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COURSE TOPICS

Sandip Adhikari
ME in Structural Engineering, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok,
Thailand
Email: er.sandipadhikari@gmail.com
Mobile no.: 9841720133

Chapter-1 Chapter-2

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Chapter-3 Chapter-4

Chapter-5 Chapter-6

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Chapter 1ng Discussed in the chapter:

Introduction to Foundation
Engineering
Prepared By:
Er. Sandip Adhikari
ME in Structural Engineering
Email: er.sandipadhikari@gmail.com
Mobile no.: 9841720133
1.1 Nomenclature of different types of soil
1.2 Basic physical properties of soil
1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
1.4 Use, type and tentative proportion of retaining walls
1.5 Footing and foundation types
1.6 Guidelines for depth of foundation, dimensioning of
footing based on given value of safe bearing capacity of soil
1.7 Introduction to raft with basement, pile foundation.

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Introduction H Introduction: Soil
 Soil in disintegrated form of rock absorbing various minerals.
 Soil contains minerals, air, water, dead organic matter, and
various types of living organisms.

Figure: Basic composition of soil

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Introduction: Soil contd........
 Soil is formed by the process of ‘weathering’ of rocks, that is,
disintegration and decomposition of rocks and mineral at or near the
earth’s surface through the actions of natural or mechanical and
chemical agents into smaller grains.
 In general, formation of soil takes place by two methods:
 Physical disintegration of rocks:
Temperature changes, wedging action of ice, spreading of roots
of plant, Abrasion etc.
 Chemical decomposition of rocks:
Hydration, carbonation, oxidation, solution, hydrolysis etc.
Physical disintegration of rocks
 Spreading of roots of plants: As the roots of trees and shrubs
grow in the cracks and fissures of the rocks, forces act on the rock.
The segments of the are forced apart and disintegration of rocks
occurs.
 Abrasion: As water, wind and glaciers move over the surface of
rock, abrasion and scouring takes place. It results in the formation of
soil.
 The soil formed has the properties of the parent rock. Course grained
soils, such as gravel and sand, are formed by the process of physical
disintegration.
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Physical disintegration of rocks
 Temperature changes: Different minerals of a rock have different
coefficients of thermal expansion. Unequal expansion and contraction
of these minerals occur due to temperature changes. When the
stresses induced due to such changes are repeated many times, the
particles get detached from the rocks and the soil formation takes
place.
 Wedging action of ice: Water in the pores and minute cracks of
rocks gets frozen in very cold climates As the volume of ice formed is
more than that of water, expansion occurs. Rocks get broken into
pieces when large stresses develop in the cracks due to wedging
action of the ice formed.
Chemical disintegration of rocks
 Hydration: In hydration, water combines with the rock minerals
and results in the formation of a new chemical compound. The
chemical reaction causes a change in volume and decomposition of
rock into small particles.
 Carbonation: It is a type of chemical decomposition in which
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere combines with water to form
carbonic acid. The carbonic acid reacts chemically with rocks and
causes their decomposition.
 Oxidation: Oxidation occurs when oxygen ions combine with
mineral in rocks. Oxidation results in decomposition of rocks.
Oxidation of rocks is somewhat similar to rusting of steel.
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Chemical disintegration of rocks
 Solution: Some of the rocks minerals form a solution with water
when they get dissolved in water. Chemical reaction takes place in the
solution and the formation of soil takes place.
 Hydrolysis: It is a chemical process in which water gets dissociated
into H+ and OH– ions. The hydrogen cations replace the metallic ions
such as calcium, sodium and potassium in rock minerals and soils are
formed with a new chemical decomposition.
 Chemical decomposition of rocks results in formation of clay
minerals. These clay minerals impart plastic properties of soil. Clayey
soils are formed by chemical composition.
Clay:
 Clay is probably the most important type of mineral particle found in
a soil. Clay is a naturally occurring aluminum silicate composed
primarily of fine- grained minerals.
 This is cohesive soil derived from chemical decomposition of rock
which contains large amount of clay minerals.
 Particle size: particle size is less than 2 micron (0.002 mm).
 Structure: Because of the small particle size of clay soils, the
structure of clay-heavy soil tends to be very dense.
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1.1 Nomenclature of different types of soil
 There are basically three types of soil:
 Clay
 Silt
 Sand
Clay:
 Organic content: Clay contains very little organic material; you
often need to add amendments if you wish to grow plants in clay-
heavy soil. Without added organic material, clay-heavy soil typically
lacks the nutrients and micronutrients essential for plant growth and
photosynthesis.
 Permeability and water holding capacity: One of the problems
with clay soil is its slow permeability resulting in a very large water-
holding capacity. Because the soil particles are small and close
together, it takes water much longer to move through clay soil than it
does with other soil types.
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Silt:
 Silt can be simply defined as soil particles in between sand and clay.
Silt feels smooth and powdery when dry and slippery when it is wet.
 Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the
generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks. These involve
chemical weathering of rock and a number of physical weathering
processes such as frost shattering. The main process is abrasion
through water, air or glaciers.
 Silt is easily transported in water or air and is fine enough to be
carried long distances by air in the form of dust.
Sand:
 Sand is large particle found in soil. When you rub, it feels rough and
gritty.
 Sandy soils have a light texture and loose structure. It is easy to dig
and can be worked easier than other soil types.
 Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to their high proportion
of sand and little clay (clay weighs more than sand).
 Their large pores make it just as easy for water to run out as in.
Nutrients also easily slip in and out of sandy soils.
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Silt:
Particle size: particle size is in between 2 micron to 75 micron
(0.002 to 0.075 mm).
Structure: The structure of silt contains the medium sized
particles, soil tends to be moderately dense.
Organic content: Silty soil is usually more fertile than other
types of soil, meaning it is good for growing crops.
Permeability and water holding capacity: These soils
compromise of medium sized particles, so they are well drained
and hold moisture well.
Sand:
 Particle size: particle size is in between 0.075 to 4.75 mm.
 Structure: The structure of sandy soil contains loose particles
distributions with large pore spaces.
 Organic content: Sandy soil is usually less fertile than other types
of soil, meaning it is not good for growing crops. With the addition of
some organic matter, the light texture and open structure of sandy
soil is good for growing many varieties of plants.
 Permeability and water holding capacity: These soils
compromise of loose sized particles, which cause them to drain
quickly and not hold water well.
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1.2 Basic physical properties of soil 1.2 Basic physical properties of soil
 Water Content: It is the ratio of mass of water to mass of solid.  Density: It is the ratio of mass per unit volume of a soil.
Bulk mass density: It is the ratio of total mass per unit
volume.

Dry mass density: It is the ratio of solid mass per unit

It is higher in fine grained soil such as clay and silt. volume.

1.2 Basic physical properties of soil 1.2 Basic physical properties of soil
 Unit Weight: It is the ratio of weight per unit volume of a soil.  Degree of saturation: Degree of saturation refers to a ratio of
Bulk unit weight: It is the ratio of total weight per unit liquid to the total volume of voids in a porous material.
volume.

Dry unit weight: It is the ratio of solid weight per unit

volume.

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1.2 Basic physical properties of soil
 Void ratio: It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the volume
of solids present in the soil
1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Although information on the soil exposed at the ground surface is
very valuable, geotechnical engineers also need to evaluate the sub-
surface conditions by taking samples by boring or by digging
exploratory pits.These activities are called subsurface exploration.
 Soil investigation and soil explorations are conducted for the purpose
of site investigation to get clear information about the soil properties
and hydrological conditions at the site.
 Soil explorations are done for obtaining information about sub-
surface condition at the site of proposed constructions. Sub-surface
exploration consist of determining the profile of natural soil deposits
at the site, taking the soil sample and determining the physical
properties of soil.
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1.2 Basic physical properties of soil
 Porosity: It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids to the total
volume of soil.
1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
Purposes of soil exploration:
 To determine the basic properties of soil which affect
the design and safety of structure i.e., compressibility,
strength and hydrological conditions.
 To select type and depth of foundation.
 To select suitable construction techniques.
 To predict and solve potential foundation problems.
 To establish ground water table and property of water.
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1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
Methods for soil exploration:  Direct methods (Digging pits and trenches)
Direct Methods • The excavation of pits of trenches is the easy and reliable
Digging pits and trenches methods.The in situ conditions are inspected visually.
Semi-direct Methods • Pits or trenches are excavated from the site to strata of
Borings soil.
Indirect methods • The size of the pits should be sufficient enough to
provide necessary working space.
Penetration tests
Geophysical methods

1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
Shallow pits up to the depth of
approximately 3 m can be
excavated without lateral
supports. For the deeper pits,
specially below water table,
lateral support should be
provided.
Lateral support may be of
sheeting and bracing systems.

Sheeting

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1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Semi direct methods (Borings)
 Soil samples can be lifted from deeper depths by drilling
bore holes by using mechanical devices called samplers.
 The process consists of
oDrilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings
coming out from different depths
oLifting the soil samples from different depths by using
mechanical devices called samplers.

Sheeting with bracing

1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Methods of boring:  Auger Boring:
 Soil auger is a device that helps in advancing a bore-hole
Auger Boring into the ground. This is similar to a device used by the
carpenter to drill a hole in wood.
Wash Boring  These are used is cohesive and other soft soil above
Rotary Boring water table. Hand operated augers are used up-to a
maximum depth of 3 to 6 m.
Percussion Boring  Mechanically driven augers are used for greater depths
of hard strata.

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1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Wash Boring:
 It is a fast and simple method for advancing holes in
soils. In wash boring the hole is advanced to a short
depth by auger and then a casing pipe is driven in the
ground to prevent the sides of the bore hole from caving
in.
 Boring is carried out by using chopping bit fixed at the
end of a hollow drill rod.
 Water is forced under pressure through the drill rod
which is alternatively raised and dropped, and also
rotated.
Manual and mechanical Auger

1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Wash Boring:
 Due to its jetting and chopping action soil is loosened.
The loosened soil is forced up-to the ground surface in
the form of soil water slurry through the annular space
between the drill rod and the casing.
 The soil in suspension settles down in the tub and the
water flows in the sump which is reused for circulation.
The change of soil stratification can be guessed from the
rate of progress and color of wash water.

Wash Boring

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1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Rotary Drilling:
 Rotary boring is used for soil exploration work only when
deep bore holes are required in difficult formations with
boulders and fractured rock or water logged sand.
 In this method a cutter bit or a core barrel with a coring bit
attached to the lower end of drill rods is rotated by a power
rig.
 The bit cuts, chips and grinds the material into small pieces.
The material is then taken out by pumping water or drilling
mud through the hollow drilling rod. If drilling mud is used
then no casing is required for the hole.
Rotary Drilling

1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods 1.3 Introduction to soil exploration methods
 Percussion Drilling:
 In this method, soil is drilled by repeated blows of a
heavy drilling bit.The bit is called the churn bit.
 The bit is attached to the end of a drilling rod and is
raised and dropped alternately in the bore hole.
 Water is added to facilitate the breaking of the soil. The
slurry formed at the bottom of the hole is removed by
means of bailers or sand pumps.
 This method is suitable for boring in rocks and hard soil.

Percussion Drilling

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Retaining Walls:
1.4 Use, type and tentative proportioning of retaining walls
 Gravity Walls:
 It is that type of retaining wall that relies on their huge weight to
retain the material behind it and achieve stability against failures.
 Gravity Retaining Wall can be constructed from concrete, stone or
even brick masonry.
 Gravity retaining walls are much thicker in section. Geometry of
these walls also help them to maintain the stability.
 The cross section shape of the wall is affected by stability, the use of
space in front of the wall, the required wall appearance and the
method of construction.
 Economical for height less or equal to 10 ft.
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1.4 Use, type and tentative proportioning of retaining walls
 RetainingWalls:
Retaining walls are as the name suggests any wall that is designed
to retain any material. The material could be earth, water, anything
else that needs to be retained.
 It is designed so that to resist the material pressure of the material
that it is holding back.
A common example of a retaining wall in everyday life is
basement walls, swimming pool walls, and landscape walls.
 Types of retaining walls:
Gravity walls
Cantilever Walls
Counter fort walls
1.4 Use, type and tentative proportioning of retaining walls
 CantileverWalls:
 A cantilever retaining wall is one that consists of a wall which is
connected to foundation.
 A cantilever wall holds back a significant amount of soil
(economical for height less or equal to 25 ft), so it must be well
engineered.
 They are the most common type used as retaining walls. Cantilever
wall rest on a slab foundation. This slab foundation is also loaded by
back-fill and thus the weight of the back-fill and surcharge also
stabilizes the wall against overturning and sliding. They have thin
stem.
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1.4 Use, type and tentative proportioning of retaining walls 1.4 Use, type and tentative proportioning of retaining walls
 Counter fort Walls:
 Counter fort walls are cantilever walls strengthened with counter
forts monolithic with the back of the wall slab and base slab.
 The counter-forts act as tension stiffeners and connect the wall slab
and the base to reduce the bending and shearing stresses.
 To reduce the bending moments in vertical walls of great height,
counter forts are used, spaced at distances from each other equal to
or slightly larger than one-half of the height.
 Counter forts are used for high walls with heights greater than 25
ft.

Proportioning of retaining walls

1.5 Footing and foundation types:

1.5 Footing and foundation types: Types of Footing and Foundation:
Spread Footing
 Foundation:
Isolated Footing
 Foundation is the lowest part of the
building or the civil structure that is in Combined Footing
direct contact with the soil which
transfers loads from the structure to  Strip footing
the soil safely.
 Strap footing
 The function of the foundation is,
therefore, to spread the load from a Mat or Raft Foundation
building to the ground so that any
movement that will occur do not cause Pile Foundation
damage to any part of the building.
Piled-raft Foundation

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 Spread Footing:  Isolated Footing:

 It is provided for a load bearing walls and for a row of closely spaced columns
whose footing overlaps.
 A wall footing or strip footing is a continuous strip of concrete that serves to
spread the weight of a load-bearing wall across an area of soil.
 Isolated footings are most commonly used footings for
Reinforced cement concrete column because it is simple and
most economical. An isolated footing is used to support a single
column. Isolated footings are independent footings which are
provided for each column.
 It can be square, rectangular or circular in shape. These are
simple footing which is mainly adopted for lighter loads. For
heavy loads, stepped footing can be provided.
 This type of footing is used when:
o Columns are not closely spaced.
o Loads on footings are less.
o The Safe bearing capacity of the soil is generally high.

 The Isolated footings essentially consist of a bottom slab. There

are three basic types of bottom slabs are:
o Pad footing (with uniform thickness)
o Stepped footing (with non-uniform thickness)
Wall Footing o Sloped footing (trapezoidal section)

 Combined Footing:
 It supports two columns as shown in figure below.
 It is used when the two column are so close to each other that their individual footings
would overlap.
 A combined footing is also provided when the property line is so close to one column that
a spread footing would be eccentrically loaded when kept entirely within the property
line. By combining it with that of an interior column, the load is evenly distributed.
 A combine footing may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan. Trapezoidal footing is
provided when the load on one of the column is larger than the other column.

Types of Isolated Footing

Combined Footing

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 Strap: It consists of two isolated footings connected with a structural strap

or a lever, as shown in figure below. The strap connects the footing such that
they behave as one unit. The strap simply acts as a connecting beam. A strap
footing is more economical than a combined footing when the allowable
soil pressure is relatively high and distance between the columns is large.

Strap Footing Strip Footing

 Mat Foundation:
 A raft foundation, also called a mat foundation, is essentially a
continuous slab resting on the soil that extends over the entire
footprint of the building, thereby supporting the building and
transferring its weight to the ground.
 It is large strap supporting a numbers of columns and walls
under the entire constructions or large part of structures.
 A mat is required when the allowable soil pressure is very low
or when the columns and walls are so closely to each other such
that one footing overlaps with the another footing.
 The slab is spread out under the entire building or at least a large
part of it which lowers the contact pressure compared to the
traditionally used strip or trench footings.

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 Mat Foundation:When to use?

 The soil has a low bearing capacity.
 Load of the structure has to be distributed over a large area.
 Individual or any other foundation area would approximately cover
60% of the total ground area beneath the structure.
 The columns or walls are placed so closely that the individual footings
would overlap.
 Stress on soil needs to be reduced.
 There is a possibility of differential settlement in case individual
footing is used.
 When soil strata are unpredictable and contain pockets of
compressible soil.
 Basement is to be constructed.
 Any other type of footing cannot be used advantageously.

Mat foundation

 Pile Foundation:When to use?  Pile Foundation:

 When the groundwater table is high.  Pile foundation, a kind of deep foundation,
is actually a slender column or long
 Heavy and un-uniform loads from superstructure are imposed. cylinder made of materials such as
concrete or steel which are used to
 Other types of foundations are costlier or not feasible. support the structure and transfer the
load at desired depth either by end
 When the soil at shallow depth is compressible. bearing or skin friction.
 Pile foundations are employed when the
 When there is the possibility of scouring, due to its location near the soil strata immediately beneath the
river bed or seashore, etc. structure are not capable of supporting
the load with the tolerable settlement or
 When there is a canal or deep drainage systems near the structure. adequate safety against shear failure.
 Pile foundation is a one form of a deep
 When soil excavation is not possible up to the desired depth due to foundation.
poor soil condition.  Piles are relatively long, slender
members that are driven into the ground
 When it becomes impossible to keep the foundation trenches dry by or cast-in-situ.
pumping or by any other measure due to heavy inflow of seepage.

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 Piled-Raft Foundation:
 Piled raft foundations are typically used for large structures, and in
situations where soil is not suitable to prevent excessive settlement.
They are an increasingly popular choice for high-rise buildings.
 The piles were used to reduce the amount of soil settlement(With the
passage of time) and increase the soil load-bearing capacity.

Pile foundation

Piled-raft foundation

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