Center of Gravity Limitations

Center of Gravity Limitations
C-1
Example
777-200 Center of
Gravity Limits
(Ref. AFM or WBM)
How does Boeing

determine C.G.
limits such as
these for any given
airplane model?
C-2
Development of the Weight versus
Moment C.G. Grid
C-3
Moment C.G. Grid
Datum for B.A.
lemac Datum
(-) (+)
m.a.c.
Moment = WT * L
L
WT C-4
Moment C.G. Grid
Datum
Datum
arm = L
arm =
2L
(-) (+)
=
arm
- 2L
m.a.c.
L
Weight (~ 1000 lb)

-2L 2L
WT WT WT
Moment1 = WT * L
Moment2 = WT * 2L
Moment3 = WT * (-2L)
Moment (in-lb)
C-5
Moment C.G. Grid
c.g. (%mac)
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
Datum
Weight (~ 1000 lb)
Moment (in-lb) C-6

Moment C.G. Grid
c.g. (%mac)
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
Datum
Weight (1000 kg)
Weight (1000 kg)
Convert from weight

versus %MAC to weight
versus moment
Center of Gravity ~ %MAC Moment (kg-in) C-7

Moment C.G. Grid
c.g. (%mac)
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
Datum
Enlarge this
Area of Interest
Weight (1000 kg)
Moment (kg-in) C-8

Moment C.G. Grid
c.g. (%mac)
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
Weight (1000 kg)
Moment (kg-in) C-9

Advantage of this Format is the
Ability to Add Vectors Graphically
Datum
c.g. (%mac)
5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50%
xInit
x2
x3 x1
∆WT2
∆WT3 ∆WT1
WTInit
Weight (1000 kg)

Total Moment = WTInit * xInit +
(∆WT1 * x1 ) + (∆WT2 * x2 ) - (∆WT3 * x3 )
Total Weight = WTInit + ∆WT1 + ∆WT2

+ ∆WT3 2
1 3
2
• Order of application does not 3 1
affect final result
• Starting point does not affect
final ∆ weight and ∆ moment
C-10
Determining Desired Forward and Aft
C.G. Limits
C-11
Design Objectives
• The forward and aft C.G. limits for a given airplane model
are selected by Boeing during the design of the airplane,
and are meant to allow for airline-to-airline variations in:
- Operational Empty Weights
- Interior Seating Arrangements
- Cargo Loading – Bulk, Pallets, Containers
- Fuel Loading and Usage
- Operational Curtailments
• The airplane structure and layout is then designed to allow
for loading of the airplane within these selected (and
eventually certified) limits.
• Let’s look at an example of how this process might
proceed using an airplane model we will call the 7G7-X00.
C-12
Determining Desired Fwd and Aft C.G. Limits:
Accounting for OEW Variations
C-13
Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and

aft C.G. limits which will allow for airline variations in
airplane configuration:
• Interior seat layout, locations of galleys,
lavatories, emergency equipment, etc.
• Optional configurations and features (e.g., in-
flight entertainment, pallets vs. containers, EE
bay options, etc.)
C-14
AIRPLANE OEW AND CG VARIATION
19% 24%
240
GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

NOMINAL OEW
(based on tri-class, plus a (7G7-X00
selected set of ‘nominal’
230
options) Example)
FWD OEW AFT OEW

(based on tri-class, plus
(based on dual-class,
other options which
plus other options which
move the C.G. aft)
move the C.G. fwd)
220
210
19% 24%
CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

C-15
Accounting for Interior Seating
Arrangement Variations
C-16
Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward

and aft C.G. limits which will allow for airline
variations in interior seating arrangements:
• Ability to load various combinations of
passengers, from empty to full.
• Ability to use various combinations of tri-class
and dual-class seating arrangements on wide
body aircraft.
• Ability to use various combinations of dual-
class and single-class seating arrangements
on narrow body aircraft.
C-17
10% 20% 30% 40%

300
(7G7-X00
2
Example)
1
OEW
200
Extreme Fwd Loading: Front-to-Rear

1 Load first-class seats
2 Load economy-class seats
C-18
10% 20% 30% 40%

300
GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB) 4
(7G7-X00
2
Example)
3
1
OEW
200
Extreme Fwd Loading: Rear-to-Front

C-19
10% 20% 30% 40%

300
(7G7-X00
EC Example)
FC DCOEW
Most Forward
200
C.G. Considered
Based on Dual-
Class Seating
Dual-Class Defines the Most

Forward Loading Interior
Arrangement Considered
C-20
10% 20% 30% 40%

300
(7G7-X00
3 Example)
1
2
OEW
200
Extreme Aft Loading: Front-to-Rear

2 Load business-class seats
C-21
10% 20% 30% 40%

300

6
(7G7-X00
5
Example)
4 Chosen as more
“reasonable”
passenger loading
for most-aft C.G.
OEW
(rare to have
business and first
200
empty, with
CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC) economy full)
Extreme Aft Loading: Rear-to-Front

5 Load business-class seats
C-22
Most Aft C.G.

10% 20% 30% 40%
300 Considered Based
on Tri-Class
GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB) Seating
FC
(7G7-X00
BC Example)
TC
EC
OEW
200
Tri-Class Defines the Most

Aft-Loading Interior
Arrangement Considered
C-23
Arrangement Variations - Summary
10% 20% 30% 40%

300
Most Aft C.G.
Considered
Based on Tri-
Class Seating
FC
BC
DC
EC
TC (7G7-X00
Example)
EC
FC
OEW
Most Forward
C.G. Considered 200
Based on Dual-
Class Seating
C-24
Accounting for Cargo Loading Variations
C-25
Accounting for Cargo Variations
Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft

C.G. limits which will allow for airline variations in cargo
loading:
• Loading any number of passengers and only their
baggage in the cargo compartments. (Baggage may
be placed forward or aft for balance.)
• Loading any number of passengers with no baggage
or cargo in the cargo compartments.
• Loading any number of passengers with full cargo
(containerized and/or bulk).
• Loading any number of passengers with full
containerized cargo only. (There should be no
requirement to balance the airplane with bulk cargo.)
C-26
AIRPLANE WEIGHT & C.G.
WITH PASSENGERS & CARGO
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
400
(7G7-X00
300
Example)
1
OEW
200
Loading Cargo: Most fwd C.G.

1 Passenger Bags
C-27
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Most Forward 400
C.G. Considered
Based on Loading
Passengers and
Full Cargo (no
bulk)
(7G7-X00
300
Example)
4
3
1
OEW
200
Loading Cargo: Most fwd C.G.

1 Passenger Bags
2 Forward Cargo compartment
3 Aft Cargo compartment
4 Bulk Cargo compartment
C-28
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
400
Possible Point to
Consider for
Required MZFW
9
6 8
(7G7-X00
300
Example)
5 7
OEW
200
Loading Cargo: Required MZFW

9 Bulk Cargo compartment
C-29
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
400
Another Possible
Point to Consider
for Required MZFW
10
(7G7-X00
300
Example)
OEW
200
Loading Cargo: Required MZFW

10 Repeat steps 5 through 9,
beginning at the highest
weight for tri-class
passengers
C-30
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% Most Aft C.G.
Most Forward 400
C.G. Considered Considered Based
Based on Loading on Loading
Passengers and Passengers and
GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB) Baggage
Full Cargo (no
bulk)
(7G7-X00
300
Example)
12
11
OEW
200
Loading Cargo: Most aft C.G.

11 Passenger Bags
12 Aft and Forward Cargo
C-31
Accounting for Fuel Loading and Usage
Variations
C-32
Accounting for Fuel Loading and
Usage Variations
Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft

C.G. limits which will allow for airline variations in fuel
loading and usage:
• Use of the total fuel capacity – from empty to full.
• Ability to load to the maximum gross weight.
C-33
Usage Variations
WITH PASSENGERS, CARGO & FUEL
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Fuel Vector Added to Fuel Vector Added to
Most FWD C.G. Point Most Aft C.G. Point Being
Being Considered Considered
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
300
OEW
200

C-34
Usage Variations
WITH PASSENGERS, CARGO & FUEL
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
≈ 34%
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
Notice that adding the

fuel vector to full cargo
(no bulk) would have
actually produced a
slightly more fwd C.G.
300
OEW
200

C-35
Accounting for Operational Curtailment
Variations
C-36
Accounting for Operational
Curtailment Variations
Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft C.G.

limits which will allow for airline variations in “operational
curtailments” to these C.G. limits. Operational curtailments
are generally used to account for:
• Landing gear and flap movement.
• In-flight movement of passengers, crew, and service
carts.
• Difference between actual and assumed C.G. locations
for cargo, passenger seating, fuel loading and usage,
water movement and usage.
* (Note: Later in this course we will be discussing the

concept and use of operational curtailments in detail.) *
C-37
Including Forward and Aft Curtailments
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Estimated Aft
Estimated Fwd C.G. Curtailments
C.G. Curtailments
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
300
OEW
200

C-38
Required C.G. Limits
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Required Fwd Limit Required Aft Limit

(7G7-X00
Example)
400
300
OEW
200

C-39
Weight and Structural Limitations on
the C.G. Envelope
C-40
Weight and Structural Limitations
on the C.G. Envelope
The allowable forward and aft C.G. limits may be further

constrained by:
• Certified weight limitations – MTW, MTOW, MLW, MZFW.
• Structural limitations imposed by various parts of the
airplane’s structure.
• Additional limitations imposed in order to maintain control
of the airplane during its operation.
C-41
Certified Weight Limitations
Basic Gross Weight / C.G. Limits

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
MTOW
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-42
Constant Wing Load
• The strength of the wing’s structure can impose a

limitation on the forward C.G. limits.
Lift Wing
Lift Tail
Weight
WING LOAD
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the
tail must = 0:
ΣM Tail = W (B.A.Tail – B.A.C.G.) – L Wing(B.A.Tail – B.A.Wing) = 0
L Wing = W (B.A.Tail – B.A.C.G.)

(B.A.Tail – B.A.Wing)
• The load on the wing is increased both by increasing

airplane weight, and by forward movement of the center of
gravity. Eventually, the wing’s limits are reached.
C-43
Constant Wing Load

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Constant
Wing Load MTOW
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-44
Constant Tail Load
• The strength of the tail and aft body structure can

impose a limitation on the forward C.G. limits.
Lift Wing
Lift Tail
TAIL LOAD Weight
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the wing
must = 0 :
ΣM Wing = W (B.A. Wing – B.A. C.G.) – LTail (B.A.Tail – B.A.Wing) = 0
LTail = W (B.A. Wing – B.A. C.G.)

(B.A.Tail – B.A.Wing)
• The load on the tail and aft body is increased both by

increasing airplane weight, and by forward movement of
the center of gravity. Eventually, the tail or aft body’s limits
are reached. C-45
Constant Tail Load

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
MTOW
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
Constant
Tail Load MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-46
Constant Nose Landing Gear Load
• The strength of the nose gear structure can
impose a limitation on the forward C.G. limits.
Load NLG Weight

Load MLG
NOSE LANDING GEAR LOAD
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the main landing
gear must = 0 :
ΣM MLG = W (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.) – LNLG (B.A. MLG – B.A. NLG) = 0
LNLG = W (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.)

(B.A. MLG – B.A. NLG)
• The load on the NLG is increased both by increasing

airplane weight, and by forward movement of the center of
gravity. Eventually, the NLG limits are reached.
C-47
Constant Nose Landing Gear Load

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Constant
NLG Load MTOW
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-48
Constant Main Landing Gear Load
• The strength of the main landing gear structure can
impose a limitation on the aft C.G. limits.
Load NLG Weight

Load MLG
MAIN LANDING GEAR LOAD
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the nose landing
gear must = 0 :
ΣM NLG = LMLG (B.A. MLG – B.A. NLG) – W (B.A. C.G. – B.A. NLG) = 0
LMLG = W (B.A. C.G. – B.A. NLG)

• The load on the MLG is increased both by increasing

airplane weight, and by aft movement of the center of
gravity. Eventually, the MLG limits are reached.
C-49
Constant Main Landing Gear Load

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
Constant
MTOW MLG Load
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-50
Combining All Structural Limitations
Design Gross Weight / C.G. Limits

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
MTOW
(7G7-X00
Example)
400
MLW
MZFW
300
OEW
200

C-51
Additional Limitations for Control:
Brake Release Tip-Up
• At brake release (full thrust, static airplane) there is a
possibility of reduced nose gear steering effectiveness, or
actual airplane tip up.
Thrust
∆h
Load NLG Weight

Load MLG
BRAKE RELEASE TIP-UP
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the airplane CG
must = 0 :
ΣM CG = LMLG (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.) – T ∆h – LNLG (B.A. C.G. – B.A. NLG) = 0
LNLG = LMLG (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.) – T ∆h

(B.A. C.G. – B.A. NLG)
• The load on the NLG is reduced by: decreasing airplane weight, aft
movement of the C.G., and increasing thrust. At light enough NLG loads,
steering effectiveness is reduced, and eventually, the NLG load can
become negative causing the airplane to tip up.
C-52
Brake Release Tip-Up

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
MTOW (7G7-X00
Example)
Up
400
p-
Ti
se
MLW
lea
Re
MZFW
e
ak
Br
300
OEW
200

C-53
Additional Limitations for Control:
Ground Handling - Tipping
• On the ground, if the C.G. moves aft of the main
landing gear, the airplane will tip up.
Load NLG Weight

Load MLG
NOSE LANDING GEAR LOAD
For the airplane to be in equilibrium, the sum of the moments about the main landing
gear must = 0 :
ΣM MLG = W (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.) – LNLG (B.A. MLG – B.A. NLG) = 0
LNLG = W (B.A. MLG – B.A. C.G.)

• To account for the effects of towing and ground operations, a

‘ground stability limit’ is imposed at C.G.’s forward of the
absolute aft limit. This ground stability limit takes into account
3% ramp slope, Towing forces, 40 knot headwind, etc.
C-54
Ground Handling - Tipping

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
500
MTOW (7G7-X00
Example)
it
Lim
400
ity
bil
it
Lim
Sta
MLW
g
nd
pin
MZFW
ou
Tip
Gr
Aft
300
OEW
200

C-55
Examples of C.G. Envelopes for
Actual Airplanes
C-56
Example
777-200 Center
of Gravity
Limits
(For training
purposes only.
Not kept up to date) C-57
Limitations on 777-200
Center of Gravity
Mission
Performance Main
300000 Wing Gea
r
ar
Fu
Ge
el
280000
se
Ve
No
ct
or
260000
rol
& Cont
240000
GROSS WEIGHT ~ KG
y
Stabilit
Loadability, Stability & Control

220000
Body Strength, Loadability, Tail Size
200000
-U p
180000
e Tip
leas
160000
e Re
Brak
140000
120000
0 5 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
CENTER OF GRAVITY ~ % MAC
C-58
Example
737-800 Center
of Gravity
Limits
(For training
purposes only.
Center of Gravity
85000
Mission Main
80000 g Performance Gear
Win
Fu
trol
el
75000
Ve
Con
cto
r
&
ility
70000
b
Sta

GROSS WEIGHT ~ KG
65000
60000
Body Strength, Loadability, Tail Size
55000
-U p
e Tip
50000
leas
e Re
45000
er
Brak
Pow
40000
Tail
35000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
C-60
Example
747-400 Center
of Gravity
Limits
(For training
purposes only.
Center of Gravity
420000
Mission
400000 Performance
Wing
Fu
ar
el
Ge
380000 Ve
ct
se
or
No
360000
Trim Line for Takeoff

Horizontal Stabilizer
340000
GROSS WEIGHT ~ KG
320000

300000 Landing Performance
280000
F
Ve uel
Tail Load With Tail Fuel

260000 ct
or
p
ip-U
Landing Limit for Gear
Loadability, Tail Size
240000
T
Body Strength,
ase
ele
220000
-Up ease
ke
Bra
l
Re
200000
ke
Tip
Bra
180000
0 5 10 25 20 25 30 35 40
C-62
End of
Center of Gravity Limitations
C-63

Center of Gravity Limitations

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Center of Gravity Limitations

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Center of Gravity Limitations

How does Boeing

Weight (~ 1000 lb)

Moment (in-lb) C-6

Convert from weight

Center of Gravity ~ %MAC Moment (kg-in) C-7

Moment (kg-in) C-8

Weight (1000 kg)

Moment (kg-in) C-9

Weight (1000 kg)

Total Weight = WTInit + ∆WT1 + ∆WT2

Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

FWD OEW AFT OEW

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward

10% 20% 30% 40%

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

Extreme Fwd Loading: Front-to-Rear

10% 20% 30% 40%

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB) 4

Extreme Fwd Loading: Rear-to-Front

10% 20% 30% 40%

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

Dual-Class Defines the Most

10% 20% 30% 40%

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

Extreme Aft Loading: Front-to-Rear

10% 20% 30% 40%

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

Extreme Aft Loading: Rear-to-Front

Most Aft C.G.

Tri-Class Defines the Most

10% 20% 30% 40%

Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft

GROSS WEIGHT (1000 LB)

Loading Cargo: Most fwd C.G.

Loading Cargo: Most fwd C.G.

Loading Cargo: Required MZFW

Loading Cargo: Required MZFW

Loading Cargo: Most aft C.G.

Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

Notice that adding the

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

Boeing’s design objective is to provide forward and aft C.G.

* (Note: Later in this course we will be discussing the

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

Required Fwd Limit Required Aft Limit

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

The allowable forward and aft C.G. limits may be further

Basic Gross Weight / C.G. Limits

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

• The strength of the wing’s structure can impose a

L Wing = W (B.A.Tail – B.A.C.G.)

• The load on the wing is increased both by increasing

Basic Gross Weight / C.G. Limits

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)

• The strength of the tail and aft body structure can

TAIL LOAD Weight

LTail = W (B.A. Wing – B.A. C.G.)

• The load on the tail and aft body is increased both by

Basic Gross Weight / C.G. Limits

CENTER OF GRAVITY (%MAC)