Assignment in Physical Science

1. You can describe the motion of an object by its position, speed, direction, and acceleration. An
object is moving if its position relative to a fixed point is changing. Even things that appear to be
at rest move.

2. The motion of an aircraft through the air can be explained and described by physical principals
discovered over 300 years ago by Sir Isaac Newton. Newton worked in many areas of
mathematics and physics. He developed the theories of gravitation in 1666, when he was only
23 years old. Some twenty years later, in 1686, he presented his three laws of motion in the
"Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis." The laws are shown above, and the application
of these laws to aerodynamics are given on separate slides.

Newton's first law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force. This is normally taken as the
definition of inertia. The key point here is that if there is no net force acting on an object (if all the
external forces cancel each other out) then the object will maintain a constant velocity. If that
velocity is zero, then the object remains at rest. If an external force is applied, the velocity will
change because of the force.

The second law explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass times
velocity) per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the
"changes" expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms.
(Calculus can also be used to determine the velocity and location variations experienced by an
object subjected to an external force.) For an object with a constant mass m, the second law
states that the force F is the product of an object's mass and its acceleration a:
F=m*a
For an external applied force, the change in velocity depends on the mass of the object. A force
will cause a change in velocity; and likewise, a change in velocity will generate a force. The
equation works both ways.
The third law states that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite
reaction. In other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an equal
force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects. The third law can be
used to explain the generation of lift by a wing and the production of thrust by a jet engine.

et us begin our explanation of how Newton changed our understanding of the Universe by
enumerating his Three Laws of Motion.
Newton's First Law of Motion:
I. Every object in a state of uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an
external force is applied to it.
This we recognize as essentially Galileo's concept of inertia, and this is often termed simply the
"Law of Inertia".
Newton's Second Law of Motion:
II. The relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied force F is F =
ma. Acceleration and force are vectors (as indicated by their symbols being displayed in slant
bold font); in this law the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of the
acceleration vector.
This is the most powerful of Newton's three Laws, because it allows quantitative calculations of
dynamics: how do velocities change when forces are applied. Notice the fundamental difference
between Newton's 2nd Law and the dynamics of Aristotle: according to Newton, a force causes
only a change in velocity (an acceleration); it does not maintain the velocity as Aristotle held.
This is sometimes summarized by saying that under Newton, F = ma, but under Aristotle F = mv,
where v is the velocity. Thus, according to Aristotle there is only a velocity if there is a force, but
according to Newton an object with a certain velocity maintains that velocity unless a force acts
on it to cause an acceleration (that is, a change in the velocity). As we have noted earlier in
conjunction with the discussion of Galileo, Aristotle's view seems to be more in accord with
common sense, but that is because of a failure to appreciate the role played by frictional forces.
Once account is taken of all forces acting in a given situation it is the dynamics of Galileo and
Newton, not of Aristotle, that are found to be in accord with the observations.
Newton's Third Law of Motion:
III. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
This law is exemplified by what happens if we step off a boat onto the bank of a lake: as we
move in the direction of the shore, the boat tends to move in the opposite direction (leaving us
facedown in the water, if we aren't careful!).