CONTENT: Unit III.

PHASES AND PROCESS of CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of Unit III, pre-service teachers should be able to:
a. demonstrate knowledge of curriculum planning design and organization,
implementation, evaluation and improvement, and;
b. prepare developmentally-sequenced lesson plans with well-aligned learning outcomes
and competencies-based on curriculum requirements.

A. Curriculum Planning
This is a complex process where faculty defines intended learning outcomes,
assessments, content and pedagogic requirements necessary for student success across an
entire curriculum.
1. Elements of curriculum planning
a. Objectives
These are specific statements setting measurable expectations for what learners
should know and be able to do, described either in terms of learning outcomes
(what the learners are expected to learn), products or performance (what
learners will produce as a result of a learning activity) or processes (describing the
focus of learning activities).
In terms of effectiveness, curriculum objectives should be: concise and
understandable to teachers, learners and parents; feasible for the teachers and
learners to accomplish; encompass previous learning and require the learner to
integrate and then apply certain knowledge, skills, and attitudes in order to
demonstrate achievement; and be measurable on a cumulative bases and at
different stages of the learner’s educational career.
b. Content or Subject matter
Curriculum content simply means the totality of what is to be taught in a school
system. It refers to the important facts, principles and concepts to be taught. The
contents must be in line with the learning experiences and there must be a clear-
cut objective to be achieved at the end of each respective lesson. It can be in
form of knowledge, skills, attitude and values that learners are exposed to.
Content involves subject matter drawn on the basis of problems, things or topics
cutting across traditional subjects.
c. Learning experiences
This refers to any interaction course, program or other experience in which
learning takes place, whether it occurs in traditional academic setting (schools,
classroom) or non-traditional academic setting (outside of school locations,
outdoor environment) or whether it includes traditional educational interactions
(students learning interactions, students learning from teachers), or non-
traditional interactions (students learning through games and interactive software
applications).
According to Tyler learning experiences are the interactions between the
learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. It is
an activity which may be planned by the class or teacher but performed by the
learner for the purpose of achieving some important learning objectives.
There are various activities that can be performed by the learners in the study
of various school subjects to enhance learning. There are also various activities
which teachers perform as they teach learners, but then, learning experiences are
not what the teachers do, but those activities performed by the learners
themselves.

B. Curriculum Design and Organization

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate and systematic
organization of curriculum within a class or course. In other words it is a way for teachers to
plan instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will
do it, and what schedule to follow.
 The ultimate goal of curriculum design is to improve student learning. Further, it helps to
make sure that learning goals are aligned and compliment each other from one stage to the
next.
1. Types of Curriculum Design
a. Subject-centered curriculum
This revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline. For example, a
subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of
curriculum design tends to focus on the subject matter rather than individual. It is
the most common type of curriculum used in K-12.
Subject-centered curriculum design describes what needs to be studied and
how it should be studied. Teachers are provided a pre-determined list of things
that they need to teach their students along with specific examples of how these
things should be taught.
The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not
student-centered. This can cause problem with student engagement and
motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.
b. Learner-centered curriculum
This takes each individual’s needs, interest, and goals into consideration. It
acknowledges that students are not uniform and adjust to those student needs.
Learner-centered curriculum design is meant to empower learners and allow
them to shape their education through choices. Instructional plans are
differentiated, giving students opportunity to choose assignments, learning
experiences or activities. This can motivate students and help them stay engaged
in the material that they are learning.
The drawback to this from of curriculum design is that it is labor-intensive.
Developing differentiated instruction puts pressure on the teacher to create
instruction and/or find materials that are conducive to each student’s learning
needs. Teachers may not have the time or may lack experience or skills to create
such plan. Learner-centered curriculum design also requires that teachers balance
student wants and interest with student needs and required outcomes which is
not an easy balance to obtain.
c. Problem-centered Curriculum
This focuses on teaching students how to look at a problem and come up with a
solution to the problem. Students are thus exposed to real-life issues, which help
them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.
Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum
and allows students to be creative and innovate as they are learning. The draw
book to this form of curriculum design is that it does not always take learning
styles into consideration.
2. Elements/Components of a Curriculum Design
a. Behavioral objectives or intended learning outcomes
These are statements of what students are expected to be able to do as a result
of engaging in the learning process (studying a lecture/course/program). These
are the reasons for undertaking the learning outcome that is to be accomplished.
They articulate what students should be able to know, do, and value by the end
of the course. They are expressed in the form of action verbs.
 Characteristics of effective learning outcomes:
- Specificity
Consider what your students need to achieve in the course. What do you
actually want students to be able to do? Are they expected to simply
comprehend the text or they need to analyze it?
The wording of ILO’s is also important to consider: action verbs such as
write, summarize and appraise connect to clearer learning behaviors than
the words understand or know. Specific learning outcomes help students
to make sense of the kinds of learning they need to demonstrate in a
course as well as help to streamline the course design.
- Attainability
 An attainable outcome describes a realistic expectation of students.
Example engineering or math students would not study differential
equations before they have completed first-year calculus. It is valuable
to understand where your course fits into the broader curriculum to
assist with identifying what students can reasonably achieve.
- Measurability
ILO’s must be measurable. Your need to evaluate whether and how
well each requirement has been fulfilled. Each ILO needs to relate to
particular assessment questions or activities as a means of collecting
evidence of learning.
Specificity can assist with measurement. For example, if an ILO
indicates that students will understand electrical circuits, how might that
be measured? Should they be able to build and test a circuit or simply
draw a diagram of one? Identifying the assessments that you want to
use can help you to sharpen your ILOs.
Developing rubrics that identify key characteristics of new or changed
values or approaches to thinking can help to assess such ILOs.
b. Subject Matter/Content
Subject matter is the actual knowledge and learning to be imparted. It is the
topic or item, that is written or talked about. It is the subject of discussion or the
subject of knowledge being imparted. It is the literal knowledge or ideas to be
discussed and understood.
 Some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter:
- Self-sufficiency
This criterion means the students should be given a chance to
experiment, observe and do field study. This system allows them to
learn independently.
- Significance
The subject matter is significant if it is selected and organized to
develop learning activities, skills, processes, and attitudes. It also
develops the three domains of learning, namely the cognitive, affective
and psychomotor skills. In short select content or subject matter that
can achieve the overall aim of the curriculum.
- Validity
This refers to the authenticity of the subject matter you selected. Make
sure that the topics are not obsolete. Example, do not include
typewriting as a skill to be learned by college students. It should be
about the computer or Information Technology. Thus, there is a need to
regularly check the curriculum’s subject matter and replace if necessary.
- Interest
Students learn best if the subject matter is interesting, thus meaningful
to them. This is valid to the learner-centered curriculum. However, if the
curriculum is subject-centered, teachers have no choice but to finish the
pacing schedule religiously and only teach what is in the book. This
approach explains why many students fail in the subject.
- Utility
This is the usefulness of the subject matter. Students think that subject
matters are not necessary to them. They view them as useless as a result
they do not study. Here are some questions that students often ask:

Will I need the subject in my job?

Will it develop my potentials?
Will it solve my problem?, etc –

Students only value the subject matter if it is useful to them.

- Learnability
 The subject matter should be within the learners’ experiences.
Teachers should know how subjects are presented, sequenced and
organized to maximize students’ learning capacity.
- Feasibility
This means the full implementation of the subject matter. It should
consider the school’s real situation, the government, and society in
general. Students must learn within the allowable time and the use of
resources available. Do not give them a topic that is impossible to finish.
Do not offer a computer subject if there is no electricity in the area or
there are no computers.
Further, feasibility means that there should be teachers who are
experts in that area. In conclusion, teachers in elementary and high
school are not directly involved in selecting subject matter because
there are already lesson plans made by the DepEd. All they have to do is
to follow it. However, they can also customize the lessons if their
department heads or principals allow them.

C. Teaching and Learning Methods

These denote various strategies that the teacher uses to deliver his/her subject matter to
the students in the classroom based on the instructional objectives to bring about learning.
Teaching methods aid learning and help to communicate ideas and skills to the students.
Teaching methods could be presented under three main categories:
 Cognitive Development Methods
This is used if the focus of the instructional objective is to develop intellectual skills
in learners. This method helps learners to comprehend, analyze, synthesize and
evaluate information. It helps learners develop good cognitive abilities. Some of the
teaching methods in this category includes:
- Discussion Method
- Questioning Method
- Team Teaching Method
- Talk Chalk/Recitation Method
- Field Trip
 Affective Development Method
This domain includes objectives which describe changes in interest, attitudes and
values. It further deals with the development of appreciation and adequate
adjustment. Here students’ feelings or opinions are aroused, home teaching methods
include:
- Modelling Method
- Simulation Method
- Dramatic Method
- Role-playing Method
 Psychomotor Development Method
These are actively based methods of teaching that aim at motor skills development
in learners. This method requires that learners are able to illustrate, demonstrate, or
perform certain skills using their manual dexterity. It involves inquiring and discovery
methods of teaching. It is more student activity-based method. This method includes:
- Inquiry Method
- Discovery Method
- Demonstration Method
- Laboratory/Experimentation Method
- Programmed Learning Method
- Assignment Method
- Project Method
- Microteaching Method

D. Assessment
This is the systematic collection, review and use of information to increase students’
learning and development. Through a variety of measures, students are assessed to
 determine whether or not they are achieving the learning outcomes that faculty have
determined for their courses and programs. It aims to examine the impact of implemented
curriculum on student learning/achievement so that the official curriculum can be revised if
necessary and to review teaching and learning processes in the classroom.
The three main forms of assessment:
 Self-assessment - through which a student learns to monitor and evaluate his
learning.
 Peer assessment - in which a student provides feedback on each other’s
learning.
 Teacher’s assessment - in which the teacher prepares and administers test
and gives feedback on student’s performance.

E. Curriculum Implementation
Curriculum implementation refers to how teachers deliver instruction and assessment
through the use of specified resources provided in a curriculum. Curriculum designs
generally provide instructional suggestions, scripts, lesson plan, and assessment options
related to a set of objectives.
1. Models of implementation
One common model is the Overcoming – Resistance-to-change Model (ORC Model).
This model focuses ongoing advocates and sharing power equally between
administrators and teachers. It focuses on allowing for the personal needs of the
teachers to be addressed through maintaining high flexibility in the implementation.
The ORC model focuses on change from the perspective of the teacher. This has four
stages:
Stage 1. Unrelated Concerns
This is a stage of indifference. A teacher is aware of change but does not see how it
relates to his/her own life. As such the teacher is not worried about whatever
innovation is coming. An example might be hearing about efforts to bring online
learning to a school. The teacher knows this innovation is out there but it has not
impacted him yet.
Stage 2. Personal Concerns
The teacher is now concerned with how the new innovation or curriculum will impact
his life personally. For example, an English teacher wrestling with how using online
learning will affect what he is trying to do in the classroom.
Stage 3. The Task-Related Concerns
The teacher is thinking about how to use the new curriculum or innovation.
Questions begin to go through his head in terms of application. For the online learning
example, the teacher may wonder about such problems as how much time will it take to
learn this? What are the best ways to use this new innovation? What kind of support
will he get?
Stage 4. Impact-Related Concerns
Now the teacher has taken his focus on the performance and is now worried about
how this will affect students. At this stage, the teachers are focusing on their students,
peers and school. For the online learning example, teachers start to wonder how online
learning will benefit the students. A teacher may wonder how other teachers are doing
as they try to use the new innovation. The shift here is from self to others.
Change involves a reaction. For the ORC Model, the reaction involves four clear steps
which every teacher may not undergo. However, these stages help to explain what a
leader can anticipate when trying to implement curriculum.
2. Change Processes
It simply means that implementation should bring desired change and improvement.
Change is an ongoing process, not all changes lead to improvement, but all
improvements require change. The ability to develop, test and implement changes is
essential for any individual, group or organization that want to continuously improve.
Change is a process not an event. It requires time, energy, and resources. It is
achieved incrementally and entails development in feelings and skills.
a. Categories of change
 Substitution
 - Replace the present with a new one.
Ex. Changing an old book to entirely new one.
 Alteration
- Introduce minor changes or modification on the current one.
 Re-structuring
- Introduce major modification of the current curriculum.
Ex. Using an integrated curriculum for the whole school for K-12 requires the
primary and secondary level to work as a team.
 Perturbation
- Changes happen within a fairly short time. These changes that are
disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to them.
 Value orientation
- Respond to shift in emphasis within the vision/mission of the school.
Ex. When a teacher is recruited in religious give emphasis on academics and
forget the formation of values or faith, he needs a curriculum value
orientation.
b. Stages in developmental change
 Participatory
For curriculum to succeed, it should be participatory, specially because other
stakeholders like peers, school, leaders, parents and curriculum specialists are
necessary.
 Supportive
Supportive curriculum implementation is required in the process of change.
Material support like supplies, equipment and conducive learning
environment like classrooms and laboratory should be made available.
Likewise, human support is very much needed.
3. Institutionalization
Institutionalization is a term used by Miles (1983) to refer to a process leading to the
stage at which an innovation may be said to have become a build-in or accepted part of
a school’s curriculum. Essentially it means the way in which changes in a system become
stabilized and lasting. In short, institutionalization is the process of integrating an
innovation within the structure and behavior of the organization.
a. Indicators of institutionalization according to Surry and Ely:
 Acceptance by relevant participants
 The innovation is stable and routinized
 Widespread use of the innovation throughout the institution or organization
 Firm expectation that use of the practice/product will continue within the
institution or organization
 Continuation does not depend upon the actions of specific individuals but
upon the organizational structure, culture or procedures
 Routine allocations of time and money
b. Implementation and Institutionalization
The purpose of implementation process is to use the adopted innovation
effectively and efficiently within an organization. The efficiency of usage can only
come from organizational training and support of the new innovation.
After the adoption phase the innovation, an evaluation needs to be performed
to see if the newly adopted innovation is deemed worthy for longtime and
routine use within the institution. Training is needed to ensure the innovation is
fully understood by everyone in the institution. Key people need to be in place to
make sure the transfer of innovation is accepted by everyone.

F. Curriculum Evaluation
This is the process of measuring and judging to which the planned courses, programs,
learning activities and opportunities as expressed in the formal curriculum actually produce
the expected results.
It refers to an ongoing process of collecting, analyzing, synthesizing and interpreting
information to aid in understanding what students know and can do.
 1. Reasons for evaluation
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to determine whether or not the newly
adopted curriculum is producing the intended results and meeting the objectives that is
has set and it is an essential component in the process of adopting and implementing
any new curriculum in any educational setting.
Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is to gather data that will help in identifying
areas in need of improvement or change.
2. Types of evaluation
There are two primary types of evaluation – formative and summative that assess
curriculum for effectiveness.
 Formative evaluation - assesses the curriculum as it is used. Instead of waiting until
the end of the school year to look back on how well the curriculum worked, using
a formative evaluation allows you to get feedback on a consistent basis. This type
of evaluation allows educators and administrators to make changes as the school
year progresses and adapt the curriculum for different learning styles. Methods for
formative evaluation may include collecting student reflection papers after
lessons, mid-term course evaluations or reviewing summaries that the students
write on instructional units.
 Summative assessment - unlike formative evaluations that take place on a
consistent basis, giving ongoing feedback, the summative type is done at the end
of a course or school year or through standardized assessment testing. Summative
evaluations measure curricular success by reviewing the outcomes against
benchmarks standards.

G. Curriculum improvement
This is the process of continuously making instruction better based on students needs.
1. Curriculum approaches
Curriculum approach is a way of dealing with a curriculum, a way of
doing/creating/designing/thinking about a curriculum.
There are four curriculum approaches.
 Behavioral approach
This is anchored on the behaviorist principle. Goals and objectives are specified,
contents and activities are arranged to match with the learning activities. Learning
outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives at the beginning. Its aim
is to achieve efficiency. The proponent is Frederick Taylor, the change in behavior
indicates the measure of the accomplishments.
 Managerial approach
The general manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of
change and innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction.
The administration is less concerned about the content than about organization
and implementation; less concerned about subject matter, methods, and materials
than improving the curriculum.
The managers look at the curriculum changes and innovations as they administer
the resources and restructure the schools.

Roles of the Curriculum Supervisors

- Help develop the school’s educational goals.
- Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders.
- Design programs of study by grade levels.
- Plan or schedule classes or school calendar.
- Prepare curriculum or teacher guides by grade level or subject area.
- Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks.
- Observe teachers.
- Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.
- Encourage curriculum innovation and change.
- Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation.
Systems approach
 This is influenced by systems theory in which the parts of the total school district
or school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other.
The organizational chart shows the staff relationships of personnel and how
decisions are made.
The systems theory of education see the following to be of equal importance:
- Administration
- Counseling
- Curriculum
- Instruction
- Evaluation
 Humanistic approach
This is rooted in the progressive philosophy and child-centered movement. It
considers the whole child and believes that in curriculum the total development of
the individual is the prime consideration. It places the learner at the center of the
curriculum.

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. What is curriculum design? Give its importance to the teachers and students.
2. What are the different types of curriculum design? Give the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
3. Describe the different components of a curriculum design.
4. Write a reflection paper on the role of the teacher in the implementation and
improvement of the curriculum.