)

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Origin of Soil:

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Soils are formed by weathering of rocks due to mechanical disintegration or chemical

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decomposition. When a rock surface gets exposed to atmosphere for an appreciable time, it

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disintegrates or decomposes into small particles and thus the soils are formed.

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Need for Soil Classification:

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Soil classification is a system of arrangement of soils into different groups so that soils within a

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group have similar characteristics and behavior. It is more convenient to study the behavior of

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groups than that of individual soil. The purpose of soil classification is to identify the group to

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which a given soil belongs. This enables the prediction of its behavior and its suitability as a

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foundation soil or construction material.

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Soil classification provides standard terms to describe different groups of soils with distinct

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characteristics, among different engineers at the national and international level. Thus, soil
classification serves as a language of communication to describe soils, thereby avoiding possible

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errors due to the use of local terminology.
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Different Classification of Soils for Engineering Purpose:
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Classification systems are used to group soils according to their order of performance under
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given set of physical conditions. Soils that are grouped in order of performance for one set of
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physical conditions will not necessarily have the same order of performance under some other
physical conditions.
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Therefore, number of classification systems has been developed depending on the intended
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purpose of the system. Soil classification has proved to be a very useful tool to the soil engineer.
It gives general guidelines in an empirical manner for making use of the field experience of
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others.
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1. Classification based on grain size

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2. Textural classification
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3. AASHTO classification system

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4. Unified soil classification system

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1. Grain Size Classification System for Soils

Grain size classification systems were based on grain size. In this system the terms clay, silt,
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sand and gravel are used to indicate only particle size and not to signify nature of soil type. There
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are several classification systems fin use, but commonly used systems are shown here.
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Very coarse BOULDERS > 200 mm

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soils COBBLES 60 - 200 mm

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coarse 20 - 60 mm

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G
medium 6 - 20 mm

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GRAVEL

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Coarse fine 2 - 6 mm
soils coarse 0.6 - 2.0 mm

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S

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medium 0.2 - 0.6 mm
SAND

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fine 0.06 - 0.2 mm
coarse 0.02 - 0.06 mm

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M
Fine medium 0.006 - 0.02 mm

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SILT

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soils fine 0.002 - 0.006 mm
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C CLAY < 0.002 mm
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Boulders
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 Particle sizes: Anything above 200 mm.

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 Particle shape: Angular, sub-angular, rounded, flat, elongated.

 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.
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 Compactness: Loose.
 Strength field test: By inspection of voids and particle packing.
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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

rS
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Cobbles
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 Particle sizes: 60-200 mm.

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 Particle shape: Angular, sub-angular, rounded, flat, elongated.

 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.
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 Compactness: Dense.
S

 Strength field test: By inspection of voids and particle packing.

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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Coarse soils
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Gravels
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Coarse gravels:
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 Particle sizes: 20-60 mm. Easily visible to the naked eye meaning that grading can be described. Well
graded means there is a wide range of grain sizes; poorly graded means there is a limited range.
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

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Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.
 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

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 Composite soil types: Clay or silt content of under 5%. Classified as ‘slightly clayey’ or ‘slightly silty’.
 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Medium gravels:

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 Particle sizes: 6-20 mm. Easily visible to the naked eye meaning that grading can be described. Well

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graded means there is a wide range of grain sizes; poorly graded means there is a limited range.
 Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.

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 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

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 Composite soil types: Clay or silt content of 5-15%. Classified as ‘clayey’ or ‘silty’.

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 Compactness: Loose.
 Strength field test: Can be excavated with a spade; 50 mm wooden peg can be easily driven.

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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Fine gravels:

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 Particle sizes: 2-6 mm. Easily visible to the naked eye meaning that grading can be described. Well

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graded means there is a wide range of grain sizes; poorly graded means there is a limited range.
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 Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.
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 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

 Composite soil types: Clay or silt content of 15-35%. Classified as ‘very clayey’ or ‘very silty’.
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 Compactness: Dense.
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 Strength field test: Excavation requires a pick; 50 mm wooden peg is difficult to drive.
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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Sands
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Coarse sands:
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 Particle sizes: 0.6-2 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no cohesion. Grading can
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be described.
 Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.
jay

 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

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 Composite soil types: Classified as ‘sandy gravel’ or ‘gravelly sand’. Clayey composites are described
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as plastic or cohesive. Silty composites are described as non-plastic or of low plasticity.


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Compactness: Slightly cemented.

 Strength field test: Visual examination; pick removes soil in lumps.
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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Medium sands:
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 Particle sizes: 0.2-0.6 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no cohesion. Grading
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can be described.
 Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.
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 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

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

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Composite soil types: Classified as ‘sandy gravel’ or ‘gravelly sand’. Clayey composites are described
a plastic or cohesive. Silty composites are described as non-plastic or of low plasticity.

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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Fine sands:

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 Particle sizes: 0.06-0.2 mm. Visible to the naked eye. When dry there is little to no cohesion. Grading

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can be described.


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Particle shape: Angular, subangular, rounded, flat, elongated.
 Texture: Rough, smooth, or polished.

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 Composite soil types: Classified as ‘sandy gravel’ or ‘gravelly sand’. Clayey composites are described

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a plastic or cohesive. Silty composites are described as non-plastic or of low plasticity.

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 Structure: Homogenous, inter-stratified, heterogeneous, or weathered.

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Fine soils

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Silts

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nt
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Coarse silts:
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 Particle sizes: 0.02-0.06 mm. Barely visible to the naked eye.
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 Particle nature: Non-plastic or of low plasticity.

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 Compactness: Soft or loose.


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Strength field test: Easily moulded or powdered between fingers.

 Structure: Fissured, intact, homogeneous, inter-stratified, or weathered.
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Medium silts:
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 Particle sizes: 0.006-0.02 mm. Not visible to the naked eye.

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 Particle nature: Non-plastic or of low plasticity.

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 Compactness: Firm or dense.

 Strength field test: Can be moulded or powdered between fingers with strong pressure.
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 Structure: Fissured, intact, homogeneous, inter-stratified, or weathered.

jay
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Fine silts:
S


Er.

Particle sizes: 0.002-0.006 mm. Not visible to the naked eye.

 Particle nature: Non-plastic or of low plasticity.
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 Composite soil types: Sand or gravel content of 35-65%. Classified as ‘sandy’ or ‘gravelly’.
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 Compactness: Very soft.

 Strength field test: Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand.
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 Structure: Fissured, intact, homogeneous, inter-stratified, or weathered.

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Clays
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 Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered between fingers; smooth to the touch; shrinks on drying
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which usually leaves cracks.

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 Particle nature: Intermediate plasticity through to high plasticity.

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

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Composite soil types: Sand or gravel content of less than 35%.
 Compactness: Soft.

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 Strength field test: Soft (moulded by light finger pressure), firm (moulded by strong finger pressure),
stiff (can be indented by thumb), very stiff (can be indented by thumb nail).

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Structure: Fissured, intact, homogeneous, inter-stratified, or weathered.

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2. Textural Classification of Soil

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The classification of soil exclusively based on particle size and their percentage distribution is
known as textural classification system. This system specifically names the soil depending on the

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percentage of sand, silt and clay. The triangular area of the chart is divided into a total of the

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following ten zones as specified in the following list:

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• Clay.

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• Sandy clay and silty clay (two zones).

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• Loam.

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• Clayey loam, sandy loam, and silty loam (three zones).

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• Sand.

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• Sandy clayey loam and silty clayey loam (two zones).

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Any given soil with known percentages of sand, silt and clay, is plotted as a point on the

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classification chart, by drawing lines from each axis parallel to the lines shown in the key. The

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soil belongs to the zone in which the point falls on the chart.

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For example, if a soil is composed of 45% sand, 40% silt, and 15% clay, the three lines are
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drawn from the respective sides in the direction indicated by the key, as shown in Fig. 6.16.
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These lines intersect at point A situated in the zone “loam.”

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Figure – shows the typical textural classification system.

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3. AASHTO classification system of Soil

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In this system the soils are divided into seven major groups. Some of the major groups further
divided into subgroups. A soil is classified by proceeding from left to right on the classification

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chart to find first the group into which the soil test data will fill.

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Soil having fine fractions are further classified based on their group index. The group index is

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defined by the following equation.

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Group index = (F – 35)[0.2 + 0.005 (LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15)(PI – 10)

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F – Percentage passing 0.075mm size

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LL – Liquid limit

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PI – Plasticity index

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When the group index value is higher, the quantity of the material is poorer.

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4. Unified Soil Classification System

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This system is based on both grain size and plasticity characteristics of soil. The same system
with minor modification was adopted by ISI for general engineering purpose (IS 1498 – 1970).

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IS system divides soil into three major groups, coarse grained, fine grained and organic soils and

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other miscellaneous soil materials.

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Coarse grained soils are those with more than 50% of the material larger than 0.075mm size.

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Coarse grained soils are further classified into gravels (G) and sands (S). The gravels and sands

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are further divided into four categories according to gradation, silt or clay content.

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Fine grained soils are those for which more than 50% of soil finer than 0.075 mm sieve size.

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They are divided into three sub-divisions as silt (M), clay (c), and organic salts and clays (O).

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based on their plasticity nature they are added with L, M and H symbol to indicate low plastic,

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medium plastic and high plastic respectively.

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Examples:

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GW – well graded gravel

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GP – poorly graded gravel art
GM – silty gravel
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SW – well graded sand

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SP – poorly graded sand

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SM – silty sand
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SC – clayey sand
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CL – clay of low plastic

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CI – clay of medium plastic

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CH – clay of higher plastic

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ML – silt of medium plastic

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MI – silt of medium plastic

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MH – silt of higher plastic

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OL – organic silt and clays of low plastic

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OI – organic silt and clays of medium plastic

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OH – organic silt and clays of high plastic.

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Fine grained soils have been sub-divided into three subdivisions of low, medium and high
compressibility instead of two sub-divisions of the original Unified Soil Classification System.
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Table-3 below shows the classification system.

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Table 2 lists group symbols for soils of table-3.

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Table-2: Significance of letters for group symbol in table-3.

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Soil Soil Component Symbol

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Boulder None

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Cobble None

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Coarse Grained

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Gravel G

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Sand S

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Silt M

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Fine Grained Clay C

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Organic Matter O

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Table – 3
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Soil Soil Component Symbol

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Peat Peat Pt
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Well graded W
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Applicable to Coarse grained Soils

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Poorly Graded P
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Low compressibility
L
WL<35
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Medium compressibility
Applicable to Fine grained soils I
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(WL 35 to 50)
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High compressibility
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(WL>50)
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The standard recommends that when a soil possesses characteristics of two groups either in
particle size distribution or in plasticity, it is designed by combination of group symbols.
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Organic soils

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Organic clay, silt or sand

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

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Particle sizes: Varies.
 Visual identification: Contains substantial amounts of organic vegetable matter.

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 Composite soil types: Sand or gravel content of 35-65%. Classified as ‘sandy’ or ‘gravelly’.

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 Compactness: Firm.


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Strength field test: Fibres already compressed together.
 Structure: Fibrous (plant remains recognisable and retains some strength); amorphous

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(recognisable plant absent).

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Peats

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 Particle sizes: Varies.

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 Visual identification: Predominantly plant material which remains dark brown or black, usually with a
distinctive smell and low-bulk density.

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 Compactness: Spongy, plastic.

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 Strength field test: Very compressible and open structure; can be moulded by hand.

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 Structure: Fibrous (plant remains recognisable and retains some strength); amorphous
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(recognisable plant absent).
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Alluvial deposits
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Natural materials deposited within and adjacent to rivers. For more information see: Alluvium.
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Others
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Calcareous soil
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Calcareous soil is soil which contains accumulations of calcium and magnesium carbonate, formed by the
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weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds.

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Plastic soil
Er.

Plastic soil is soil with a relatively high proportion of silt and clay that, within a certain moisture
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content range, is capable of being moulded or deformed without rupture.

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Subsoil
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Weathered soil layer extending between the natural topsoil and the unweathered basal layer(geological
parent material) below, or similar material on which topsoil can be spread. Subsoilhas lower organic
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matter and plant nutrient content than topsoil. In most cases topsoils require a subsoil to perform one or a

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number of natural soil functions.

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Ref The HS2 London-West Midlands Environmental Statement, Glossary of terms and list of

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abbreviations, DETR 2013.

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Topsoil

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The upper layer of a soil profile, usually darker in colour (because of its higher organic matter content)

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and more fertile than subsoil, and which is a product of natural biological and environmental processes.

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ibid DETR 2013

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Superficial deposit

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A geological deposit that was laid down during the Quaternary period. Such deposits were largely formed

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by river and glacial processes but can also include wind-blown deposits known as loess. ibid DETR 2013

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Physical properties of soil:

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• Soil Texture

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• Soil Structure

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• Soil Density

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• Soil Porosity

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•

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Soil Consistency

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• Soil Colour

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Soil Texture

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Texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a soil.

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Soil containing equal amount of sand, silt and clay is called “loam”.

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Sand (33%) + clay (33%) +silt(33%) = Loam
For ex. 15 % clay, 20% silt and 65% sand is called “sandy loam”. me
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Soil Texture: size (mm)

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• Clay <0.002

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• Silt 0.002- 0.02
• Sand fine 0.02-0.2

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• Sand coarse 0.2-2.0

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• Gravel fine 2.0-5.0

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• Gravel coarse >5.0

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Soil texture could be estimated by

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Feel method:

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• In the feel method soil is moisted with water and rubbed with finger and thumb.

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• The way the wet soil “slicks out” gives a good idea of the clay content.

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•

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The sand particles are gritty.
• The silt has a floury or talcum – powder fell when dry and is only moderately

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plastic and sticky when wet.

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Soil Structure
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• The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but
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when the arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used.
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•
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Structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay)
into compound particles or cluster of primary particles which are separated by the
ah
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adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness.

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• Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air relationships,
Ku

availability of nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth.

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• E.g. a highly plastic clay (60% clay) is good for crop product if it has a well
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developed granular structure which facilitates aeration and water movement.

S
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• Similarly a soil though has a heavy texture, can have a strongly developed
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structure, thus making it not very satisfactory for aquaculture as a result of this
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soil allowing high seepage losses.

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• Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.

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Soil Density
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Soil density is expressed in two well accepted concepts as

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 bulk density
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 particle density
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jay

Particle Density: -
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• The weight per unit volume of the solid portion of soil is called particle density.
S

• Generally particle density of normal soils is 2.65 grams per cubic centimeter.
Er.

• The particle density is higher if large amount of heavy minerals such as magnetite;
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limonite and hematite are present in the soil.

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• With increase in organic matter of the soil the particle density decreases. Particle
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density is also termed as true density.

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• Particle density of different soil textural classes: density ( g/ cm3)

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 Coarse sand- 2.655

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 Fine sand- 2.659

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 Silt -2.798

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 Clay -2.837

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Bulk Density: -

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• The oven dry weight of a unit volume of soil inclusive of pore spaces is called bulk

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density.

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• The bulk density of a soil is always smaller than its particle density.

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• The bulk density of sandy soil is about 1.6 g / cm3.

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• Bulk density of different soil textural classes: density ( g/ cm3)

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 Sandy Soil – 1.6 g/cm3(Pore space-40%)

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 Loam- 1.4 g/cm3(Pore space-47%)

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 Silty loam -1.3 g/cm3(Pore space-50%) art
 Clay -1.1 g/cm3(Pore space-58%)
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Soil Porosity
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• The spaces occupied by air and water between particles in a given volume of soil
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are called pore spaces.

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• The percentage of soil volume occupied by pore space or by the interstitial spaces is
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called porosity of the soil.

•
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It depends upon the texture, structure, compactness and organic content of the soil.
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• Porosity of the soil increases with the increase in the percentage of organic matter in
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the soil.
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•
Er.

Porosity of soil also decreases as the soil particles become much smaller in their
dimension because of decrease in pore spaces.
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• It also decreases with depth of the soil. The pore spaces are responsible for better
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plant growth because they contain enough air and moisture.

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• Percentage of solids in soils can be determined by comparing bulk density and

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particle density and multiplying by hundred.

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Depending upon the size pore spaces fall into two categories.

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These are:

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• Micro-pore spaces (capillary pore spaces)

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• Macro-pore spaces (non-capillary pore spaces)

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Capillary pore spaces can hold more water and restrict the free movement of water and

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air in soil to a considerable extent, whereas macro-pore spaces have little water holding

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capacity and allow free movement of moisture and air in the soil under normal
conditions. me
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Soil Consistency
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• Soil consistency is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is

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determined by the cohesive and adhesive properties of the soil mass.

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properties of soil at various moisture contents.

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• A knowledge of the consistency of the soil is important in tillage operations, traffic

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and pond constructions.

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• Consistency gives also an indication of the soil texture.

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• Consistency is described for three moisture levels:

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Er.

 Wet soil - non sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; non plastic, slightly
y:

plastic, plastic and very plastic.

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 Moist soil - loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm, extremely firm.
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 Dry soil - loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard, extremely hard
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 )
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Soil Color

Ca
• Soil color gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as

wk
the type of minerals in the soil.

ho
• For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance of iron oxide under

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oxidised conditions (welldrainage) in the soil;

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•

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dark color is generally due to the accumulation of highly decayed organic matter;

eri
• yellow color is due to hydrated iron oxides and hydroxide; black nodules are due to

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manganese oxides;

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•

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mottling and gleying are associated with poor drainage and/or high water table.
•

Civ
Abundant pale yellow mottles coupled with very low pH are indicative of possible
acid sulphate soils.

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nt
• Colors of soil matrix and mottles are indicative of the water and drainage conditions
in the soil and hence suitability of the soil for aquaculture. me
art
•
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Soil color is described by the parameters called hue, value and chroma.
,D

• Hue represents the dominant wave length or color of the light; value, refers to the
rer

lightness of the color; chroma, relative purity or strength of the color.

ctu

• The color of the soil in terms of the above parameters could be quickly determined
(Le

by comparison of the sample with a standard set of color chips mounted in a note-
ah

book called MUNSELL SOIL COLOUR CHARTS (Munsell Soil Colour Charts, 1973).
rS

•
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In these charts, the right hand top corner represents the Hue; the vertical axis, the
Ku

value; and the horizontal axis, the chroma.

jay
San
Er.
y:
dB
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 18 of 53
 )
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Soil Exploration

Ca
The knowledge about the site forms a vital role in the safe and economical development of a site.

wk
A thorough investigation of the site is an essential preliminary to the construction of any civil

ho
engineering works. Public building officials may require soil data together with the

ulc
recommendations of the geotechnical consultant prior to issuance of a building permit.

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Elimination of the site exploration, which usually ranges from about 0.5 to1 percent of total

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eri
construction costs, only to find after construction has started that the foundation must be

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redesigned is certainly false economy. This is generally recognized, and it is doubtful if any

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major structures are currently designed without exploration being undertaken.

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Civ
The extent of exploration depends on the importance of the structure, the complexity of the soil
conditions and the budget available for exploration. A detail soil exploration programme

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nt
involves deep boring, field tests and laboratory tests for determination of different properties of
soils required for the design of any structure.
me
art
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Purpose of soil exploration/ Objectives of Soil Investigation

,D

• To determine the basic properties of soil which affect the design and safety of structure i.e.,
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compressibility, strength and hydrological conditions.

ctu

•
(Le

To determine the extent and properties of the material to be used for construction.
• To determine the condition of groundwater.
ah
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• To analyse the causes of failure of existing works.

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• To achieve safe and economical design of foundations and temporary works.

Ku

• To know the nature of each stratum and engineering properties of the soil and rock, which
jay

may affect the design and mode of construction of proposed structure and foundation.
an

• To foresee and provide against difficulties that may arise during construction due to ground
S
Er.

and other local conditions.

y:

• To investigate the occurrence or causes of all natural and man made changes in conditions
dB

and the results arising from such changes.

are

• To ensure the safety of surrounding existing structures.

rep

• To design for the failed structures or remedial measures for the structures deemed to be
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unsafe. To locate the ground water level and possible corrosive effect of soil and water on
ted

foundation material.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 19 of 53
 )
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Methods/Types of Soil Investigation
•

Ca
Open excavation
• Boring Subsurface

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• Subsurface Sounding

ho
• Geophysical Methods

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Open excavation

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Trial pits are a simple and economical method of soil exploration to shallow depths. In this

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method of exploration, a square pit is excavated and soil samples are collected at required

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depths. Pits can be excavated manually with crowbars by local labor. Small tractor-mounted

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mechanical excavators can also be used, if locally available, which makes the exploration faster

Civ
and economical.

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nt
Such a pit can be easily excavated at the proposed construction site, if the soil has a bit of

me
cohesion, and the soil samples can be lifted from such different depths, besides making the easy
art
visualization and examination of the different strata. Even undisturbed soil samples can be lifted
ep
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from such a pit by a process called chunk.

rer

Suitability/Advantages of Test Pits:

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• The method is simple and fast.

(Le

• Test pits are one of the most economical means of soil exploration to shallow depths.
ah

•
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Undisturbed samples can be collected with minimum disturbance.

ma

• It is possible to directly observe the soil profile and its variation in the vertical or lateral
Ku

direction by observing the walls of the test pit.

jay

• The presence of any lenses or pockets of weaker material can be readily identified.
an

• Test pits are particularly valuable in investigating the nature of fill material, where voids,
S
Er.

loosely deposited layers, or deleterious material can be readily recognized.

y:

• Test pits or trenches are the only reliable means of obtaining adequate information on a filled
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ground or very variable natural deposits.

are
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Disadvantages of Test Pits:

•
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Not suitable for larger depths.

ted
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 )
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Boring Subsurface

Ca
Soil samples can be lifted from deeper depths by drilling bore holes by using mechanical devices

wk
called samplers. The process consists of

ho
1. Drilling a hole and visually examining the cuttings coming out from different depths

ulc
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2. Lifting the soil samples from different depths by using mechanical devices called samplers.

ng
Methods of boring:

eri
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a) Auger boring

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In auger boring, vertical holes are advanced by rotating the cross arm of the auger and pushing
Ku

the auger into the ground. When the auger is filled with the soil, it is withdrawn. The soil is
jay

removed from the auger and examined. The auger is then inserted into the borehole, pushed into
an

the bottom soil by rotation of the cross arm, and the process is repeated.
S
Er.

Helical augers, when used with casing, facilitate collection of undisturbed soil samples by fixing
y:

the sampler to the bottom of the drill rod. Field tests such as SPT may also be done by attaching
dB

the standard spilt-spoon sampler to the bottom of the drill rod after removing the helical screw.
are
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Augers may be operated manually by labor or may be power driven. Hand augers (generally
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post-hole type) are usually suitable for depths up to 5-7 m in soft-to-firm clays or sands with
some cohesion. Mechanical augers are suitable for depths up to 12 m and additional rods may be
ted
llec

used for extension to greater depths.

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 21 of 53
 )
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Suitability:
•

Ca
Auger boring is generally suitable in soils where the walls of the borehole can stand without

wk
casing or stabilization with a drilling fluid above the GWT.

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• Augers are found to be particularly suitable for highway, railway, or airfield projects, where

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low cost, rapid drilling, and high mobility of the equipment make them ideally suited for

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such projects.

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eri
Disadvantages:

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• The main disadvantage with auger boring is that the samples are highly disturbed and mixed.

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•

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Work may be held up and auger boring is not suitable if large cobbles, boulders, or other

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obstructions are present at any depth.
• It is generally difficult, if not impossible, to locate the exact changes in the soil strata.

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nt
me
b) Wash boring
art
Wash boring is one of the most commonly used economical method for advancing boreholes in
ep

medium soft-to-firm clays and dense sands for soil exploration.

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ah
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Ku
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 22 of 53
 )
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mp
Procedure:

Ca
i. A casing is first driven into the ground to a depth of 1.5-3 m. A hollow drill rod, with a
chisel-shaped chopping bit at its bottom, is inserted inside the casing.

wk
ho
ii. Water is pumped down into the drill rod that emerges as a strong jet through the small

ulc
openings of the bit at the bottom of the drill rod.

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iii. The jet disintegrates the soil in the borehole and carries the broken fragments upward

ng
eri
through the annular space between the casing and the drill rod.

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iv. This return water, carrying soil fragments, known as cuttings, is collected in a sump tank

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through a T-shaped pipe fixed at the top of the casing.

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v. The hole is further advanced by alternately raising and dropping the chopping bit by a

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winch. The drill rod is supported through a swivel joint, wire rope, and a pulley by a

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triangular or equivalent frame. The swivel joint facilitates turning of the drill rod.

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me
vi. The process of raising, dropping, and turning of the drill rod is continued even below the
art
bottom of the casing until the borehole begins to collapse.
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vii. At this stage, the casing is further driven into the borehole and extended at the top by
,D

providing additional pieces.

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viii. Soil samples can be collected by attaching soil samplers to the bottom of the drill rod,
(Le

after removing the chopping bit. The soil sampler is pushed into the bottom of the
ah

borehole vertically after cleaning and then withdrawn. The undisturbed soil sample is
rS

brought along with the soil sampler.

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ix. Bentonite slurry (5% bentonite mixed in water as solution) may be generally used instead
Ku

of water as the drilling fluid, which stabilizes the walls of the borehole.
jay

Changes in the soil profile are indicated by:

San

i. The rate of progress of drilling.

Er.

ii. Color of the drilling fluid.

y:

iii. Examination of the soil cuttings.

dB
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Applicability:
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The soil cuttings are not representative of the soil in situ, due to breakdown of particles, loss of
&P

fines during transport to ground level, and segregation in the sump tank. However, the wash
boring method today is primarily useful as a means of advancing a borehole in the interval
ted

between the collections of soil samples at different levels in the borehole.

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 )
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Advantages:
i. Wash boring method is one of the simplest and fastest methods of soil exploration in soft-

Ca
to medium-stiff cohesive soils and in sand or gravels without boulders.

wk
ho
ii. The equipment used for this method is light and inexpensive.

ulc
iii. It can also be adopted in inaccessible locations, such as on water, in swamps, or in

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between buildings.

ng
iv. Undisturbed soil sampling or field testing, such as SPT or vane shear test, can be readily

eri
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done in this method.

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Disadvantages:

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i. The method is slow in the stiffer and coarse-grained soils and is not efficient in materials

Civ
such as hard or cemented soils, rock, and soils that contain boulders.

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ii. The method is not suitable for collecting undisturbed soil samples above GWT since the

nt
me
drilling fluid enters the soil mass and may increase its water content.
art
ep

c) Percussion boring/drilling
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This method is used to make hole in all types of soils including boulders and rocks. In this
ctu

method, soil is lessened by repeated blows of a heavy drilling bit. The bit is called the churn bit.
(Le
ah
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ma
Ku
jay
San
Er.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 24 of 53
 )
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The bit is attached to the end of a drilling rod and is raised and dropped alternately in the bore

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Ca
hole. Water is added to facilitate the breaking of the soil. The slurry formed at the bottom of the

wk
hole is removed by means of bailers or sand pumps. This method is suitable for boring in rocks

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and hard soil.

ulc
Procedure:

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ng
i. Alternately raising and dropping a combination of heavy drilling tools to break down the

eri
material at the bottom and to form slurry of the material.

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ii. The combination of drilling tools consists of a drill rod with a chisel-shaped chopping bit at

ng
its lower end. The chopping bit has beveled edges for cutting the material at the bottom of

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the borehole.

Civ
iii. Periodically removing the slurry using bailers.

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nt
iv. The amount of water introduced into the hole in this method is kept to the minimum

me
required to form the slurry. In soft soils and cohesionless material below GWT, no water is
art
generally used in this method.
ep
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v. Changes in the soil profile are indicated by the rate of progress of drilling, color of the
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slurry, and examination of the contents of the slurry.

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Removal of Soil Slurry:

(Le

Bailers or sand pumps are used for removal of the slurry from the bottom of the borehole. A
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bailer consists of a pipe having a one-way valve at its lower end and a bail at its upper end.
rS

When the bailer is pushed into the bottom of the borehole, the valve opens and the slurry enters
ma
Ku

the bailer. When the bailer is lifted, the valve closes and the slurry is retained in the bailer.
jay

The process is repeated several times to collect the entire slurry into the bailer. The bailer is then
an

lifted to ground level and tipped upside down to remove the slurry from the bailer.
S
Er.

Advantages:
y:

i. The main advantage of percussion drilling is that it can be used in all types of soil or rock
dB

and particularly useful for soils containing boulders and rock.

are

ii. It may also be useful to probe cavities and weakness in rock, by observing changes in the
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drill rate.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 25 of 53
 )
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Disadvantages:

Ca
i. The main disadvantage of percussion drilling is that the blows of the chisel disturb the soil
at the bottom of the borehole heavily.

wk
ho
ii. It is also not economical for boreholes of diameter less than 100 mm.

ulc
iii. It is difficult to trace thin layers or slight changes in soil strata when this method is used.

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ng
eri
d) Rotary boring/drilling

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Rotary boring or drilling is a very fast method of advancing holes in rocks and soils. This method

ng
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is used to advance hole in rocks and soils. Rotating core barrels which are provided with

Civ
commercial diamond bits or a steel bit with slots are used for rotary drilling. This method is used

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to obtain the rock cores, so this method is called as core boring or core drilling.

nt
me
Procedure:
art
In this method, the borehole is advanced by rotating a hollow drill rod, which has a cutting bit at
ep

its lower end. The drill rod is rotated by a drill head, provided at the top of the drill rod. The drill
,D

head consists of a rotary drive mechanism and an arrangement for applying downward pressure.
rer
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(Le
ah
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Ku
jay
San
Er.
y:
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As the drill rod is rotated, the cutting bit shears of chips of the material penetrated. A drilling
rep

mud, usually a water solution of bentonite with or without other admixtures, is continuously
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forced down the hollow drill rod.

ted
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 26 of 53
 )
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The drilling fluid serves the following three functions:

Ca
i. It carries the cuttings of the material penetrated from the bottom of the borehole to the
ground surface, through the annular space between the drill rod and the walls of the

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borehole.

ulc
ii. It also cools the cutting bit.

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iii. It supports the walls of the borehole in uncased boreholes. Casing is usually not required

ng
eri
except near ground surface.

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Sample Collection:

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When sampling is required, the drill rod is raised and the cutting bit is replaced by a soil sampler.

Civ
When the rotary boring is done through rock and when it is required to collect rock core samples,
a coring bit is used at the bottom of the drill rod, instead of the cutting bit.

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The coring bit cuts an annular hole around an intact core that enters the barrel and is recovered.

nt
me
Thus, the core barrel is used primarily in bedrock, which is usually cored continuously up to the
art
required depth.
ep
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Advantages:
rer

i. Rotary boring is superior to all other methods of soil exploration.

ctu

ii. It is more rapid, in general, than the other methods of boring.

(Le

iii. It also causes lesser disturbance to the soil during sampling. Due to this reason, its
ah

applications are increasing day by day.

rS
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Disadvantages:
Ku

i. The equipment is bulky and expensive.

jay

ii. The method is not suitable for inaccessible locations.

an

iii. If the soil contains large gravel, it will rotate beneath the drill bits and cannot be easily
S

broken. Thus, a nest of gravel will continually remain at the bottom of the borehole,
Er.

preventing or delaying the progress of advancing the borehole.

y:
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 27 of 53
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e) Subsurface Sounding

Ca
These tests are carried out to measure the resistance to penetration of a sampling spoon, a cone or

wk
other shaped tools under dynamic or static loading. These tests are used for exploration of erratic

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solid profiles for finding depth to bedrock or stratum and to get approximate indication of the

ulc
strength and other properties of soil. Methods of Subsurface Sounding Tests are:

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ng
i. Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

eri
This test is carried out in a clean hole of diameter about 55 to 150mm. the sides of the holes are

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supported by casing or drilling mud. A split tube sampler with 50.8mm outer diameter, 38mm

ng
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inner diameter is driven into the undisturbed soil, placed at the bottom of the hole under the

Civ
blows of 65kg drive weight with 75cm free fall.

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The minimum open length of the sampler is 60cm, the samplers is first driven through 15cm as a

nt
me
seating drive and then through 30 cm or until 100 blows have been applied. Number of blows
art
required to drive sampler 30cm beyond the seating drive is known as penetration resistance and
ep

it is denoted by N.
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When N is greater than 15, Terzaghi and Peck have recommended the use of an equivalent
ctu

penetration resistance, Ne in place of the actually observed value of N.

(Le
ah
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Gibbs and Holtz have studied experimentally the effect of overburden pressure on the value of N
Ku

and their modification for air dry or moist sand can be represented by the relation,
jay
San
Er.
y:

Where Ne= Corrected value of overburden effect

dB

N= actual values of blows

are

= effective overburden pressure (kN/sq.m)

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Note: The overburden correction is applied first and then dilatancy

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correction is applied.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 28 of 53
 )
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ii. Cone penetration test or Dutch cone test

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Ca
This type of test is carried out to get a continuous record of the resistance of the soil by

wk
penetrating steadily under static pressure, a cone with base of 10 sq.cm (3.6 cm in dia.) and an

ho
angle of 60 degree at the vortex.

ulc
To find out the cone resistance, the cone alone is first forced down for a distance of 8cm and the

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ng
maximum value of resistance is recorded. This test is very useful in finding bearing capacity of

eri
pits in cohesion-less soil. Cone resistance qc (kg/sq.cm) is approximately equal to 10 times the

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penetration resistance N.

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f) Geophysical Methods

Civ
i. Electrical resistivity method

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This method is based on the measurement and recording of changes in the mean resistivity or

nt
apparent specific resistance of various soils. The test is done by driving four metal spikes to act

me
as electrodes into the ground along a straight line at equal distances. This is shown in the figure.
art
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Direct voltage is applied between the two outer potentiometer electrodes and then mean for the
,D

potential drop between the inner electrodes is calculated.

rer
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(Le
ah
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jay
San
Er.
y:
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Mean resistivity (ohm-cm)

are
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Where D= distance between the electrodes (cm)

ted
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E= potential drop between outer electrodes (volts)

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 29 of 53
 )
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I= current flowing between outer electrodes (amperes)

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Ca
R= resistance (ohms)

wk
Resistivity mapping: This method is used to find out the horizontal changes in the sub soil, the

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electrodes kept at a constant spacing, are moved as a group along the line of tests.

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Resistivity sounding: This method is used to study the vertical changes; the electrode system is

ng
expanded, about a fixed central point by increasing the spacing gradually from an initial small

eri
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value to a distance roughly equal to the depth of exploration desired.

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ii. Seismic refraction method

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This method is very fast and reliable in establishing profiles of different strata, provided the

Civ
deeper layers have increasingly greater density, higher velocities and greater thickness.

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nt
me
art
The above available methods of exploration can be broadly classified into two categories:
ep

• Direct methods
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• Indirect methods
ctu

The direct method of soil exploration usually consists of sinking a borehole at a predetermined
(Le

location to the required depth by a method suitable for the site and to obtain fairly intact samples
ah
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of soils from every stratum encountered or at suitably selected depths. The samples obtained are
ma

utilized to get necessary information about the soil characteristics by means of laboratory tests.
Ku

During recent years, indirect methods of soil exploration have also been used for civil
jay

engineering structures. These methods include various sounding and geophysical methods. In
an

sounding methods, the variation in penetration resistance of sample or cone is utilized to

S
Er.

interpret some of the physical properties of the strata. In geophysical methods, the change in
y:

subsoil strata are identified by measuring certain physical characteristics, e.g. electrical
dB

conductance, wave velocity of subsurface deposits. In addition to these methods, projectiles,

are

probes, and aerial photographs are also useful in interpreting the soil characteristics.
rep
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ted
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 30 of 53
 )
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mp
What is a retaining wall?

Ca
A retaining wall is a structure that holds or retains soil behind it. There are many types of

wk
materials that can be used to create retaining walls like concrete blocks, poured concrete, treated

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timbers, rocks or boulders. Some are easy to use, others have a shorter life span, but all can retain

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soil.

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Retaining wall is a structure that are designed and constructed to withstand lateral pressure of

eri
soil or hold back soil materials. The lateral pressure could be also due to earth filling, liquid

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pressure, sand, and other granular materials behind the retaining wall structure. There are various

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types of retaining wall structures which are used for numerous goals.

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Types of Retaining Walls

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1. Gravity Retaining Wall

nt
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2. Crib Retaining Wall art
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3. Gabion Retaining Walls

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4. Cantilever Retaining Wall

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5. Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall

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6. Anchored Retaining Wall

ah
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7. Piled Retaining Wall

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8. Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining wall

Ku

9. Hybrid Systems
jay
San
Er.

1. Gravity Retaining Wall

y:

• Gravity retaining wall depends on its self weight only to resist lateral earth pressure.
dB

• Commonly, gravity retaining wall is massive because it requires significant gravity load to
are

counter act soil pressure.

rep

• Sliding, overturning, and bearing forces shall be taken into consideration while this type of
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retaining wall structure is designed.

• It can be constructed from different materials such as concrete, stone, and masonry units.
ted

• It is economical for a height up to 3m.

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 31 of 53
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• Crib retaining wall, gabions, and bin retaining wall are also type of gravity retaining walls

Ca
wk
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Fig. 1: Gravity retaining wall

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nt
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art
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Fig. 2: Materials used for gravity retaining wall construction

ah
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San
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y:
dB
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Fig. 3: Pressure acting on gravity retaining wall

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 32 of 53
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2. Crib Retaining Wall
•

Ca
Crib retaining walls are a form of gravity wall.
• They are constructed of interlocking individual boxes made from timber or pre-cast concrete.

wk
•

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Then, the boxes are filled with crushed stone or other coarse granular materials to create a

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free draining structure.

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• Basic types of crib retaining walls include reinforced precast, and timber retaining walls.

ng
• It is suited to support planter areas, but it is not recommended for support of slopes or

eri
structures.

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art
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Fig. 4: Crib retaining wall

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ah
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Fig. 5: Timber Crib retaining wall

San
Er.

3. Gabion Retaining Walls

y:

•
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Gabion retaining wall walls are multi-celled, rectangular wire mesh boxes, which are filled
with rocks or other suitable materials.
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• It is employed for construction of erosion control structures.

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• It is also used to stabilize steep slopes.

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Fig. 6: Gabion retaining wall

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4. Cantilever Retaining Wall
• Cantilever retaining wall composed of stem and base slab
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• It is constructed from reinforced concrete, precast concrete, or prestress concrete.
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• Cantilever retaining wall is the most common type used as retaining walls.
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•
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Cantilever retaining wall is either constructed on site or prefabricated offsite i.e. precast.
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• The portion of the base slab beneath backfill material is termed as heel, and the other part is
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called toe.
• Cantilever retaining wall is economical up to height of 10m.
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•
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It requires smaller quantity of concrete compare with gravity wall but its design and
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construction shall be executed carefully.

•
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Similar to gravity wall, sliding, overturning, and bearing pressure shall be taken into
consideration during its design.
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Fig.7: Cantilever retaining wall

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Fig. 8: Precast retaining wall

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Fig. 9: Different pressure on cantilever retaining wall

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Fig. 10: Different configuration for cantilever retaining wall

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5. Counter-fort / Buttressed Retaining Wall

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• It is a cantilever retaining wall but strengthened with counter forts monolithic with the back
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of the wall slab and base slab.

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• Counter fort spacing is equal or slightly larger than half of the counter-fort height.
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• Counter-fort wall height ranges from 8-12m.

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Fig. 11: Counter-fort or buttress retaining wall

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6. Anchored Retaining Wall
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This type of retaining wall is employed when the space is limited or thin retaining wall is

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required.

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• Anchored retaining wall is suitable for loose soil over rocks.art
• Considerably high retaining wall can be constructed using this type of retaining wall
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structure system.
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• deep cable rods or wires are driven deep sideways into the earth, then the ends are filled with
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concrete to provide anchor.

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Anchors (tiebacks) acts against overturning and sliding pressure.

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Fig. 12: Anchored retaining wall

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Fig. 13: Different configuration for anchored retaining wall

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7. Piled Retaining Wall

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• Pile retaining wall are constructed by driving reinforced concrete piles adjacent to each other
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as shown in the Fig.

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• Piles are forced into a depth that is sufficient to counter the force which tries to push over the
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wall.
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• It is employed in both temporary and permanent works.

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• Piled walls offer high stiffness retaining elements which are able to hold lateral pressure in
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large excavation depths with almost no disturbance to surrounding structures or properties.

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• Sheet pile walls are built using steel sheets into a slope or excavations up to a required depth,
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but it cannot withstand very high pressure

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• Sheet pile retaining wall economical till height of 6m

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Fig. 14: pile retaining wall

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Fig. 15: Temporary pile retaining wall

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Fig. 16: Sheet pile retaining wall

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8. Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE) Retaining wall
•

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It is among the most economical and most commonly constructed retaining walls.
• Mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall is supported by selected fills (granular) and held

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together by reinforcements, which can be either metallic strips or plastic meshes

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• Types of MSE retaining wall include panel, concrete block, and temporary earth retaining

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walls.

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Fig. 17: Mechanically stabilized earth retaining wall
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9. Hybrid Systems
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• Retaining walls that use both mass and reinforcement for stability are termed
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as Hybrid or Composite retaining wall systems.

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Fig. 18: Hybrid retaining wall system

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Uses For Retaining Wall Systems:

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• To increase usable space – If your property is sloped, you may be losing out on valuable

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usable space. By having a wall or wall system installed on the property, it allows for the land

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to be leveled off, providing additional space that can be used for a variety of purposes. Once

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a sufficient structural wall is in place, land can be backfilled to level off the ground, turning

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an unusable slope into usable flat land.

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• To improve drainage – When land is sloped, it can create major issues due to water flowing

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down the slope. To improve drainage and avoid flooding, structural walls are often built to

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stop the water from travelling downhill. Even if an entire area is not leveled off, retaining

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wall systems can redirect water so that it has a chance to properly drain, rather than causing

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problems. This is especially helpful if land slopes down towards a house or building, where

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water can cause major internal flooding issues. It is also useful if land slopes towards a patio,

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driveway, parking lot or any other usable space where water flowing downhill will pool, turn
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the ground to mud or flood the area.
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• To impede erosion – Soil on land that is severely sloped can erode over time as water, wind
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and gravity cause it to travel downhill. This can cause major problems, compromising the
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structural integrity of the land, as well as resulting in more minor issues.

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• To enhance privacy – Sometimes retaining walls are built in order to enhance privacy
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between properties. These walls are useful as privacy enhancers when one home or building
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sits higher than another.

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• To add visual interest – Very often, retaining walls are built primarily to add to the visual
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interest of a property’s landscaping. These walls add depth and dimension and can create a
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variety of visually interesting levels that enhance the overall design of the outdoor space. To
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add to the beauty of these structures, the walls can be built in a number of attractive, high-
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quality materials, including natural stone, stone veneer, pavers, blocks and concrete, among
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other finishes. Retaining walls can be designed to coordinate with surrounding features and
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to fit seamlessly into the surrounding landscape.

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PROPORTIONING OF RETAINING WALLS.

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Based on practical experience, retaining walls can be proportioned initially which may be
checked for stability subsequently. The common dimensions used for the various types of

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retaining walls are given below.

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Gravity Retaining Wall:

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Cantilever Retaining Wall:

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Counterfort Retaining Wall:

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Foundation:

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A foundation is the element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and

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transfers loads from the structure to the ground.

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Part of a building or structure that transmits structural loads to the earth and supports the

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superstructure.

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A structural foundation is the part of a building that fixes it into the soil. These structures provide

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support for the main structures that appear above the soil level, much like the roots of a tree

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support the stem.

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Purpose

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Foundations provide the structure's stability from the ground.

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• To distribute the weight of the structure over large area so as to avoid over-loading of the

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soil beneath.
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To anchor the structures against the changing natural forces like Earthquakes, floods, frost-
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heave, tornado or wind.

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• To load the sub-stratum evenly and thus prevent unequal settlement.

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• To provide a level surface for building operations.

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• To take the structure deep into the ground and thus increase its stability, preventing
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overloading.
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• Specially designed foundation helps in avoiding the lateral movements of the supporting
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material.
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• Avoid unequal settlement.

•
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Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.

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• Increase structural stability.

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Requirements of a Good Foundation

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The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic

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requirements that must not be ignored. They are:

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The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well

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as transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out

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without resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues

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for the structure.

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Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These

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issues are more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in

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nature.

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• Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can

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guard any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of
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shrinkage and swelling because of temperature changes.

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• The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced
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by future works or factors.

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Factors Considered for Selection of Foundation Type

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There are many important factors that one should consider before choosing a foundation system
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for a particular structure. Those factors are briefly noted below:

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• Importance of the Building

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• Life of the Structure

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• Loads from superstructure

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Type of construction materials to be used.

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Water table level.

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• Type of adjoining structure.

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• Soil condition.
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• Location of building
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Types of Foundation

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In general, all foundations are divided into two categories, such as SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

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and DEEP FOUNDATIONS. The terms Shallow Foundation and Deep Foundation refer to the

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depth of the soil at which the foundation is placed. Generally, if the width of the foundation is

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greater than the depth of the foundation it is labeled as “Shallow Foundation” and if the width of

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the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation it is called as “Deep Foundation.”

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However, shallow and deep foundations can be further classified as shown in the following chart.

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1. Isolated/Individual/Pad Footing
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This is the most common and simplest type of foundation as this is the most economical type of
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foundation. They are generally used for ordinary buildings.

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Figure: Isolated Footing

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Isolated footing type foundation consists of footing at the base of the column. This type of

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foundations is independent footings. Usually, each column has its own footing. The footing

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directly transfers the loads form the column to the soil. The footings may be rectangular, square

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or circular in shape. The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the total load

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at the column base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. Isolated Spread Footing is

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economical when:

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• The load of the structure is relatively low.

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• Columns are not closely placed.

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Bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

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2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

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This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing walls to the ground.

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Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall foundation is
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generally 2-3 times of the width of the wall.
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Figure: Wall Footing or Strip footing

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The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced
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concrete etc. is used for the construction of wall foundations. Wall footing is economical when:
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Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.

• The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels.
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3. Combined Footing

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The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns of the structure

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are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low and their footing overlap each other,

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combined footing is provided.

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The foundations which are made common to more than one column are called combined

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footings. They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or trapezoidal in shape. The main objective is the

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uniform distribution of loads under the entire area of footing. For this is necessary to coincide the

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center of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the total loads.

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Figure: Combined Footing

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Combined foundations are economic when:

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• The columns are placed close to each other.

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• When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross the
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property line or become eccentric.

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• Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.
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4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

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Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for considering or choosing strap

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footing is similar to the combined footing.

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In strap footing, the footings under the columns are built individually and connected by strap

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beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended beyond the property line the

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exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

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The individual footings are so designed that their combined line of action passes through the

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resultant of the total load. A strap footing is more economical than a combined footing when the

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allowable soil pressure is relatively high and the distance between the columns is large.

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Figure: Strap Footing

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5. Raft or Mat Foundation

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Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not
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suitable. It is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the
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load of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly subjected to
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shocks or jerks.
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Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over the entire area
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of the structure. In this type of foundation, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation.
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The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure. This is called
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Raft because in this case, the building seems like a vessel which floats on a sea of soil.
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Figure: Raft or Mat foundations
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Raft foundations are economic when:

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• The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
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The structure includes a basement.

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• Columns are closely placed.

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Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.

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• Differential settlement is to be prevented.

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How to decide which footing is to be adopted Isolated footing or Raft footing:-

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1. If the bearing capacity of the soil is very good and the super structural load is very small..
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The use of isolated foundation is recommended.

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2. If the bearing capacity of the soil is very low.

3. If the super structural load to be transferred to the foundation is very high that the area of
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the isolated footing to be used is more than half the area covered by the building When we
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provide elevator in the building a separate raft may be provided on the elevator shaft.
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4. When the soil contains lenses ( or weak zones ) that should be bridged then raft might be
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used.
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6. Pile Foundation

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Pile foundation is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost and when as

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per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond

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the reach of shallow foundations.

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Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It is used to

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transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity of soil near

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the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also

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used for resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability against lateral and

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overturning forces.

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Pile foundations are economic using pile foundation when

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Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.

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• When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
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• When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundations.
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• When the foundation is subjected to a heavy concentrated load.

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• In marshy places.
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• When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature. • In case of bridges when the scouring is
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more in the river bed

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Figure: Pile foundations

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Guidelines for Depth of Foundation:

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Footings are placed at some depth below the ground surface with minimum embedment for

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the following purposes:

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1. To gain additional bearing capacity derived by the embedment.

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2. To place the footing below the zone of seasonal moisture variations for protection against

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swelling and shrinkage cycle in case of clayey soils and against the frost action in cold

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climates.

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3. To enable the removal of top organic soil layer.

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4. To avoid excessive rise in the elevation of finished floor level.

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5. To prevent loss of support to the foundation by soil erosion.
6. The depth of foundation mainly depends on the soil profile at the construction site. Depth of

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foundation is the first and most important parameter to be decided before choosing suitable
foundation for the structure.
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Following are the criteria used to decide the depth of foundation:
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1. Minimum Embedment Depth: IS – 1904-1986 recommends a minimum depth of 0.5 m for

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the foundation. It is, however, conventional to use a minimum depth of 0.9 m for the
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foundation.
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2. As per Rankine’s theory

Minimum depth of foundation =p/w (1-sin Φ /1+sin Φ) 2
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where p=gross bearing capacity

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w =density of soil
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Φ =angle of friction of soil

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3. Top Soil: The top soil at any site is usually organic soil or waste, which should be
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completely removed and the foundation is placed below the top soil. If the top soil extends
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to a larger depth, it may be replaced with a suitable backfill material and the foundation may
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be placed at the minimum depth.

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4. Filled-Up Soil: Certain sites are previously used as dumps for municipal waste or old mine
dB

waste. The foundation in such sites should be taken below the bottom of the waste dump to
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avoid excessive settlement of the foundation and structure. Alternately, the waste may be
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completely removed and replaced with suitable backfill and the foundation may be located
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at a suitable depth.
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5. Depth of Hard/Stiff Soil: The foundation should be taken to a level where soil with

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reasonably high bearing capacity and less compressibility is available. This is the usual rule
unless the depth to the hard stratum is very large. This will mainly ensure that the size of the

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foundation is not excessively large and hence economical.

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6. Type of Structure: For heavy, large, and important structures, such as multi-story

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structures, sky scrapers, and bridges, the foundations should always be taken to the hard

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soil/rock.

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7. Type of Soil: For structures located in sites with deep soft clays, the foundation should

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usually be taken below the bottom of the soft clay, unless the ground improvement proves

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more economical and viable solution with a shallow depth of foundation.

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8. Groundwater Table: Wherever feasible, the foundation should be located above the

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groundwater table (GWT). This is because of the undesirable effects of the ground water on

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the foundation as well as the foundation soil. However, the GWT level changes with seasons

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and it may not always be possible to consider this criterion.art
9. Frost Depth: In cold regions, where water near ground surface is likely to be frozen during
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winter, the foundation should be located below the frost depth to avoid damage to the
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foundation from frost heave.

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It is customary practice to place the foundation of a “simple footing” at a minimum depth of

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1.50m from GL or at least 1.50 times the width of footing. In cold climates the depth is Kept
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at a minimum of 1.50m below surface because of possible frost action.

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10. Active Zone: In black cotton soils, the high volume changes within depth of active zone due
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to seasonal moisture variations have detrimental effects on the foundation, floors and walls
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of the building. Hence, the foundation is located below the depth of active zone, which
Ku

varies from 1.5 to 2.5 m or more from place to place.

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11. Damage to Adjacent Structures: The depth of foundation should be so selected as to avoid
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the overlapping of the pressure bulb of the new foundation with that of the foundations of
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the adjacent structure. This is to avoid damage to the existing structure due to the
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construction of the new structure.

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A few practical requirements also may have to be considered while deciding the depth of
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foundation such as the existing foundation of nearby building, the possible influence of
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future expansion etc. If the height of building is more, the horizontal forces acting on the
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building such as wind force are large. As a thumb rule, minimum depth of foundation may
be selected as 5% to 10% of the height of building.
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12. Scour Depth and Grip Length: For all bridges, the foundations should be located below

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the maximum scour depth plus the minimum grip length below the highest flood level.

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13. For building of six storey or more, it may be kept at 1.5m to 2.0m. For tall isolated

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Structures, like water towers, the foundation depth may be at 3.0m also.

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14. Where the moisture content may vary and cause shrinkage, the depth must be considered

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with the minimum moisture content variation(1.50m to 2.0m).In case of black cotton soils of

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expansive nature, the zone of movement may be as deep as 3.0m to 3.50m. This is why ,the

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under reamed piles in expansive clays are taken to minimum depth of 3.50m.

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Dimensioning of Footing based on given values of safe bearing
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capacity of soil:
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1.
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Find Service load coming from superstructure

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2. Find total load on footing assuming 10-15% self weight of footing.

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3. Calculate required area of footing by dividing total with SBC(safe bearing capacity of soil).
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4. Find length(L) & Breadth(B) of footing based on this required area by proper proportioning.
ah

Generally Projection of footings should be taken equal all around of Column/Wall. Also, the
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provided area of footing must me greater or equal to required area calculated before.
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5. Calculate thickness of footing based on one-way & two shear criteria.

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 53 of 53