IADC/SPE 74541
Drilling HT/HP Wells Using a Cesium Formate Based Drilling Fluid
Arild Saasen, SPE, Ole Henrik Jordal, Statoil ASA, David Burkhead, SPE, Conoco Inc., Per Cato Berg, Geir Løklingholm,
SPE, Erik Sandtorv Pedersen, Statoil ASA, Jim Turner, SPE, Michael J. Harris, Cabot Speciality Fluids
Copyright 2002, IADC/SPE Drilling Conference
This paper was prepared for presentation at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference held in Dallas,
Texas, 26–28 February 2002
This paper was selected for presentation by an IADC/SPE Program Committee following
review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the
paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the International Association of Drilling
Contractors or the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the
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Abstract
During the drilling and completion of the Huldra field in the
North Sea, high temperature and high pressure conditions
were expected and encountered in the reservoir section. The
difference between the pore pressure and the fracturing
pressure is small. Cesium formate had been evaluated as a
potential drilling and completion fluid, but technical hurdles
could not be completely addressed in time for the first well.
As a result of well control problems occurring in the first well,
with barite sag in the oil based drilling fluid as a contributing
factor, it was necessary to use a drilling fluid with
insignificant potential for sag. For the first time worldwide
the cesium formate brine was chosen as a drilling fluid. This
fluid could be delivered solids free with densities up to 2.2 s.g.
The required down hole density in the well was 1.91 s.g. At
the same time it was necessary to have as little contribution to
the equivalent circulating density (ECD) from the flow as
possible.
The paper describes how the cesium formate brine was
used successfully as a drilling and completion fluid. The
effect of the fluid on well control, hole cleaning, rate of
penetration (ROP), torque/friction, ECD, formation damage,
casing wear and hole stability are covered. The paper also
describes actions required to minimize losses of this very
expensive fluid. The challenges acquiring adequate
formations logs while drilling are also described. Finally, the
use of cesium formate brine during the completing of the wells
with open hole sand screens is outlined.
Introduction
Huldra is a gas condensate field stretching from block 30/2
into block 30/3 in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea,
operated by Statoil ASA. High temperature and high pressure
conditions were expected and encountered in the reservoir
sections in this field. Three exploration wells were drilled on
the field from 1979 to 1991, which proved gas and condensate.
A jackup rig in cantilever mode over a well head platform
is being used to drill and complete the planned wells. The
production platform will become unmanned after the last well
is drilled. The water depth is 125 m.
A severe well kick was experienced during the completion
of the first well. Barite sag in the oil based drilling fluid
combined with well geometry were significant factors
contributing to the well kick. Additionally, the barite sagging
problems increased the level of concern with regards to screen
plugging. For these reasons, the ongoing qualification work
on the formate brines intensified.
Based on prior industry experience with formate drilling
and completion fluids, and with various tests, it was then
concluded that cesium/potassium formate was the preferred
drilling and completion fluid.
Experience with formate brines
Use of potassium formate based fluids for drilling and
completion operations were introduced in the very early
1990’s1,2. These fluids were considered to have insignificant
impact on the environment if discharged3. The maximum
density for solids free potassium formate is approximately
1.59 s.g. Barite cannot be used for further densification
because it dissolves slightly in formates4.
Potassium formate was used both as a reservoir drilling
and as a completion fluid in the Gullfaks field in Norway in
the early 1990’s5. Because it was necessary to use a drill-in
fluid with a higher density than 1.59, manganese oxide was
added as a densifying agent. During the completion the
density was reduced to 1,57 s.g. No addition of solids was
necessary. The whole drilling and completion operation is
considered as a success.
It is not desirable for the drilling or completion operation
to use particles to increase the density of the fluids. In an
experimental study Ramsey et al.6 concluded that use of a
2 A. SAASEN, O.H. JORDAL, D. BURKHEAD, P.C. BERG, G. LØKLINGHOLM, E. S. PEDERSEN, J. TURNER, M.J. HARRIS
cesium formate with high density and low viscosity would
yield an increase in the drilling rate when compared to drilling
operations using hematite; albeit a field trial was never
conducted with cesium before the current operation.
Sodium and potassium formates have been used
successfully for drill-in fluid applications in several wells.
Cobianco et al.7 used potassium formate successfully as a
drill-in fluid without solids in low permeable reservoirs. In
this case the fluid loss was controlled by the addition of
polymers only. Fluid loss polymers can be efficiently
removed by the use of enzymes as was shown by McKay et
al.8. Furthermore, the formates stabilize polymers to higher
temperature applications4. Bungert et al.9 observed this
increase in polymer stability in field applications.
A low viscosity solid free drilling fluid based on potassium
formate was used to sidetrack a well drilled with coiled tubing
on Gullfaks10. In this case it was necessary to keep the amount
of solids less than 1.5% to prevent differential sticking. A
selection of polymers controlled the fluid loss by its ability to
build up a fairly large extensional viscosity at the same time as
the shear viscosity was constant. The very low viscosity was
found to be benign for achieving good hole cleaning.
Huldra Well Bore Schematic
Tubing hanger
10 3/4” casing @ 350 m
7” 10K DHSV
7” production tubing
Downhole pressure gauge
Production packer
Nipple profile
Barrier packer
Drop sub assembly with
4 ½” debris catcher
9 5/8” casing
6 5/8” wire-wrapped screens
in 8 ½” open hole
Fig. 1 – Schematic view of the completion
Reservoir conditions
The drilling environment in Huldra is close to HT/HP-
conditions. The reservoir pressure is 675 bar and the
temperature is 150oC. The shut in well head pressure is 535
bar. The difference between pore pressure and fracture
IADC/SPE 74541
pressure gradient is small; 0.12-0.14 s.g. in the reservoir. The
Huldra gas stream contains 3-4% CO2 and 9-14 ppm H2S.
The field is planned with six gas and condensate producing
wells. These wells are being drilled with 45o - 55o inclination
through the reservoir, and completed with 6 5/8" single wire-
wrapped screens. Figures 1 shows a typical schematic view of
the completion.
Open hole completions with 300 micron single wire-
wrapped screens were selected as the optimum completion
solution for Huldra. Without sand control measures, the risk
of sand production was expected to increase as the reservoir
pressure declined to less than 350 bar. This completion
solution was also compatible with the expectation that water
production, if any, would be very low.
Why drill with cesium formate
When drilling the first production well with an oil based
drilling fluid, a severe well kick was experienced while
running the sand screens. The main reason for the kick was a
combination of loss and gain of the drilling fluid due to barite
sag in the oil based drilling fluid during the wiper trip. With
the risk of additional well control problems in future wells, the
qualification work on the formate brines intensified.
Completion experience with cesium/potassium formate in the
UK was combined with industry drilling experience using
potassium and sodium formate systems10. Different tests were
performed and a thorough evaluation was made, enabling the
project to qualify the formate system for drilling and
completing the second well.
The main benefits identified with the cesium/potassium
formate system, compared to the oil based drilling fluid, were:
- No sag potential
- Low ECD
- Less screen plugging risk, due to less solids in system
and less sag potential
- The particles in the formate would be CaCO3 for fluid
loss control. These particles can be acidized should
screen plugging become a problem.
- Low gas solubility
- The system was found to be equal to other water based
drilling fluid systems concerning occupational hygiene
and discharges to sea.
- Quick thermal stabilization during flow checks
The cost per unit volume of the cesium/potassium formate
system is much higher than standard drilling fluid systems
implying a need for avoiding losses and contamination. Other
considerations include:
- Formation damage would be acceptable, based on return
permeability testing.
- Challenges with respect to formation evaluation were
expected to be manageable
- No compatibility problems were expected, with respect
to elastomers or formation water
IADC/SPE 74541 DRILLING HT/HP WELLS USING A CESIUM FORMATE BASED DRILLING FLUID
Drilling fluid operation
Displacement of the oil based drilling fluid
Oil based drilling fluid was used in drilling 12 ¼” sections.
After drilling the 12 ¼” sections and cementing the 9 5/8”
casing, the well is full of oil based drilling fluid. Experience
from the North Sea operations11 has shown that removal of oil
based drilling fluid is optimized by the use of an emulsion
based casing cleaning fluid, often known as the oil based soap
(OBS)12.
Normally, when cleaning a well with OBS11, a procedure is
used where first the OBM is circulated to mobilize the fluid.
Thereafter, a 5m3 volume of base oil is pumped into the well,
followed by a 30m3 OBS pill. The OBS pill is then displaced
by a 10m3 viscous water based displacement pill, which is
pumped ahead the brine. This procedure had to be modified
for the current operation. To avoid an excessive pressure drop
across the barrier assembly, the volume of the casing cleaning
fluids must be minimized. The modified volumes are 3m3
volume of base oil, followed by a 25m3 OBS pill. The OBS
pill is then displaced by a 20m3 viscous 1.57 s.g. potassium
formate spacer before the well is filled with the
cesium/potassium formate based drilling fluid.
The displacement using the OBS was successful. Only
minor volumes of the cesium formate were considered lost in
this operation.
Drilling with the cesium/potassium formate based
drilling fluid
The 9 5/8" casing is installed 20-90m above the reservoir in
the four wells drilled thus far. The reservoir consists of
interbedded sand and shale with some coal and limestone
stringers. Hole stability problems have not been experienced
during drilling operations and installation of the sand screens.
A pressure-while-drilling-sub is used to monitor the static
mud weight, ECD and hole cleaning when drilling the
reservoir. The sub is also used to verify the hydraulic
calculations performed by a dedicated mud engineer on the
rig. There is a very good agreement between the sub and the
hydraulic calculations. This also increases the confidence,
efficiency and safety, when doing operations where the
pressure-while-drilling-sub can not be used to verify the
hydraulic calculations.
To reduce the risk of down hole losses, the maximum ECD
is set to 1.95 s.g. The down hole static mud weight is typically
1.90-1.91 s.g. To maintain the ECD at or below the limit, the
pump rate is restricted to 900 – 1100 l/min. The ECD
increases by 0.03-0.05 s.g. while circulating the drilling fluid.
The ECD is less than what would be expected with an oil
based drilling fluid. The ECD is higher when drilling clay
than when drilling sand. This difference is caused by the
normal production of low gravity solids from the clay
formations. These low gravity solids quickly become a part of
the viscosifying materials in the drilling fluid. According to
the drilling plans, the low gravity solids content, as measured
by the methylene blue test, MBT, should be kept below 20
3
kg/m3. The actual MBT values indicated that the low gravity
solids content is less than 10 kg/m3.
During drilling with the cesium/potassium formate based
drilling fluid, the viscosity data were approximately as
illustrated in Figure 2. The drilling fluid viscosity curve
clearly demonstrates shear thinning behavior. It is anticipated
that an excessive content of Xanthan biopolymer may hinder
optimum hole cleaning14. The shear stress versus shear rate
curve shown in Figure 2 shows only a weak shear thinning
behavior, indicating an acceptable biopolymer concentration.
Furthermore, as have been explained by others14, a high
concentration of biopolymer may work well for hole cleaning
purposes when drilling sand in rotary mode.
To ensure good hole cleaning, the maximum ROP is set to
10 m/hr. Also, the cuttings are circulated 500 m above the bit
before making a connection. So far, poor hole cleaning has not
been observed with this low-viscosity fluid.
In high temperature wells, such as Huldra, there is a risk of
the fluid loss polymers breaking down. Therefore, 80 kg/m3
calcium carbonate is added to assist the polymers in achieving
fluid loss control. Different types of polymers are added to
control the fluid loss. These polymers include Xanthan
biopolymer, polyanionic celluloses (PAC) and starches. The
API fluid loss value observed during drilling of the first well
was typically less than 0.2 ml/30 minutes.
Total losses during drilling of the 8 1/2" hole section is
approximately 25-30 m3. This includes losses with the
cuttings, down hole losses, losses due to evaporation and
losses during tripping. Average length of the of the reservoir
sections have been 212 m.
Static or dynamic sag of carbonate in the drilling fluid has
not been observed. Although the drilling fluids do not
experience any yield stresses, the low shear viscosity is
sufficient to hinder settling of the low density calcium
carbonate particles.
In summary, stable hole, low ECD, good hole cleaning and
stable fluid has led to rig time savings due to:
• Fast tripping speeds.
• Fast casing running speeds.
• Less mud conditioning and wiper trips than with
conventional drilling fluids
Drill string torque values indicate friction factors as low as
0.22, but normally closer to 0.27. These values are
significantly higher than the friction factor values obtained
when drilling with oil based drilling fluid. However, the
friction factors are in the range observed for water based
drilling fluids. Thus far, there has been no need for adding
lubricants to the cesium/potassium formate based drilling
fluid. While lubricants may be of benefit for future long-reach
Huldra wells, no acceptable ones have been identified in the
industry. This is one feature of this drilling fluid that should
be improved.
There is a very high focus upon casing wear. The drilling
experience in Huldra demonstrates that the casing wear seems
to be similar to the casing wear observed when drilling with
4 A. SAASEN, O.H. JORDAL, D. BURKHEAD, P.C. BERG, G. LØKLINGHOLM, E. S. PEDERSEN, J. TURNER, M.J. HARRIS
oil based drilling fluids. This should be a high focus area for
future drilling operations.
The drilling rate of penetration (ROP) seems to be good.
Average ROP has been 6 m/hr. There is a potential for higher
ROPs if more aggressive drilling parameters are used. In the
last well, slow drilling was experienced; possibly due to higher
fines content. However, more shaly and tighter formations
may also be a possible cause.
The cesium/potassium formate system was seen to be
compatible with cement slurries when a casing shoe was
squeezed. A very effective squeeze was obtained on the first
attempt. No adverse effects on viscosity were seen during
compatibility testing, and the maximum reduction in setting
time was 35%.
70
60
VG-meter readings
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600
VG-meter rpm
Fig. 2 - Viscosity measurements of the formate measured on a
VG-meter.
Return permeability
Formation damage tests were carried out using
cesium/potassium formate drilling fluid and Huldra cores
under carefully controlled conditions, similar to what was
expected to occur in the field. Reductions in return
permeability of 30-70% were observed, depending on the
permeability of the samples. Return permeabilities of 100%
were measured on all cores tested after soaking in an organic
acid. These results suggested that any formation damage
would be shallow, which would reduce the impact of any
formation damage on well productivity. Therefore, no acid or
enzyme clean up treatments were planned or carried out on the
wells completed to date.
Limited well testing on the first two wells incidates that
clean up treatments are not necessary. It appears that the
production rates from the Huldra wells will be easily achieved
with limited pressure draw down. This assumption will be
further validated once the field comes onstream at full rates in
November, 2001.
IADC/SPE 74541
Logging challenges and experiences
Data acquisition program
It is normally preferable to run electric logging tools on
wireline, because the timing of this operation and the logging
speed ensures static conditions with respect to mud filtrate
invasion. Also, the wireline operation ensures better depth
correlation while running the logs. Because of a stuck logging
tool in a previous well and the well control risks associated
with pipe conveyed electric logging, the data acquisition was
performed using logging while drilling tools (LWD). The
measurements were conducted with a LWD string consisting
of a gamma ray and resistivity at the bit tool (RAB), azimuthal
formation density and neutron porosity tool (ADN) and dual
propagation resistivity tool (CDR).
High density formate in gas reservoirs
Some of the most challenging conditions in quantitative
formation evaluation exist when a well has been drilled with a
drilling fluid being the wetting phase of the formation. A
wetting phase will invade longer, both in time and in length
than a non-wetting phase. A high density wetting filtrate, in
combination with gas as formation fluid, will cause a large
density contrast of the fluids present in the invaded zone. This
makes the estimation of the formation porosity challenging
when these calculations are based on the formation bulk
density log. A formation wetting filtrate also makes it of vital
importance to log the resistivity in the invaded zone. This
"flushed zone resistivity", together with the formation bulk
density, are the main logs for porosity calculations. Normally,
a specially designed pad tool (micro resistivity tool), available
on wireline only, is being used for this measurement. To
compensate for the micro resistivity tool, the "button
resistivities" from the RAB tool were used to estimate the
flushed zone resistivity.
High temperature and formation pressure add more
challenges to the formation evaluation aspect. The polymers of
the invaded formate may be broken down faster due to the
high temperature in the formation. The lack of polymers will
reduce the viscosity of the invaded fluid and gravity
segregation may take place, depending on the capillary
pressure conditions of the formation. In a high pressure
formation, the capillary conditions are likely to reestablish the
initial saturations. These effects cause the fluid system in the
invaded zone to be a non-static system during data acquisition.
Petrophysical properties of potassium and cesium formates
Potassium formate (KCOOH) and cesium formate
(CsCOOH), both have nuclear properties that negatively
affect the standard logging methods used in formation logging.
The conductivity of the formates is high, and does not change
with temperature in the same way as in other brines. It was
therefore necessary to perform special temperature
corrections. Selected properties of the formates are illustrated
in Table 1.
IADC/SPE 74541 DRILLING HT/HP WELLS USING A CESIUM FORMATE BASED DRILLING FLUID 5

o
Table 1 – Physical properties of formates at 20 C system would not be recommended. When logging
Physical Properties Sodium Potassium Cesium 63%Cesium/ interpretation accuracy is critical, one should consider the
formate formate formate 37% Potassium
acquisition of core data to calibrate the log responses.
Fluid density [s.g.] 1.28 1.53 2.30 -
Sonic interval transit 162 157 197 - Completion operations experience with cesium/
time [µs/ft] potassium formate brine
Electrical resistivity 0.104 0.087 0.070 0.009 @ 140oC While drilling the reservoir, 210 and 230 mesh shaker screens
[Ωm] are used. The addition of CaCO3 is stopped as soon as the
Photoelectric factor 0.5 3.4 255 124 bottom of the reservoir is penetrated. Below the reservoir, and
[barns/electron]
Hydrogen index 0.77 0.54 0.51 0.56 when circulating the mud prior to running 300 micron wire-
wrapped screens, a combination of 250, 300 and 400 mesh
Capture - - - 112
cross-section [c.u.]
shaker screens are used. The purpose of this is to remove the
Cesium formate, being the contributor to the high density largest particles.
of the drilling fluid, has an extremely high capture cross To ensure that the drilling fluid will not plug the screens,
the fluid is checked with a special screen tester device.
section, or “Σ value”. Σ is defined as the effective cross
Several volumes of fluid are flowed through the test device at
sectional area per unit volume of material for capture of
a controlled pressure drop to check for plugging. To date, no
neutrons. These high Σ values result in an attenuation and
plugging indications have been seen, as expected. With oil
reduction of the neutrons entering the formation and non-
based drilling fluid, there is a major concern that if the well is
standard corrections must be applied. In many cases, the
left for a period of weeks or months before clean up, that the
neutron porosity log will no longer be suitable for quantitative
barite will sag out around the lower part of the screens. The
use. Also, the low hydrogen index of the cesium formate
effect of this would likely be a loss of productivity.
reduces the neutron response. This hydrogen index reflects
After running the screens, a special barrier packer and plug
the formations ability to absorb the emitted neutrons.
assembly is run and set just above the screens. The barrier
The evaluation of the formation bulk density log is also
assembly acts as a pressure control barrier while running the
complicated by the high density of the filtrate invading the
upper completion and while displacing the well to light packer
permeable zones. The extremely high filtrate density reduces
fluid.
the span of measurements and results in less accuracy.
Once the barrier assembly is set and pressure tested, the
The other two formation evaluation logs commonly used in
wells are circulated at maximum rates with the drilling fluid to
formation evaluation were not seriously affected. The interval
remove any solids remaining in the well bore. After two hole
transit time, sonic log, of the formates is in the range of oil and
circulations, the drilling fluid is displaced with filtered
water. The resistivity log was not significantly affected. The
cesium/potassium formate brine until the returns are clean.
high ionic concentration does give the formates a very high
The clean formate brine is required to ensure that particle
conductivity, but the resistivity is still comparable with
settling does not hamper the wireline operations necessary to
resistivities in high salinity water based systems.
run and retrieve the packer setting plug and prong, and to
Cesium formate also has one more property that is quite
release the barrier plug.
distinct. Cesium has an extremely high photoelectric
With clean formate brine and the barrier assembly in the
absorption index. This value, about 150 times higher than any
well, the upper completion is run and the tubing hanger is
other minerals present, totally excludes the photoelectric
landed and pressure tested. At this point, the
formation log from any traditional use. However, it gave
cesium/potassium formate based brine is displaced with 1.18
useful estimates of the invasion of formate filtrate.
s.g. sodium chloride packer fluid. A 30 m3 viscous potassium
Potassium is one of the three main contributors in the
formate pill is circulated in front of the packer fluid to reduce
natural radiation of sedimentary rocks. A high content of
contamination. Overall, the formate brine losses during the
potassium within the borehole will shift the gamma ray
completion operation are normally 10-20 m3.
readings to higher values, which is not considered as a
After performing compatibility testing of elastomers
problem. However, more problematic was the contribution
during the qualification period, Aflas elastomers were selected
from the potassium formate that had invaded permeable zones.
and used on all plugs and packers.
If this effect is considerably and the formation density log
reads high values resulting from high density filtrate invasion,
Conclusion
the sands may look more shaly than they really are.
Cesium/potassium formate appears to have a niche application
The data acquisitions have delivered log responses and
as a drilling and completion fluid in high pressure, high
quality necessary for the formation evaluation. There has been
temperature fields where open hole completions are desired.
no problem to do geological correlations with other wells, but
These fluids have provided for an extremely good well control
the calculated porosity has higher uncertainty than would be
environment for the drilling and completion operations at
the case with other drilling fluid systems. If high accuracy,
Huldra. The transition from the drill-in fluid to the completion
consistent, and well known log responses are required, like in
fluid was simple, since both systems are made of the same
an exploration well, the cesium/potassium formate base
6 A. SAASEN, O.H. JORDAL, D. BURKHEAD, P.C. BERG, G. LØKLINGHOLM, E. S. PEDERSEN, J. TURNER, M.J. HARRIS IADC/SPE 74541

base fluid. Information obtained so far, from the clean up and Formate Brines in High-Temperature/High-Pressure Operations,
limited well testing operations on the first two wells, indicate paper SPE 59191 presented at the 2000 IADC/SPE Drilling
good well flow performance. In addition, the experiences are Conference held in New Orleans, Louisiana, 23–25 February
positive with respect to hole cleaning, hole stability, and ECD. 2000.
10. Svendsen, Ø., Saasen, A., Vassøy, B., Skogen, E., Mackin, F.
These effects have given rig time savings. The influence of and Normann, S.H., “Optimum Fluid Design for Drilling and
the cesium/potassium formates on the open hole log Cementing a Well Drilled with Coil-Tubing Technology”, paper
interpretation is seen as manageable. SPE 50405 presented at the 1998 SPE International Conference
There is still a potential for improvement in the on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, November 1-4, 1998.
management of losses and contamination of this very 11. Berg, E., Nabati-Shoghl, F., Saasen, A. and Sedberg, S.,
expensive fluid. “Emulsion-Based Fluid used To Optimize Casing-Cleaning“,
paper SPE 74475 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling
Acknowledgement Conference held in Dallas, Texas, 26–28 February 2002.
The authors would like to thank the Huldra project for the 12. Nabati-Shoghl, F., Saasen, A., Berg, E. and Jensen, B.,
"Ingenious Solutions for Well Cleaning Applying
permission to publish this work. The authors would also Environmental Engineering", paper SPE 61268 presented at the
acknowledge the technical inputs from Kjell Øvrevik. These Fifth SPE International Conference on Health, Safety and
inputs were helpful in the process of writing this article. Environment, Stavanger, Norway, 26-28 June, 2000.
Inputs from Gunnar Olsvik were also welcome. 13. Paulsen, J.E., Saasen, A., Jensen, B. and Grinrød, M., "Key
Environmental Indicators in Drilling Operations", paper SPE
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