenting all these method~ by
the will of God.(8.10)

Chapter 14
On Division in General
Here we show division of whole numbers with fractions over whole numbers,
whole numbers over fractions, fractions over fractions and what may follow that.
We say that the general method in all this is to make them homogeneous, I
mean the dividend and the divisor, so that they are of the same place. Then one
is divided by the other. Here we give what will show what we have mentioned:
We say that we want to divide 87 and one-fifth by 12. We set that as: 87 :. 12.
1 :.
5 .'.
We mUltiply 87 by 5 and add the one; we get 436. We multiply 12 by 5; we get
60. We divide 436 by 60; we get 7 and 16 of 60.
Again if we want to divide 156 by 35, we mUltiply the three by the four
1 1
3 4
and by 156 and add to that the three and the four of twelve. It becomes 1879.
We multiply three by four by 35; we get 420. We divide 1879 by 420 and get 4
and 199 of 420.
The process is the same with big (numbers) and small ones. Ifwe want to divide
17 by one-third and one-seventh we set them as 17 .'. 1 1. We add the third
3 7
and the seventh and get 10 of 21. We mUltiply 17 by 21 and get 357. We divide
that by ten and get 35 and 7 of ten.
Again, if we want to divide two-thirds and one-fourth by one-fourth and one-
fifth, we draw that like this:~. W~ combine them in two numbers;
~ We multiply each by the number of which the parts come; they become 4951 223:
one becomes 11 and the other 9 .(7.21) We cross-multiply them by mUltiplying
12 20
11 by 20 and 9 by 12; they become 220 108; we do not need the twelve and
12 20
the twenty. We divide 220 by 108; we get 2 and 4 parts of 108.
Again, if we want to divide one-half, one-fourth and two-thirds of one-tenth
by 15. We set that as 49 :. 15. Now we multiply 15 by 60 and get 900. We draw
60 :. :.
the forty-nine above that; we get 49.
900
Also if we want to divide 37 by 19, we add the two-thirds and the fifth;
-- --------- ---2--1- -- --J----
3 5 5
82
Book I - Chapter 14 83
we obtain 13 parts of 15. We multiply the thirty-seven by 15 and add to that the
thirteen; we get 568. We multiply 19 by 5 and add the one part; we get 96.
Under each of them we draw the number of which it comes. It becomes like this:
568 .'. 96. We cross-multiply them by multiplying 568 by 5 and 96 by 15; they
15 5
become 2840 :. 1440. We divide 2840 by 1440; we get one and 1400 of 1440.
Again, if we want to divide 57 by 8 and one-half and one-fourth, we draw
that as 57 8. We multiply 8 by four and add the three to obtain 35. We multiply
003
4
fifty-seven by four; we get 228. We divide 228 by 35; we get 6 and 18 parts of35.
In this way all division should go, for all follow the process we have shown.
He who goes that way comprises all this type and answers all questions he may
be asked.
Again, if we want to divide 428 by 46 and one-third and one-fifth, we set them
like this 428:. 46 . We add the two fractions; they become 8 of 15. We
1 1
3 5
multiply the two numbers by 15. The dividend, which is 428, by 15 .'. 6420,
and the divisor, which is 46 and 8 parts of 15, by 15 :. 698. They are now of
the same genre. We divide 6420 by 698; we get 9 and there remains 138 of 698.
Again, if we want to divide 235 and two-thirds and two-thirds of one-seventh
by 55 and a half and a fourth, we draw them like that 235 .'. 55 . We add
2 2 1 1
,
! 3 21 2 4
their fractions so that each becomes parts of a number. They become like that:
235 :. 55.
16 3
21 4
21 4
We cross-multiply them; they become 19804 :. 4683. We divide 19804 by
4683; we get 4, and there remain 1072 of 4683.
This way is done all that may come out of this type.(7.22)
J
 Chapter 15
The Arithmetic of Degrees(3.5) and the
Concepts it Involves
All the preceding work on whole numbers and fractions and all that we have
mentioned on parts of numbers refer in fact to this concept, namely, the degree.
Number is indivisible, but the degree is divided into parts and parts of parts
indefinitely without end.
All the working we have done, we now apply to the system of the arith-
meticians who reckon by their hands and are called Rum or Arabs. This is to
make this kind of arithmetic containing all arithmetic, Ruml, Arabic, and
Indian.(s.a) All working already done will be applied to degrees and repeated
here from beginning to end.
This book is thus in two parts, one is on numbers, their fractions and the
methods related to them, and the other is on degrees and their fractions and
all the methods related to them.
The first thing to start with is the degree and its parts. We say that the people
of this craft have made the degree of 60 parts called minutes, the minute of 60
parts called seconds. They have divided the second in the same way. They thus
say that the degree is 60 minutes, the minute 60 seconds, the second 60 thirds,
the third 60 fourths, the fourth 60 fifths, and so on. The part in any place is 60
parts of the place below it. Thus the place of numbers is that of (degrees, and
below that the place of) minutes, below it the place of seconds, below it thirds,
and so on~ place after place to whatever end we want.
Let us start by halving the degree.
84
Chapter 16
Halving the Degree and Doubling It
In the place of integers, we assume any number of degrees, provided it is odd.
It is all the same whether we halve one degree or more or an even number. All
that leads to the halving of one, which involves the secret of the work. Let us
assume the number 17.
We start by halving the seven. We draw the three in place of seven, and make
the half 30 below. We halve the one. That becomes 08.
30
We halve that: we start by halving the thirty, inserting 15 in place of thirty.
We halve the eight. It becomes 04.
15
We halve the five, inserting two in place of five, and the half as 30 below it.
We halve the ten and the four. It becomes 02.
. 07
30
We halve the thirty inserting 15 in its place, halve the seven inserting three
in place of seven, and the half as 30 below, added to the ten. We halve the two.
All that becomes 01.
03
45
We halve the five, inserting two in place of five and drawing the half below
it. We halve four, then the three inserting one in its place, and the half below
added to the twenty. We halve the one, putting zero in its place and drawing the
half below. That becomes
00.
31
52
30
So it is always as far as we want and in as many steps as we wish.
Now we double that. We start by doubling the thirty on top. Whenever the
tens place yields 60, this is one above. We thus raise one in place of zero and
put a zero in place of three. We double the one. We double the five raising 60
to add to the two making it 3, and leaving four in place of five. We double the
two. We double the thirty, which is one above. The thirty goes, and the four
becomes 5. All becomes 01. We double the one and the three below it, and the
03
45
85
86 The Arithmetic 0/ al-Uqlldisl

four, raising 60 and leaving 20. We double the five. It becomes 02. Chapter 17
07
30
Again, we double the two, the seven below it and the thirty. That becomes
04. We double the four, the ten and the five. That becomes 08. We double the On Increasing and Decreasing
15 30
eight and the thirty, and thus go back to the seventeen.
So it goes with all that we want. That leads to the halving of one. We have
shown that one-half in any place is 30 below it, and every 60 in any place is The way for that is to draw the degrees with the minutes and seconds in order:
one above it. There is nothing in halving the degree other than what we have the degrees on top, the minutes below it, the seconds below, as shown in
mentioned, and so for doubling what has been halved. doubling. We do the same with the other (number), drawing one opposite the
We now go to increasing and decreasing. (3. 7) other, every place facing the corresponding one, degrees opposite degrees, '
minutes opposite minutes and so on to the end.
For example, we want to add two degrees 13 minutes, 25 seconds and 13
thirds to one degree, 29 minutes, 38 seconds and 42 thirds. We draw that as
follows:
02 01,
13 29
25 38
13 42
every place opposite the corresponding one. We start by adding the one degree
to the two, inserting three in place of two. We add the twenty-nine to the
thirteen, adding the tens to the tens and the units to the units. Whenever 60
comes in a place, it is raised up as one. In place of 13 we have 42.
Next we add 38 to the 25, raising 60 as one above, and leaving the remainder
which is 3 in place of 5.
Then we add the forty-two to the thirteen, having 55 in the place of thirteen.
The form of that is
03 01.
43 29
03 38
55 42
In working, it is all the same whether we add the bigger to the smaller or the
smaller to the bigger.
So it goes with addition. If a place is empty, having nothing, we put two zeros
in it to indicate that there is nothing in it. The places of one may be more than
the places of the other, but that requires nothing more than what we have
mentioned: Every place is to be added to the corresponding one.
For example, we want to add
13 to 11 and to add 00 to 02.
, 18 00 19 00
1 00 17 13 58
22 29 39
87
 89
Book I - Chapter 17
88 The Arithmetic 0/ al-Uqlldisl
Again if we want to deduct the lesser from the bigger of these:
We add every place to the corresponding one: degrees to degrees, minutes
to minutes, seconds to seconds, thirds to thirds; and whenever there is 60 in any 01 01,
place, it is raised to one above it. 13 12
00 57
As for decreasing, we draw them as in increasing: degrees, minutes and their 11 49
sequel in one line, taking the number to be decreased from first, and the decreased we deduct one from one, putting zero in its place. We deduct the 12 from
opposite to it. We start subtraction from the highest, until we come to the end.
the thirteen leaving one and putting a zero in place of the ~en, ,NOW we wa~t to
If a place does not have enough, we take one from what is above it and reduce
decrease 57 from what is opposite to it, but we find nothIng In th~t ~lac~, tw,e
it to the lower (place) by making it 60; from it we decrease what we want.
take the one which is up, put zero in its place, make that one 6 0 .w a IS
If we want to decrease from below it deduct 57 and leave the residue in that place; thus we get 3 In pla~e
01, 00. f 'Now we want to deduct 49 from 11; we take one from the three, ma e
19 47 ~ :~r~f what is below it, deduct 49 from it, and have 11 to be added to 11.
28 16 We get
53 47
00 01.
we decrease 47 from 19; this is not possible, because 47 is greater than 19. We 00 12
take the upper, which is 60 of what is below it; we make it 60, decrease 47 from 02 57
it; there remains 13, we add this thirteen to the nineteen and get 32 which we 22 49
insert in place of 19, putting zero in place of the upper one. We decrease 16 So it goes with all increasing and decreasing. " ,
from 28; there remains 12 in place of 28. We decrease 47 from 53 leaving 6 in Havin shown halving, doubling, increasing a~d decreaSIng, which wIll be
place of 53. fficien; for him who knows it and builds upon It, so that he needs no more
Whenever a place gets empty we insert a zero in it. su '1' ,
of it, let us move hereafter to multIp Icatlon.
We have decreased the smaller from the bigger and are left with this
00 00.
32 47
12 16
06 47
If we add what we have decreased to the residue we regain what was there.
Also, if we want to decrease from
02, 01,
10 48
16 34
27
we start by decreasing the one from the two; in place of two there remains one.
Next we decrease 48 from 10; we take the upper, make it 60, of the genre of
that to be decreased; deduct 48 from it; there remains 12 to be added to the ten.
In place of ten we have 22.
We decrease 34 from 16, by taking one from above, making it 60, deducting
34 from it, and adding the remainder, which is 26 to the 16. In its place we have
42. We get
00 01,
21 48
42 34
27

Chapter 18
Multiplication of Degrees and Minutes
There are several methods for that, but here we mention what space allows.
We say: To learn any such multiplication, we have to learn first the result of
multiplying places one by the other. We say: Everything mUltiplied by degrees
does not change order. This is because degrees are numbers, and what is
multiplied by a number remains the same. Below the place of degrees is the
place of minutes, which is the first (place) of parts of a degree. When minutes
are multiplied by minutes, the result is one place lower, the place of seconds.
Thus we say that minutes by minutes make seconds.
If minutes are multiplied by seconds, that is of the next lower place, which is
thirds. Hence: minutes by seconds give thirds. So it is always, when we multiply
a minute by any place, the result is of a place lower than that place by one. Thus
minutes by thirds give fourths.
The product of seconds by seconds is two places lower than the place of
seconds. We therefore say that seconds by seconds give fourths, which is the
sum of the places.
So it goes with the multiplication of places: we add the places of the multiplied
and the multiplier, and the result is the place of that. Seconds by thirds yield
the sum of the two places; we add a second and a third, I mean the places of
the second and the third, the second being of the second place among the parts
of the degree, and the third is of the third place; if we add the two places, that
yields the fifth place. Thus a second by a third' gives a fifth. We therefore say
that seconds by thirds give fifths. (5.8)
Accordingly, seconds by fourths give sixths, thirds by fourths give sevenths,
and so on to whatever we wish.
If there are two or more places to be mUltiplied by other places, we draw each
of them according to its place, the highest up and those that are lower below it,
as in increasing and decreasing. Next we resolve both so that each becomes
of the order of its last place. Now we mUltiply one by the other and determine
the place thereof. Here we have two ways:
One way is to resolve one degree until it becomes of that order, divide what
we have by it, and the quotient is degrees and is to be inserted on top. The
remainder is multiplied by 60 and divided by that; the quotient is one place
lower than the place of the upper; we insert it below. We multiply the remainder
by 60 and divide by what we have been dividing; the quotient is one place lower;
we insert it below. We go on the same way until there is no remainder. Then the
result of mUltiplication is found out and so are its places.
This is one way. Another way is to determine the place of what we have got.
Next we elevate it one place by dividing it by 60; the remainder, which is less
90
Book I - Chapter 18 91
than sixty is inserted, being of the place we first had, that is the last place. We
divide the quotient by 60 and insert the remainder which is less than 60 above
that. We go on that way until division brings us to degrees. We always insert the
remainder higher and higher until we have degrees on top.
In these two ways we work out all multiplications of degrees and minutes.
Let us now give examples to clarify what we have stated.
One example: we want to multiply two degrees, 18 minutes, 35 seconds by
one degree, 37 minutes, 49 seconds. We draw them this way: 02 01. Now we
18 37
35 49
resolve each one to its last place. We multiply two degrees by 60, add what is
below it, multiply by 60 and add what is below it; we get 8315. We do the same
with the other and get 5869. We multiply one by the other, determine the order
of that. We get 48800735; we know that it is of the place of fourths.
We resolve one degree to fourths. This is by multiplying 60 by 60 and the
product by its like; we get 1296()()()(). We divide that by this. The quotient is 3,
to be inserted on top place. We multiply the remainder by 60 and divide by that.
The quotient is 45, which we insert below that. We multiply the remainder by
60 and divide; the quotient is 55, which we insert below. We go on that way
until what we have got is exhausted. We get:
03.
45
55
45
35
In the second way, we insert the product which is 48800735. Now we elevate
that by dividing it by 60, keeping the remainder. The quot~ent is 8~334~,
remainder 35. We insert this at the bottom place. What we have Just obt81ned IS
the same.
Now we divide the quotient by 60; we get 13555, remainder 45. We insert it
above that and find it in agreement with the example. We divide the quotient
by 60 and get 225, remainder 55, as in the example. We divide and get 3, remainder
45. All that is in agreement with the example.
This way we work out all that we want, small or big.
This is like having to multiply one degree, 5 seconds by one degree, 7 thirds.
We assume that as
01 :. 01.
00 :.00
05 :.00
07
We resolve each to its last place. One gives 3605 and the other 16007. We find
92 The Arithmetic of al-Uqlldisl

the place of each; ~ne is seconds and the other thirds. The product is 778705235. Chapter 19
We work that out In the two ways. We get
01
00
05 On Division of Degrees and Minutes
07
00
35 The method for that is to reduce both of them: the dividend and the divisor,
So it is for all this kind. Let it be taken as a model for the small and the b' to their lowest places, and then divide. If they are of the same place, the quotient
whether of different or like places or orders. That makes no difference fr~; is degrees. If the dividend is of higher order, it is resolved so as to become of
what we have shown. God help. the order of the divisor; then it is divided and the quotient is degrees, as well.
If the dividend is of lower order than the divisor, the quotient is of the order
of the difference between their orders; if it is one place, the quotient is minutes.
If it is two places, the quotient is seconds. We thus say that seconds over
minutes give minutes. Thirds over seconds give minutes as well. Fourths over
seconds give seconds, and so on. (6.6)
For example, we want to divide one degree, 23 minutes over 15 minutes:
We resolve the degree, and add the minutes; that makes 83. We want to divide
83 by 15, they being of the same place, each being minutes; the quotient is
degrees. We divide and get 5 degrees, which we draw in the highest place, the
place of degrees. We multiply the remainder by 60 and divide by 15; we get 32
minutes. We insert it below; they become 05.
32
Again, if we want to divide 45 minutes, 39 seconds by 3 minutes, 45 seconds,
we draw these as 00 00. We resolve each of them; one becomes 2739 and the
45 03
39 45
other 225. We divide one by the other and get 12 which is degrees; we insert it
high up. There remains 39; we multiply it by 60 and divide by what we are
dividing by; we get 10, which is minutes; we insert it below. There remains 90;
we multiply by 60 and divide; it yields 24, which is seconds; and what we had
vanishes. We insert that as 12.
10
24
Again if we want to divide one minute, 47 seconds by 20 minutes, 48 seconds,
we draw that as: 00 ... 00 . We resolve them; one, that is the dividend, becomes
01 20
47 48
107, and the other, which is the divisor becomes 1248. We divide the smaller
by the bigger. Because they are of the same place, the quotient is degrees.
Because this does not give a degree, the dividend being less than the divisor,
we mUltiply the dividend by 60 and divide. We get 5, which is minutes, and there
remains 420.(6.7) We mUltiply by 60 and divide; the quotient is 2, which is
seconds, and there remains 34. We multiply by 60 and djvjde; the qllotienta_
one, which is of the order of thirds, and there remains 192. If we multiply this
93
 94 The Arithmetic 0/ al- Uqlldisl Book I - Chapter 19 9S

remainder by sixty and divide, ad infinitum, there must be a remainder; it does For example, we want to divide
not vanish, because it is a~amm.
00 by 00.
But if with the twenty minutes, we take 8 miilUtes, we set that up as follows:
15 12
00 00. We reduce them to the same order; the dividend becomes 107, and the
12 2S
01 28
23
47 48
divisor 1728. We divide the smaller by the bigger; because they are of the same We find that there is a difference of one order; we therefore say that the quotient
order, the quotient is degrees; because it does not yield one degree, we mUltiply is of the first order, which is minutes.
it by 60 and divide by that; the quotient is 3, which is minutes. If there is a difference of two orders, the quotient is seconds; similarly, if the
There remains 1236. We multiply it by 60 and divide by what we have been difference is three places, the quotient is thirds; and so on whatever their places
dividing by; the quotient is 42, which is seconds. We go on. What we have left may be.
vanishes. The quotient is Here there are two cases as well. The dividend is either greater than the divisor
or less. It either vanishes leaving no remainder or a residue remains which is too
00 small to count and is thus discarded and neglected.
03
42
55
It is thus seen that if the dividend is of the same order as the divisor, it may
'I'
I', be greater than the divisor or less, and when division is performed, it may vanish
I1 '

leaving no remainder at all, or a remainder is left however minute we make it;

i!
i[
I

! we are satisfied with that and drop the remainder because it is little and small.
i
I:
I

This applies to the dividend ifit is of higher order than the divisor. We resolve
" I

the dividend until it becomes of the order of the divisor. The question is thus
turned to the former.
For example, we want to divide one degree, 48 minutes by 3 minutes, 45
seconds. We draw it this way: 01 00.
48 .03
00 4S
We find that the dividend is of higher order. Thus we resolve it until it is of
the order of the divisor, and divide. The quotient is 29 degrees, 26 minutes, 40
seconds. This is the form: 29. .
26
40
Similarly, if we want to divide 12 minutes, 2S seconds by 58 minutes, 46
seconds 25 thirds, we insert it this way:
00 00.
12 S8
25 46
0025
We resolve the dividend until it is of the same order and place as the divisor,
and divide. Thus it is converted to the first (case). We have two cases here as
well.
If the dividend is of lower order than the divisor, we resolve them until they
are of the order of their last place, and then divi~e. Th~qY.Qtientis-of..the--Order--
ofthe--Cliffemu;e between their orders'~- .-- -- - - -
 Book I - Chapter 20 97

Chapter 20 as it is of a place which has a root. The root comes out 4039, which is seconds.
We elevate it to one degree, 7 minutes, 19 seconds, in this form: 01.
07
19
On Extracting the Roots of Degrees and Minutes Again, if we want to find the root of 49 seconds, 43 thirds, 33 fourths, 36 fifths,
36 sixths, we assume that in this form:

00.
Extracting the roots of single degrees is like that of extracting the roots of 00
numbers. As for extracting the roots of minutes, accompanied with lower orders 49
43
or single, only some of these have roots. Those that have roots are in the even
places, like seconds, fourths and sixths. The root of every place having a root 33
is in a higher place equivalent to half its order. Thus the root of eighths is in 36
its half, which is fourths, the root of fourths is seconds, the root of seconds is 36
minutes. We resolve it to the last place; it becomes 644448996. We know which place it is;
In every place that has a root there may fall a number that has a root or a we extract its root; the root is 25386, which is thirds.
number that does not have. We elevate it to 7 minutes, 3 seconds, 6 thirds. Its form is 7. We put a zero
The method of root extraction is like that of numbers. 3
It is thus clear that the first place, the place of minutes has no root, because 6
it is first and considered odd. The second place, the place of seconds, has a root on top and get
because it is even. Thirds have no root, fourths have, and so on: one place has
no root and one has. 00.
If we want to extract the root of a set of places, we resolve them until they 07
are of the last place; then we look into that place: if it is of those which have a 03
root, we extract the root; if it is of the places that do not have a root, we bring 06
it down one place, by mUltiplying it by 60; it thus becomes of a place that has
a root. Then we extract the root. When extracting the root, some numbers Again, if we want to find the root of two minutes, 27 seconds, 23 thirds, 10
vanish leaving nothing, and some leave a residue. . fourths, 50 fifths, 25 sixths, we draw that in this form:
These whose roots we extract are like numbers: some have a root and some
have not. 00.
We shall show all that: 02
If we want to find the root of one degree, two minutes and one second, we 27
draw that as follows I. We resolve it to 3721. It is of a place, which has a root. 23
2 10
1 50
We extract the root and find it 61, which is seconds. We elevate it to one degree, 25
one minute. We resolve it to the last place; it becomes 1910127025. We find its root. It
Again if we want to find the root of one degree, 15 minutes, 31 seconds, 32 comes out 43705.
thirds and one-fourth, we assume that as We elevate it to 12 minutes, 8 seconds, 25 thirds. We draw that as
I.
15 00.
31 12
32 08
1 25

We resolve it to the last of its places; it becomes 16313521. We extract its root, So it is with all that we want to extract its root.
96
98 The Arithmetic of a!-Uq!TdisT
If we want to find the root of this:
Chapter 21
00,
25
18
36 Extracting the Roots of A$amm Numbers
we resolve it to the last place, and know which place it is. It is a place that has
no root, being the place of thirds. We mUltiply by 60 to make it of a place that
has a root, the place of fourths. It becomes 5466960. We extract the root and There are two ways for extracting that. One way is to resolve it until it becomes
find it 2338. There remains 1196 which is discarded and not counted. The root of a place which has a root: we multiply it by 60 and it becomes in the place
so found is in the place of seconds. We elevate it and get 00.
of minutes which has no root; we mUltiply by 60 again and it becomes in the
38 place of seconds which has a root; and so on always: one mUltiplication by 60
58 makes it in a place which has no root, and another multiplication by 60 makes
Similarly, if we want the root of something in the fifth place we resolve it it in a place which has a root.
until it is in a place which has a root. So is all that we want.
When it is in a place which has a root, the root is extracted approximately
and elevated.
That is one way. The other way is to insert before it two zeros, or four or any
even number, and then extract it approximately and elevate.
Let us give an example to be taken as a model:
Let us take the two. We multiply it by 60 four times, to make it in the place
of fourths, which has a root. The multiplication yields 25920000. We extract
the root and find it 5091, the remainder being 1719, which we cast away. We
elevate what we have got and find it 01, which is the root of two approximately.
24
51
If we resolve it still further, to the place of sixths, a greater value is obtained
which is a better approximation than what we have mentioned. We make it in
the place of sixths, extract the root as described and elevate; we get
01.
24
51
30
This is more than the former by thirty thirds (8.11) obtained by extending the
resolution to sixths.
Similarly, if we resolve it to eighths, it becomes more and nearer to (the root
of) two. When the root is multiplied by its like, the original number whose root
was extracted is regained. Then when this root is multiplied by its like, it will
be nearer to two than when the former is multiplied.
This way we can extract the root of whatever we like, whether integer or
otherwise, that has no root. Thus when we have a number with fractions, or
degrees with places, to extract the root thereof by this way, we resolve it as far
as we wish, to a place having a root, and then extract the approximate root and
elevate.
-~l------l.IlltL.1;eQ()Jl(U~'-1S~l-aSSUIlllCLberolIe_-1.tblllee..Jtwwoo~aass_~~_~~~_.wish,._
provided they are even. Let them be four. We thus have 20000. We extract the
99
100 The Arithmetic of al- Uqlldisl

root and find it 141, with a remainder of 119 which we ignore. Now we take
what is left after taking half the numbers of zeros, which is one; we draw it
aside. There remains 41. We multiply it by 60, put aside half the number of
zeros and take what is left; which is 24; we insert it below the one. We mUltiply
the half by 60 again, put aside half the number of zeros and take what is left,
which is 36; we insert it below 24. We get I. We find that the first method gives
24
36
a better approximation because the root it gave is more than this. But we say
that if we increase the zeros by one more couple, the root will be more than this.
So it is always if we increase the zeros the root comes out more. If we extract Book 11
the root of two by six zeros we obtain:
of Kitab al-Fu$ul
01
24
50
24
This root is much more than the former, and if multiplied by its like comes
nearer to two.
We say that we can extract the root of whatever we like, whether two or
otherwise, by these two methods.
But on extracting roots by even zeros, and elevating the root obtained, there
are questions of the type of why and how. These create nice answers. They
cannot be stated in this place. We therefore postpone them to mention them
in their proper place in Book Ill, for this third Book is made especially for the
whys and hows and justifications.
This is the end of the Book in which we mention all that is needed of it.

Praise be to God, Lord of the World. May He pray for our Lord,
MuI)ammad, the Prophet, and his kins and give them plenty of peace.