First Pole to Clear Factor- Calculation & Significance

First Pole to Clear Factor of a Circuit Breaker is the ratio of power frequency recovery voltage across
the first pole to clear the arc to the normal phase to ground voltage when all the three poles of breaker
are open. It is denoted as k pp. If Vcb be the recovery voltage across the first pole of CB and V ph be the
phase to ground voltage then

First Pole to Clear Factor = Vcb / Vph

The value of kpp depends on the system grounding. For system with non-effectively neutral earthing,
kpp = 1.5 while for system with effectively neutral earthing, kpp = 1.3

Let us now understand the concept of first pole to clear factor in detail. We know that a circuit breaker
is used to make or break circuit or part of circuit in power system. Since the power system is mostly
inductive in nature, therefore the current flowing in the network is lags the voltage. This definitely
means that whenever the voltage is zero, current is at its peak and when voltage is at its peak, current
is zero. In circuit breaker, the basic philosophy used to break the circuit current is to open the breaker
contacts at natural current zero. But the three phases current are separated from each other by an
angle of 120 degree. This means that the natural zero of the three phases will take place at three
different points of time. Figure below shows the current interruption for an assumed fault.

As clear from the figure, the current of Y phase first comes to zero at 53.5 ms followed by R and B
phases (phase current first coming to natural zero is dependent on the time of occurrence of fault).
This means that first Y pole will be opened and then R and B pole of breaker. When Y poles opens in
response to any fault, the remaining two poles are closed. This gives rise to high recovery voltage
across the breaker contacts when compared with phase to ground voltage when all the three poles are
open.

Let us consider a three phase fault as shown in figure below. The figure shows the simplified
equivalent circuit of effectively earthed neutral with three phase fault without involving earth. When
the very first pole (here it is assumed that R pole opens first) interrupts the fault, the symmetry of the
system is lost and the system goes into a pure a phase to phase fault condition. Due to this, the voltage
of short circuit point shifts.

The power frequency recovery voltage across the first opening pole i.e. R pole (assumed) is nothing
but the difference between the source side voltage and network side voltage. In our case, this will be
different between the source side voltage Ua and network side voltage Vp (voltage at short circuit
point). Thus,

VR =   Recovery Voltage across the first opening pole

     = Ua – Vp   …………..(1)

From the symmetry of the system when the system goes into pure phase to phase fault, the voltage at
the short circuit point will be average of the Ub and Uc. The phasor diagram is shown below.

Vp = (phasor sum of Ub and Uc) / 2

     = 0.5Ub

But magnitude of Ua, Ub and Uc are same, hence

Vp = 0.5Ua

Therefore from (1),

VR = Ua + 0.5Ua

     = 1.5Ua

Hence from the definition,

First Pole to Clear Factor, kpp = 1.5Ua / Ua

                                                 = 1.5

Thus we see that, value of first pole to clear factor for effectively gounded neutral system with
ungrounded fault is 1.5.

For three phase to earth faults with effectively earth neutral, the value of kpp depend on the positive
sequence and zero sequence reactance. The value of kpp for such condition is given as

kpp = 3 / [(X1 / X0) + 2]

where X1 = Positive Sequence Reactance

X0 = Zero Sequence Reactance

For grounded system as is the case with transmission line, the ratio of (X 1 / X0) is 1/3 and therefore
the value of first pole to clear factor is 1.3.

Significance of First Pole to Clear Factor:

First Pole to Clear Factor is basically the impact of system grounding on the Transient Recovery
Voltage (TRV). Apart from system grounding, TRV depends on many other factors. All the three poles
of circuit breaker can never open simultaneously; therefore first pole to clear factor must be taken
care for the design of breaker. The dielectric strength of breaker must be sufficient enough to sustain
the TRV across the first pole to clear the fault.

Determine coefficient of grounding

Determination of required grounding impedance is based on determination of coefficient of grounding which represents
ratio of maximum phase voltage at phases which aren't exposed by fault and line voltage of power network:

kuz=(1/(sqrt(3)))*max{|e(-j*2*π/3)+(1-z)/(2+z)|; |e(+j*2*π/3)+(1-z)/(2+z)|}
z=Z0e/Zde

where are:

kuz-coefficient of grounding,
z-ratio of equivalent zero sequence impedance viewed from angle of place of fault and equivalent direct sequence
impedance viewed from angle of place of fault,
Z0e-equivalent zero sequence impedance viewed from angle of place of fault,
Zde-equivalent direct sequence impedance viewed from angle of place of fault.

So, after this explanation, you can get next conclusions:

if kuz=1 then power network is ungrounded because Z0e→∞, which is a consequence of existing more (auto)
transformers with ungrounded neutral point than (auto) transformers with grounded neutral point (when kuz=1 then there
aren't (auto) transformers with grounded neutral point),
if kuz≤0,8 then power network is grounded because Z0e=Zde, which is a consequence of of existing more (auto)
transformers with grounded neutral point than (auto) transformers with ungrounded neutral point.

Fault current in grounded power networks is higher than fault current in ungrounded power networks. By other side, in
case of ungrounded power networks we have overvoltages at phases which aren't exposed by fault, so insulation of this
conductors could be seriously damaged or in best case it could become older in shorter time than it is provided by design
what is the main reason for grounding of power networks.
Coefficient of grounding is very important in aspect of selecting of insulation of lighting arresters and breaking power of
breakers, because of two next reasons:
1. in grounded power networks insulation level is lower than insulation level in ungrounded power networks,
2. in grounded power networks value of short circuit current is higher than value of short circuit current in ungrounded
power networks.

An Overview Of Grounding System (Ungrounded)

An Overview Of Grounding System (Ungrounded) (On photo: installed ground clamp. The 2″
x 0.022″ copper strip is treated with a copper based anti oxidation grease and then clamped
to the clean copper plated 8′ ground rod – by beevo.com )

Topics:
 Ungrounded system
 Derivation of current expression in ungrounded system
 Advantages & disadvantages of ungrounded system
 Concept of effective and non-effective grounding
 Coefficient of earthing and earth fault factor

Underground Neutral Or Undergrounded System

Before 1950 power system were often without neutral grounding. Such system
had repeated arcing grounds, insulation failure and difficult earth fault protection.
Every phase has inherent distributed capacitance with respect to earth. If earth fault occurs
on phase B, the distributed capacitance discharges through the fault. The capacitance again
gets charged and gets discharged. Because of this sever voltage oscillation is reached in
healthy phases.
These voltage oscillation causes stress on insulation of connected equipment.

Figure 1 – Ungrounded neutral or

ungrounded system

Ic2 = jCwv2
Ic3 = jCwv3
Ic = jCwv2 + jCwv3
Ic = jCw(v2 + v3) // Equation-01
Now by drawing the phaser diagram as shown below wecan write:
VN + V2 = v2 // Equation-02
VN + V3 = v3 // Equation-03
Substituting equation -02 and equation-03 in equation-01:
Ic = jCw(VN + V2 + VN + V3)
Ic = jCw(2VN + V2 + V3) // Equation-04

Figure 2 – Ungrounded neutral or ungrounded system

Voltage phasers V3 can be resolved in the direction of VN and in direction perpendicular to

VN as V3Cosθ and V3Sinθ.
Similarly voltage phaser V2 can be resolved as V2Cosθand – V2Sinθ
Hence:
V2 + V3 = V3Cosθ + V3Sinθ + V2Cosθ – V2Sinθ // Equation-05
V3 = V2
V3Cosθ + V2Cosθ = VN
Substituting in equation-05 we get:
V2 + V3 = VN = V1 (Since V1 is shorted to ground soVN = V1) // Equation-06
Substituting equation-06 in equation- 04 we get:
Ic = jCw(2VN + VN)

Total capacitive charging and discharging current of healthy phase is:

Ic = j3CwV1
For ungrounded system:
If = IC2 + IC3 = IC = j3CwV1 // Equation-07
As seen from equation -07, in unearthed system ground fault current is totally dependent
on capacitive current returning via the network phase-earth capacitances. This is the
reason for sever voltage stress in healthy phases of ungrounded system.
Since there is no return path available for fault current in ungrounded system so
detection of earth fault current is difficult. This is other disadvantage of ungrounded system.
Go back to Topics ↑

Advantages of Ungrounded System

There are some advantages of ungrounded system:
1. Ungrounded system has negligible earth fault current
2. Some continuous process or system and essential auxiliaries where single phase to
ground fault should not trip the system.
Go back to Topics ↑

Disadvantages of Ungrounded System

However below listed disadvantages of ungrounded system are more adverse than
advantages:
1. Unearthed system experience repeated arcing grounds.
2. Insulation failure occurs during single phase to ground faults.
3. Earth fault protection for unearthed system is difficult.
4. Voltage due to lightning surges do not find path to earth.
In order to overcome the above mentioned technical and operation issues the concept of
system grounding was introduced. System grounding is connecting the neutral of system to
earth.

At every voltage level neutral of transformer is considered as neutral of system.

System grounding is of two types:

1. Effective grounding:  Effective grounding is also called solid grounding that is without
resistance or reactance. In this case co-efficient of earthing ismore than 80%
2. Non effective grounding:  When neutral to earth connection is made through
resistance or reactance than the system is said to be non-effectively grounded. In this
case coefficient of earthing is greater than 80%
Go back to Topics ↑

Coefficient of earthing and earth fault factor

Coefficient of earthing is the ratio which is measured during single phase to ground fault:
Ce = Highest phase to ground voltage of healthy phase / Phase to phase voltage
In a system without neutral earth (refer Figure 1), phase to earth voltage phase-1 and
phase-2 rises to 3times phase to phase voltage Vrms during single phase to earth fault on
phase 3. In a neutral earthed system the voltage ofhealthy phase rises to Ce times Vrms.
Therefore value of Ce:
 For non-effectively earthed system Ce = 1
 For effectively earthed system Ce < 0.8. Hence surge arrester rated voltage is > 0.8 V
rms
Surge voltage kV instantaneous is taken as 2.5 times of critical flashover voltage
(CFOV)of line insulation. Thus discharge current is given as:
I =  (2.5(CFOV) –Residual voltage of arrester) / Surge impedance of line
Earth fault factor is a ratio calculated at selected point of the power system for a given
system. Earth fault  factor = V1/V2
 V1 = Highest RMS phase to phase voltage of healthy phases (phase 2 and 3 refer to
Figure 1) during earth faulton pahse-1
 V2 = RMS value of phase to earth voltage at same location with fault on faulty phases
removed
Go back to Topics ↑

References:

1. Industrial electrical network design guide By Schneider electric

2. Switchgear protection & power system By Sunil S Rao, Khanna publications
3. EARTHING: Your questions answered By Geoff Cronshaw
4. IEEE Recommended Practice for Electric Power Distribution for Industrial Plants
Concept of Neutral Grounding
The concept of system grounding is extremely important, as it affects the susceptibility of the system
to voltage transients, determines the types of loads the system can accommodate, and helps to
determine the system protection requirements. The system grounding arrangement is determined by
the grounding of the power source. For commercial and industrial systems, the types of power
sources generally fall into four broad categories:

Utility Service – The system grounding is usually determined by the secondary winding configuration
of the upstream utility substation transformer.

Generator – The system grounding is determined by the stator winding configuration.

Transformer– The system grounding on the system fed by the transformer is determined by the
transformer secondary winding configuration.

Neutral grounding is generally of three types:

 Solid Grounding

 Resistance Grounding

 Reactance Grounding

Each of the grounding method serves a specific purpose and based on the suitability of our need, we
use any one of the grounding method.

Solidly Grounded Systems:

The solidly grounded system is the most common system arrangement, and one of the most used.
The most commonly used configuration is the solidly grounded star, because it support single-phase
phase to neutral loads. In this type of grounding method, the star point is directly connected to
the ground.

The figure below, shows the relationship between the phase and line voltage for Solidly Grounded
System.
It can be seen from the above figure that the system voltage with respect to ground is fixed by the
phase-to-neutral winding voltage. It means that the line-to-ground insulation level of equipment need
only be as large as the phase-to-neutral voltage, which is 57.7% (100/1.732 = 57.7 %) of the phase-
to-phase voltage. It also means that the system is less susceptible to phase-to-ground voltage
transients. This is very important benefit of Solidly Ground System.

A common characteristic of solidly-grounded system is that a short circuit to ground will cause a large
amount of short circuit current to flow. This condition is known as a ground fault. As can be seen from
figure below the voltage on the faulted phase is depressed, and large current flows in the faulted
phase since the phase and fault impedance are small.

The voltage and current on the other two phases are not affected. Thus a solidly grounded system
supports a large ground fault current. Statistically, 90-95% of all system short-circuits are ground
faults.

The occurrence of a ground fault on a solidly grounded system necessitates the removal of
the fault as quickly as possible. This is the major disadvantage of the solidly-grounded
system as compared to other types of system grounding.

A solidly-grounded system is very effective at reducing the possibility of line-to-ground voltage

transients. However, to do this the system must be effectively grounded. One measure of the
effectiveness of the system grounding is the ratio of the available ground-fault current to the available
three-phase fault current. For effectively grounded systems this ratio is usually at least 60%.

To summarize,

The solidly grounded system is the most popular, is required where single-phase phase-to-neutral
loads must be supplied, and has the most stable phase-to-ground voltage characteristics. However,
the large ground fault current is a disadvantage and can be hindrance to system reliability.
Resistance Grounded Systems:

In Resistance Grounding method, the neutral point is connected to the ground by using a Resistor.
The resistor is sized to allow 1-10 A to flow continuously if a ground fault occurs.

The resistor is sized to be less than or equal to the magnitude of the system charging capacitance to
ground. If the resistor is thus sized, the high-resistance grounded system is usually not susceptible to
the large transient overvoltages that an ungrounded system can experience.

If no ground fault current is present, the phasor diagram for the system is the same as for a solidly
grounded system. However, if a ground fault occurs on one phase the system response is as shown
in figure below. As can be seen from figure below, the ground fault current is limited by the grounding
resistor.

If the approximation is made that Z A (impedance of winding) and ZF (Fault impedance) are very small
compared to the ground resistor resistance value R, then the ground fault current is approximately
equal to the phase-to-neutral voltage of the faulted phase divided by R. The faulted phase voltage
to ground in that case would be zero and the unfaulted phase voltages to ground would be
173% of their values without a ground fault present.
The ground fault current is not large enough to force its removal by taking the system off-line.
Therefore, the high resistance grounded system has the same operational advantage in this respect
as the ungrounded system.

Reactance Grounding:
A Reactance Grounded system is one in which the neutral point is grounded through an impedance
which is highly inductive. Reactance Grounding lies between the effective grounding and Resonant
Grounding (will be discussed in next post). Reactance is provided to keep the fault current within safe
limit. This method of grounding is used where the charging current is high like in capacitor bank, line
reactors used for voltage control of transmission line etc.
Why Making Current of Circuit Breaker is more than Breaking Current?
To understand this aspect making current and breaking current, first we should know what actually the making
current and breaking current signifies in context with Circuit Breaker.

Making Current of a Circuit Breaker is the peak value of maximum current loop duringsubtransient condition

including DC component when Breaker closes. In the figure below, I1represents the Making Current of Circuit
Breaker excluding the DC component.

Basically, the capacity of a Breaker to make current depends upon its ability to withstand and close
successfully against the effect of electromagnetic forces. As we know that Electromagnetic Force is
directly proportional to square of current, therefore while the Breaker is closing maximum
electromagnetic force on its contact will be seen when the current is at its peak value. This reason,
Making Current of a Circuit Breaker is specified in term of peak value of current.

Again, it may happen so that the Breaker is being closed when the fault is existing, in that case also
the breaker should be designed to withstand the electromagnetic forces. Let us consider the most
severe condition in which Breaker is being closed.

The most severe condition is phase to short circuit fault during which the current through the phase
wire will be maximum for subtransient condition (subtransient means first one or two cycles of
current) and after that current decreases. After 8 to 10 cycles, i.e. Transient state the current
decreases further and steady state is reached. Thus we see that before current reaches steady state,
there are two sates Subtransient and Transient state where the current decays down to achieve
steady state.

In the figure above, it is quite clear that the nature of current is asymmetric. This is because of
presence of DC component of current but at steady state the current becomes sinusoidal i.e.
symmetric.

Breaking Current of Circuit Breaker:

Breaking Current of a Circuit Breaker depends on the instant on the current wave where the contacts
of Breaker start separating. In the figure below, the contact start separating at AB. Let the symmetric
component of current at AB is x amp and the value of DC component is y amp
Therefore

Note that Breaking Current of Circuit Breaker is always given in RMS. Here, there are two things
which should be noted. The Breaking Current can be specified in Symmetric Breaking Current or
Asymmetric Breaking Current. In India, Breaking Current is specified in terms of Symmetric Breaking
Current whereas in USA it is in Asymmetric Breaking Current.

From the above discussion, it is clear that Making Current is peak value of current during
Subtransient state including the DC offset value where as Breaking Current is RMS value of
current at the instant of Breaker Contact separation. Therefore, making Current must be
higher than the Breaking Current.

Relationship between Making Current and Breaking Current:

If the symmetrical Breaking Current is known then Making Current can be obtained as follows.

Let symmetrical breaking current = I

Then, peak value of symmetrical Breaking Current  = 1.414xI

Now, we need to include the DC componenet of current to get making Current. As the DC component
of Current during subtransient state is almost equal to the peak value of current, therefore

Making Current = 1.414xIx1.8

                         = 2.55xI