Chapter 10

General Description of the Hull

Ships are complex structures composed of a large number of elements. They are
assembled on the basis of three-dimensional structural blocks. These blocks have
their parts and components arranged in the three directions of space. This arrange-
ment requires different welding systems, since not all joints can be made with a
single welding process. In this section, we will explain the most commonly used
welding processes for shipbuilding (Houldcroft & John, 2001), (Molland, 2011).

10.1 Structural topology

The structural topology of a ship’s hull is defined by a series of major basic planes
or drawings. These structural planes are:

• The Mid-ship cross section plan. This plan shows a cross section at the main
section of the ships, giving the basic dimensions for most structural elements
associated of the hull. It has information about welding processes and build-
ing strategy. Figure 10.1 shows a traditional 2D example of a midship cross
section plan 1 and an actual 3D model 2 .

(a) Midship2D (b) Midship 3D

Figure 10.1: Midship cross section.

1 Figure from: https://owaysonline.com/sketch-label-midship-sections/

2 3D model by Miroslav Jekov (2017) https://grabcad.com/library/midship-section-at-116-
tanker-1

99
100 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

• The plan of shell expansion.This is a two dimensional plan of the hull form.
It has a lot of information and it is very useful for maintenance labor calcula-
tions. It has different scales for the vertical and horizontal dimensions. We can
obtain information about the thickness of shell plating, frames, longitudinal
elements etc. This plan can help us to calculate areas applying approximated
integrals like trapezoidal and Simpson’s rules. These calculations are needed
to define damaged areas and areas for painting, for example. Steel quality is
shown with the terminology used on Table 9.2. Figure 10.2 shows two plans
in 2D 3 and y 3D 4 .

(a) Shell expansion 2D (b) Longitudinal 3D

Figure 10.2: Shell expansion.

• The longitudinal section plan.This plan is a section at center line, or at a

different distance depending on structural asymmetries. This plan shows sim-
ilarly information as the Mid-ships cross section plan.

• The decks and bulkhead plans. These structural plans show the structure
at different locations in length for bulkheads and in depth for decks. The
information is similar to the information show in rest of plans.

In general, these plans show the main parts of all structural elements, building
processes and strategies, welding procedures and qualities, steel grades etc. These
planes are obtained from a 3D model in which all structural elements are repre-
sented in a real scale.

10.1.1 Main vessel nomenclature

It is important to know the names of general vessel parts, as these names are used
in naval construction. Thus, we need to remember a group of general terms. These
terms are important in order to become familiar with the other elements we will
discuss later.
The group of terms that identify general parts of the ship:

1. The bow is the front of a ship or vessel.

3 From: https://www.loc.gov/resource/hhh.ca1507.sheet/?sp=6
4 From: http://www.modeca.eu/services/shell-expansion/
10.1. STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY 101

2. The stern is the back end, or rear, of a vessel.

3. The starboard side is on the right when you face forward.

4. The port side is on the left when you face forward.

5. The centerline is an imaginary line running down the center of the ship along
its length (L), from bow to stern.

6. Midships is the central part of the ship.

There are a group of terms to describe the ship’s dimensions:

1. Length (L). In general, is the distance between the bow and stern. We are
going to consider different length definitions:

(a) Length Over All (Loa ) is the distance between vertical normal lines at the
extremes of the ship (a measurement from the furthest point forward on
the ship to the furthest point aft).
(b) Length Between Perpendiculars(Lbp ) is the distance between two perpen-
diculars to the water plane. One is positioned on the intersection of the
bow profile with the water plane and the other is positioned on the rota-
tional axis for the rudder.

2. The beam/breadth (B) is the extreme width (side to side) of a vessel or the
moulded breath (Bm ) used for design purposes.

3. Depth (D) is the vertical distance from the lowest point of the keel to the float
line (W L).

4. Draft/Draught (T ). This value is indicated on the draft marks (bow. middle,

stern) in decimeter or in feet.

5. Trim (t) is the difference in a vessel’s forward and after depths.

There are other group of words referred to relative positions in the ship:

1. Forward is in the direction of the bow.

2. Aft is in the direction of the stern.

3. Ahead is forward of the bow.

4. Astern is abaft the stern.

5. Fore and aft is in a direction parallel to the centerline.

6. Athwart ships is in a direction at right angles to the centerline.

7. Inboard is toward the centerline in relation to the sides of the vessel.

8. Outboard is toward the sides of the vessel in relation to the centerline.

9. Aboard is on or in a vessel.
102 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

10. Overboard is off or out of a vessel.

Figure 10.3 shows this terminology graphically. This chapter is going to be sup-
ported by drawings. These drawings are very important to have fast way to recog-
nize the structural elements.

Figure 10.3: Ship’s Lengths.

10.1.2 Hull structure

The hull -which includes together decks, bulkheads, deck-houses and plating- is the
main structural part of the vessel. The hull is built with steel in various shapes such
as bars, angles, Bulb bars, bulb angle,s plates, etc. the parts are joined together by
rivets or welding.
From the structural point of view, the hull can be considered as a floating beam of
minimum weight and necessary resistance to withstand the stresses due to its load
and the buoyancy of the water.
This floating structure contains the necessary machinery for its propulsion and ser-
vices and the spaces for cargo, passenger and crew. Regardless of the general type
of stresses that the structure may encounter, it is necessary to take into account lo-
calized stresses, which require local reinforcement.
From a shipbuilding point of view and for the study of structural resistance, the hull
can be assimilated to a straight prism of rectangular section subjected to stresses
originated by the general loads on the structure, the cargo loads and the buoyancy
loads.
The four faces of this prism are the bottom, the plating and the deck, which are the
main elements of the structure and constitute the hull envelope.
This envelope must be watertight and the inner space is compartmentalized using
diaphragms that we call transverse bulkheads and inner decks. We can achieve the
necessary watertightness and resistance employing the above mentioned elements.
The hull of the vessel has a tapering form to reduce drag. The two profiles that
form the ends of the ship are the bow stem and the aft stern frame. For hull struc-
tural calculations we can consider three main bodies: the aft body; the central body
and the fore body. In general, the calculations for the hull structure are performed
with the rules of the classification Societies and are divided into these three sections
(Fig. 10.4)
10.1. STRUCTURAL TOPOLOGY 103

Figure 10.4: Main hull parts and bodies.

10.1.3 Types of structural topology

In general, the framing of a ship is based on two structural shipbuilding geometries
and their combination. These structural geometries are:

1. The transverse system (Fig. 10.5). This system uses transverse elements to re-
inforce the hull-girder envelope formed by the main deck, bottom and double-
bottom, and side plating. These elements are: Flat-keel, center girder, side
girders, floor, transverse frame, beam knee and deck beam. This framing sys-
tem is typically used in general cargo ships or fishing vessels.

Figure 10.5: Transverse system.

2. The longitudinal system (Fig. 10.6). Longitudinal system use longitudinal

structural elements to reinforce the hull-girder. These elements are: Side and
tank longitudinal stiffeners, side and bottom transverses and girders. This
system is used in tankers, container ships, warships and others.

3. Combined system (Fig.10.7). This system is a mixture of transverse and lon-

gitudinal systems. The main deck, bottom, and double-bottom are built with
longitudinal elements. The sides are built with transverse elements. Frames,
104 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

Figure 10.6: Longitudinal system.

longitudinal elements, deck girders, deck transverse, transverse frames, side

plating longitudinals, floor plate longitudinals and girders, brackets and knees
are used to connect the different elements.

Figure 10.7: Combined system.

10.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 105

10.2 Structural elements

Ships parts can be divided by their position and their general structural function.
Thus, we can consider the following parts:

• Bottom and double bottom elements.

• Bulkheads and bulkhead reinforcement.

• Decks, beams, girders and stanchions.

• Shell plating.

• machinery spaces foundations.

• Stem and stern post.

• Superstructures and deck houses.

• Hatches, coaming, and bulwarks.

• Rudders and maneuvering fittings.

10.2.1 Bottom and double bottom elements

The hull bottom is the lower shell of the hull girder and its general functions are:

1. To contribute to the longitudinal strength of the hull.

2. To make the hull watertight on the lower part of the hull.

3. To contribute to the transverse resistance.

4. To resist the pressure of the water and transmit it to the internal structure
elements which are the keel, wagons, rods and bottom longitudinal.

The double bottom allows us to compartmentalize the spaces intended for the stor-
age of liquids called tanks. The functions of the double bottom cover are:

1. Contribute to the longitudinal resistance of the hull.

2. Contribute to the transverse resistance of the hull.

3. To create compartmentalized spaces at the bottom to be used as tanks.

4. To support the load of holds or engine room installations.

5. To protect the ship from flooding in case of bottom breakage.

Figure 10.8 shows a double bottom structure. Letter K marks the position of the
Keel plate.
106 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

Figure 10.8: Bottom an Double bottom structure.

10.2.2 Bulkheads and its reinforcement

. The vertical diaphragms dividing the interior of the hull girder are called bulk-
heads. The bulkheads of steel ships are divided into:
1. Resisting bulkheads. A transverse resistant bulkhead has the following func-
tions:
(a) Prevent subsidence or collapse of the deck, bottom, and sides of the hull
under bending stresses.
(b) It is an important local reinforcement of the deck, bottom, and side plat-
ing.
(c) It divides ship compartments (holds, tanks, etc.).
A longitudinal resistant bulkhead fulfills the missions indicated for the trans-
verse bulkhead and also participates in the longitudinal resistance of the hull.
2. Subdivision bulkheads. These bulkheads have the following functions:
(a) To separate the hull space into watertight compartments to limit the flood-
ing of the vessel and prevent it from sinking.
(b) They must be structurally strong enough to withstand the pressure stresses
in the event of flooding of one of the compartments they separate.
(c) They must be watertight to prevent flooding from spreading to adjoining
compartments and are critical to the safety of the ship as their poor design
demonstrated in the sinking of the ”Victoria” in 1892, the ”Elbe” in 1895
and the ”Titanic” in 1912.
10.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 107

The number and approximate location of the transverse subdivision bulk-

heads is fixed in the regulations of the Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea (SOLAS).

3. Dividing bulkheads. These bulkheads divide the ship into holds, tanks, store-
rooms, cabins, saloons, toilets, etc. We have already seen these bulkheads can
also be resistant and subdivision bulkheads in which case they will have the
features indicated in the previous sections.

The division described above is functional. Therefore, a given bulkhead can per-
form these three functions or one or two of these functions, depending on the par-
ticular structural element. Within each group we will distinguish:

1. Vertical or inclined.

2. Longitudinal or transverse.

3. Watertight or lightened.

4. Flat or corrugated.

Figure 10.9 shows a corrugated bulkhead which is used in general cargo ships
like bulk carriers.

Figure 10.9: Corrugated Bulkhead.

108 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

10.2.3 Decks, beams, girders and stanchions

The upper girder-hull envelope constitutes the strong upper deck. The interior hori-
zontal and continuous diaphragms along the length correspond to the intermediate
decks. The interior horizontal diaphragms, of limited length, constitute the plat-
forms. Above the upper beam-hull envelope, there are decks that form parts of the
superstructure. The function of the decks depend on their type and characteristics.
We consider the following groups:

1. Resistant upper deck. A resistant upper deck fulfills the following tasks:

(a) Contribute effectively to the longitudinal strength of the hull. It is the

part furthest from the neutral axis of the hull girder.
(b) Contribute to the transverse resistance.
(c) Preserve the watertightness of the hull at the top.
(d) Support the upper part of the longitudinal and transverse plating and
bulkheads.
(e) Supports local stresses such as superstructure normal loads or maneuver-
ing equipment working loads.

2. Intermediate decks. The intermediate decks have the following functions:

(a) Contribute, to some extent, to the longitudinal strength of the hull.

(b) Serve for cargo stowage in general cargo ships and support the stresses of
the cargo on it.
(c) Support local stresses from elements such as hatches and unloading sys-
tems that circulate over them, such as excavators or forklifts.

3. Platforms. The platforms are intermediate decks of limited length, such as

those arranged in the engine room, small store rooms, in the bow and stern
holds or lockers, etc. These decks do not participate in the longitudinal resis-
tance of the hull and the stresses they support are local stresses. The stresses
are those due to the weight of the installed equipment, their foundations and
the dynamic stresses transmitted.

4. Superstructure decks. These decks do not participate in the general resistance

of the hull. They support local stresses.

10.2.4 Shell plating

The side of the girder-hull functions are:

1. Contribute to the longitudinal resistance.

2. Maintain the watertightness of the hull.

3. To resist the dynamic impacts of the sea, water pressure in the submerged part
or the vessel sides, and vibration stresses when the ship pitches.
10.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 109

In general, Classification Societies’ regulations give us the scantlings (or dimen-

sions) of the plating according to: length, depth, draft and frame spacing. The dif-
ferences in thickness that may occur between the different shell plates are arranged
towards outside, with the inner surface of different thickness plates aligned. This is
done in order to have a continuous surface on the inside and to avoid reductions in
the dimensions of frames and other structural elements. See Figures 10.5, 10.6 and
10.7.

10.2.5 Machinery spaces and foundations

The engine room space is limited by the double bottom, the sides, the upper deck
and two bulkheads (one aft and one forward). The interior is divided lengthwise
with platforms depending on the ship’s depth. The equipment are installed, on
their foundations, on these platforms and on the double bottom.
This type of machinery includes the main engine, turbines, auxiliary engines, boil-
ers, pumps, tanks, bearing housings, bearings, etc. All installed equipment must be
mounted on a support known as a support frame. This support may isolate vibra-
tions as necessary and is designed to support the specific equipment mounted to it,
allowing proper operation of the equipment. See figure 10.10

Figure 10.10: Engine room cross section. The figure shows the platforms and the
main engine foundation on the double bottom plating.
110 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

10.2.6 Stem and stern post

The stem and the stern tube are the pieces that finish off the hull-beam at the bow
and stern, respectively, serving as the connection between the port and starboard
sides.
The parts that make up the stem must be designed to be able to withstand the great
stresses that arise when the ship sails through ice (icebreaker), hits the quay (during
berthing), grounding (docks), collision with an obstacle, if the anchor chain becomes
crossed, or when the ship is hit by large waves in the sea. The structure of the stern
part is designed to support the weight of the rudder, propeller, stern tube, and tail
shaft.
It support the stresses transmitted by the propeller, the rudder, and the tail shaft.
Other loads and stresses supported by the stern part are the loads transmitted by
the rudder when the ship turns, the sea shocks on the stern post and rudder in bad
weather, and the stresses produced by grounding the ship. (See Fig. 10.11

(a) Stem (b) Stern post

Figure 10.11: a) Armed Stem and (b Closed and Open Stern post.

10.2.7 Superstructure and deck houses

The superstructure components comprise the height of a single between-deck and,
depending on their location on the ship, are called Castle (forward), upper deck
(amidships) and poop deck (aft).
Superstructures can be elongated, joining different superstructure components to-
gether. Thus there can be a citadel, combined with a forecastle and at the limit a
complete superstructure (awning, citadel and forecastle joined together) as in the
case of a ”shelter deck” vessel.
The deck houses can have any length and number of decks. From the point of view
of resistance, superstructures are classified as effective and non-effective. The for-
mer are those whose length is greater than 10-15% of the ship’s length (depending
on the classification society).
The structure of the deck houses, in general, must provide an effective transverse
resistance against the effects of the balances and crosswinds, by means of transverse
bulkheads and decks. /Figure 10.12 shows the volume of a deck house, .
10.2. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS 111

Figure 10.12: Typical deck house over poop deck for a cargo ship.

10.2.8 Hatches, coaming and bulwarks

On the decks of ships we find discontinuities that introduce holes in the structural
elements of the ship. These discontinuities are required by the service of the ship
and are called the hatches, which in freighters, bulk-carriers, container carriers,
reach their maximum dimensions and require much attention from the designer
to find the solution that reduces the concentration of stresses that these sudden
changes of section can create.
In any structure subjected to tensile or compressive stresses, that has a discontinuity
due to the existence of a gap, a concentration of lines of force appears in the vicinity
of the opening, which means an increase in the working loads. The stress concen-
tration will be greater or lesser, depending on the design, quality of execution and
direction of the lines of force, etc.
The coaming is intended to prevent the entry of water. The height of the hatch
coaming depends on the type of deck (open or closed) and its level above the wa-
terline. Second deck hatches may have coamings but of very low height. Coamings
on an open deck will have a height depending on the risk of water ingress, i.e. their
location on the ship and their height above the waterline.
The bulwarks are elements that do not contribute to the structural resistance of the
hull locally. At the ends of superstructures, the bulwark takes on a special shape
and contributes to the smooth transmission of stresses within the beam-hull. The
Figure 10.13 shows two typical hatches and a bulwark.

10.2.9 Rudders and maneuvering fittings

During navigation, ships need to modify or correct their course. When entering or
leaving port, fast and efficient turning is required. On the other hand, although the
ship is symmetrical in its hull in relation to the longitudinal plane, there are exter-
nal causes that try to deviate the rectilinear course like water currents, sea bumps,
or the lateral thrust of the propeller in certain circumstances etc. From these con-
siderations we need to provide the ship with devices that provide a side force to the
ship, allowing it to turn in a horizontal plane. These devices are called rudders (Fig.
112 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

(a) Bulk-carrier (b) General cargo

(c) Bulwark

Figure 10.13: Hatches, coamings for dry cargo ships and c) Bulwark.

10.14

Figure 10.14: Four classes of rudders.

To anchor or berth a ship, it is not enough that the engines are stopped, the ship
must be secured, and for this purpose, a series of lines, chains, anchors, etc. are
required to hold the ship in place. This requires a series of installations that make
up the mooring and anchoring equipment. All classification societies have rules
to calculate the characteristics of these elements, such as anchors, anchor chains,
10.3. JOINT PROCESSES 113

Windlass, chain cable compress, hawser pipe, wire wheel, fair lead, deck en rollers,
bollers etc. These components are considered maneuvering fittings since they are
necessary to maintain the position of the ship. (See Figure 10.15)

Figure 10.15: Fore castle maneuvering element for anchors. Figure Shows the typi-
cal arrangement for capstans.

10.3 Joint processes

Ships are elements with complex shapes and a large number of parts that must be
joined together. Depending on the type of material, different joining processes are
used.
Wooden parts are joined by fitting and screwing, nailing or using wooden dowels.
In the case of composite materials, adhesives are the most commonly used materials
for the joints.
Most large ships are currently built in steel alloys and metallic materials such as
aluminum. Thus, we will discuss in this section the most commonly used joining
processes with these materials.

10.3.1 Riveted joints

Riveted joints were the first joining process used in steel shipbuilding. Today this
type of joining is used to join light alloys in aeronautics. It is also used for joining
materials such as steel and aluminum. In general, it has been replaced by welding
or bolted joints.
In shipbuilding the main problems with this joining method were associated with
the number of rows of rivets required, the tightness of the joint and the problems
114 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

arising from the complex process of drilling, riveting and caulking required for this
type of joint. The rivets in a joint have two missions, to provide structural strength
and to maintain the tightness of the joint. Figure 10.16 shows different riveted joints
and how they work:

1. Joining with a single rivet, working against simple shear stress.

2. Joining with several rivets, working against simple shear stress.

3. Joining with several rivets to cloth with simple flashing, working against single
shear stress.

4. Double-riveted joint with double flashing and rivets working against double
shear stress.

Figure 10.16: Riveted joints and its structural function. Rivets calculations are bases
over its section (diameter in red) because of rivets works in shear stress.

10.3.2 Welded joints

The welded joint is a rigid joint. This characteristic in itself is a problem as it gives
greater rigidity than with other types of joints such as riveted joints. However, riv-
eted joints behave less well under the stresses produced by waves, for example.
The welded joint simplifies the joining process and also saves structural weight by
avoiding overlaps. Nowadays, the welded joining technique can be surpassed by
other procedures, such as additive manufacturing, however these techniques are
not yet large-scale commercial procedures that can bee applied to shipbuilding, al-
though current research is investigating the use of additive manufacturing tech-
niques for building ships. Thus, welding is the most widely used and logical pro-
cess, from a constructive and economical point of view today.
The greatest danger of the welded joint is the formation of cracks. These cracks oc-
cur when the process temperatures are not adequate. If the material to be joined is
too cold or the welding temperature is not correct, there will be problems later on.
Therefore, control of the temperature and the environmental conditions in which
10.3. JOINT PROCESSES 115

the welding is done is important.

In naval construction there are different processes of welding. Theses processes are
selected depending on steel particulars and shapes. Basically the processes are:

1. GMAW: “Gas Metal Arc Welding”. This is an automatic welding technique

performed under a CO2 protective atmosphere. This type of welding uses a
continuous wire as filler material that is melted and, to avoid the effects of O2
and N2 , is isolated with a carbon dioxide filler (Fig. 10.17). This method is
mainly used on parts oriented in a horizontal positioning.

Figure 10.17: Welding procedures in naval construction: GMAW.

2. SAW: “Submerged Arc Welding”. This welding is automatic on a trolley. The

protection of the molten part of the filler material, which is also continuous
wire, is made with a material called ”flux” which is in a tank or hopper from
where it falls on the arc protecting the weld from the atmosphere (Fig. 10.18).
This technique is recommended for parts in a horizontal position.

Figure 10.18: Welding procedures in naval construction: SAW.

3. EGW: “Electro Gas Welding”.This type of welding employs a tubular wire and
shielding gas for top welding joints in a vertical position. It is used in slipways
or building docks to join blocks. It is used for thicknesses between 12 and 32
mm, in lining plates and bulkheads(Fig. 10.19).
116 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

Figure 10.19: Welding procedures in naval construction: EGW.

4. EW: “Electro-slag Welding”. This is an automatic top welding technique that

uses a nozzle through which a continuous solid or tubular wire is fed automat-
ically for vertical joints of plates or reinforcements with straight edges. The
molten pool of welding material is held between two water-cooled and mated
shoes of equal length against the butt joint (Fig. 10.20).

Figure 10.20: Welding procedures in naval construction: EW.

5. OSW: “One Side Welding”. This system welds veneer without the need to
rework the root bead, so it is not necessary to turn the welded elements to
produce the weld on the other side. Generally, the root bead (the first one to
be welded) is usually welded with a method such as GMWA and the filler with
SAW (Fig. 10.21). Used for horizontal positions.
10.3. JOINT PROCESSES 117

Figure 10.21: Welding procedures in naval construction: OSW - SMAW.

6. SMAW: “Shielded Metal Arc Welding”. This is a manual welding technique

and normally used in special jobs, spot welding processes or repairs. It can be
used in all positions: Flat, vertical, horizontal and Overhead.

10.3.3 Additive and subtractive manufacturing

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) is a large-scale metal technology utiliz-

ing an arc welding torch as a heat source and a consumable wire as the feed-stock
material to fabricate a near-net-shape component adding layer by layer.
In this manufacturing method, typically, the welding torch is mounted on a robotic
arm connected to a computer controller capable of producing low to medium com-
plexity and medium to large scale metallic parts. Subtractive manufacturing is a
process were the piece is obtained from a block. Subtractive manufacturing is like
the traditional processes of turning, milling, or sculpting. Design improvements
in this field and recent advances made in this field make this type of manufactur-
ing the future of shipbuilding. A combination of both types may be the solution
for shipbuilding in which waste and procurement times are reduced to a minimum
(Strickland, 2016).
Figure 10.22 shows these processes of manufacturing. There is a third process which
is the formative process, similar to casting and molding materials (Weflen, 2020),
(Frandsen, Nielsen, Chaudhuri, Jayaram, & Govindan, 2020).
118 CHAPTER 10. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE HULL

Figure 10.22: New processes of manufacturing: Formative, additive and substrac-

tive manufacturing. From (Redwood et al., 2016)