ISC’2 Session 1: Mechanical in-situ testing methods

Marcelo. Devincenzi
Igeotest, SL, Spain.
John J. M. Powell
Centre for Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Building Research Establishment, Watford, United Kingdom.
Nuno Cruz
Mota-Engil, Engenharia e Construções, SA; Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal.

Preprint : ISC’2, 2nd International

Conference on Geotechnical Site
Characterization, Porto, Sept. 2004

Keywords: in situ test, characterisation, investigation programme, standards

ABSTRACT: The objective of this report is to introduce ISC’2 Session 1 “Mechanical in-situ testing meth-
ods”. A general prologue is made stressing the potential of geotechnical/geoenvironmental in situ testing and
the importance of global standards that will ensure that tests are carried out with consistency, a subject of
prime importance to transfer experience from one country to another or develop generic correlations. A wide
range of parameters can be reliably obtained from in situ testing and it is noticeable that the ratings of some
tests have improved as the database of experience has built up, but others have declined as the initial predic-
tions of their capability have been found to be wanting.
Effort is required in order to improve the situation and get the best from existing tests. The papers presented
to Session 1 are an example of this fact. The 20 papers, from 13 different countries around the world, cover a
wide range of topics and uses of in situ tests and this variability is a good example of their versatility and use-
fulness for a ground investigation programme provided the right test is selected for the situation and the
equipment and procedures allow repeatable and quality data to be obtained.

techniques available to meet the objectives of a

1 INTRODUCTION
ground investigation and these include both field and
laboratory testing of the ground. Laboratory tests
Successful geotechnical design and construction re-
include those that test elements of the ground, such
quire a good knowledge of the mechanical behaviour
as triaxial tests and those that test prototype models,
of the ground including its spatial variability. The
such as centrifuge tests. Field tests include drilling,
requisite information is gathered as part of a ground
sampling, in-situ testing, full-scale testing and geo-
investigation programme.
physical tests.
The objective of any subsurface exploration pro-
An ideal ground investigation (GI) should include
gramme is to determine the following:
a combination of laboratory tests, primarily to clas-
sify the ground, and field tests, primarily to deter-
1. Nature and sequence of the subsurface strata
mine engineering parameters.
(geological regime)
Field and laboratory techniques should be viewed
2. Groundwater conditions (hydrogeological re-
as complementary rather than competitive. In situ
gime)
tests can, however, often offer significant advan-
3. Physical and mechanical properties of the sub-
tages over laboratory tests, for example:
surface strata (engineering regime)

they can be quicker, easier and cheaper than sam-
For geo-environmental site investigations of
pling and laboratory testing,
ground contamination there is the additional re-

the soil can be assessed in its natural environment
quirement to determine the
without the potential problems of sample distur-
bance,
4. Distribution and composition of contaminants

and the spatial variability of the deposit can be
(geoenvironmental regime)
more fully investigated.
These requirements vary in volumetric extent de-
Table 1 (from Lunne et al 1997) is an updated
pending on the nature of the proposed project and
version of a table originally devised in the early
the perceived ground related risks. There are many
Table 1: The applicability and usefulness of in situ tests. Lunne et al., 1997
Soil Parameters Ground type
Group

Hard rock
Soil Type

Soft rock
Profile

Gravel
Device

OCR

Sand

Clay
Peat
σ−ε

Silt
*φ’

mv
Su

G0
σh
ID

cv
u

k
Dynamic C B - C C C - - - C - C - - C B A B B B
Mechanical A A/B - C C B C- - - C C C - - C C A A A A
Penetrometers

Electric (CPT) B A - C B A/B C - - B B/C B - - C C A A A A

Piezocone (CPTU) A A A B B A/B B AB B B B/C B C - C - A A A A
Seismic (SCPT/SCPTU) A A A B A/B A/B B AB B A B B B - C - A A A A
Flat Dilatometer (DMT) B A C B B C B - - B B B C C C - A A A A
Standard (SPT) A B - C C B - - - C - C - - C B A A A A
Resistivity probe B B - B C A C - - - - - - - C - A A A A
Pressure-

Pre-Bored (PBP) B B - C B C B C - B C C C A A B B B A B
meters

1 1 2 2
Self boring (SBP) B B A B B B B A B A A/B B AB - B - B B A B
Full displacement (FDP) B B - C B C C C - A2 C C C - C - B B A A
Vane (FVT) B C - - A - - - - - - B/C B - - - - - A B
Plate load C - - C B B B C C A C B B B A B B A A A
Screw plate C C - C B B B C C A C B - - - - A A A A
Others

Borehole permeability C - A - - - - B A - - - - A A A A A A B
Hydraulic fracture - - B - - - - C C - B - - B B - - C A C
Crosshole /Downhole /
C C - - - - - - - A - B - A A A A A A A
Surface seismic
Applicability: A = high, B = moderate, C = low, -= none
*φ’ = will depend on soil type; 1 = only when pore pressure sensor fitted; 2 = only when displacement sensor fitted.
u = in situ static pore pressure; φ’ = effective internal friction angle; su = undrained shear strength; mv = constrained modulus; cv =
coefficient of consolidation; k = coefficient of permeability; G0 = shear modulus at small strains; OCR = overconsolidation ratio; σ-
ε = stress-strain relationship; ID = density index

1980s and presents a list of some of the major in-situ
tests and their applicability for use in different
ground conditions. If this table were compared with
the earlier versions it would be noticeable that the
ratings of some tests have improved as the database
of experience has built up, but others have declined
as the initial predictions of their capability have been
found to be wanting. There is little doubt that the
levels of applicability given in Table 1 can now be
attained or exceeded provided the tests are selected
and used correctly. This applies to all levels of in
situ testing from the simplest basic tests such as dy-
namic probing and the SPT, through tests such as the
CPT and piezocone (CPTU), to the more complex
devices such as the self-boring pressuremeter (SBP).
Table 1 shows that a wide range of parameters can
be reliably obtained from in situ testing. Ideally we
would want all assessments in Table 1 to be ‘A’ and
researchers and others continue to strive to raise the
levels of applicability however this may not always
be achievable if there is a fundamental weakness in
the appropriateness of the test.
It would appear that many practitioners have felt
that too often the capabilities of in situ tests have
been over-sold or inappropriately applied. This has
resulted in dissatisfaction when the tests failed to
deliver what was promised. The fact that we
continue to see papers with more and more
correlations for in situ devices often does little to
improve this feeling; however it is often not the test
that is as fault but its operation and application.
Before anything else the results from and in situ test
must be repeatable within the bounds of ground
variability. There must be consistency in both
equipment and operation wherever it is specified and
used not just in one country but around the world
and this is particularly important if we are to transfer
experience from one country to another or develop
generic correlations.
We have seen with the CPT how the realisation of
the effects of porewater pressure on measured cone
resistance has enabled both consistency of results
between devices and reduced scatter in developed
correlations.
In the SPT we have over the years seen how the
results can show significant scatter resulting not
simply from the simplicity of the test and operator
influences but more importantly from how
equipment variations, and particularly the energy
input from different equipment, influences the
results. Several papers covering this specific topic
are presented in Session 1 and commented upon
below. The latest CEN/ISO specification for the test
now requires knowledge of the actual energy being
delivered by the equipment not just a theoretical
value.
2 REALISING THE FULL POTENTIAL OF IN
SITU TESTING
So how can we improve the situation and get the
best from existing tests without developing new
ones?

Firstly, whoever is specifying a ground investiga-
tion programme should always consider in situ
testing.

they should at least have a basic understanding of
the various tests and their strengths (and weak-
nesses or limitations).

they should be able to select the right test for the
situation and once a decision has been made then
be able to specify the correct equipment and pro-
cedures for achieving the desired results. They
need standards available to them that will ensure
that the tests are carried out with consistency
(NB. For confidence in the results there must al-
ways be a way of checking the quality of the data
determined).

they should also consider whether additional in-
formation might be required later, for example as
a result of design changes. (It may well cost very
little extra to gather that data at the same time
thus avoiding having to make the best of the
original data or incurring remobilisation costs
later).
We are seeing increasingly in some countries and
in CEN and ISO standards currently in preparation,
that specifications for test procedures are now trying
to help guide the specifier, for example having
various specified classes of accuracy for CPT based
on soil type and data use (profiling or soil
parameters). Furthermore, we should be encouraging
accreditation procedures for in situ testing. If current
practice has resulted in cost cutting and bad practice,
then this should be firmly discouraged even if some
small additional costs are incurred. Two detailed
papers dealing with ISO/CEN standards are
presented in Session 1 and commented upon below.
With in situ testing we have at our disposal very
powerful tools that can yield a great deal of valuable
information as part of a well planned GI provided
they are specified and used correctly. We should not
be specifying them without due thought to the end
result and the reliability we can put on the data
gathered. The lessons learnt from the past must be
used to ensure that as other in situ tests are
developed they are validated with reliable databases
and that specifications and procedures allow their
full potential to be developed.
We do not all have to be experts in in situ testing
but a sound understanding of the test methods and
equipment, coupled with improved specifications
and better guidance will ensure that the engineer is
able to realise the full potential of these tests.
By selecting the right configuration of tests, in
situ testing will give 4 main advantages over the
traditional combination of borings, sampling and
other testing, namely:
1. continuous or near continuous data
2. repeatable and reliable data
3. speed of operation (potential for shorter GI time-
scales)
4. cost savings.
It should also be remembered that the power of in
situ tests is not restricted to soil parameter
determination; there are also many examples of their
use in indirect design applications where parameters
unique to a particular test type can be used directly
in design procedures.
3 REVIEW OF PAPERS
Twenty papers from 13 different countries are pre-
sented in Session 1 covering a wide range of topics
and uses of in situ tests as can be seen in Table 2.
This breadth is a good example of their versatility
and usefulness for a ground investigation pro-
gramme. Some of the more relevant items are pre-
sented below.
3.1 International and European Standards
International and European standards currently in
preparation are the main subject of two papers pre-
sented to Session 1. As stated above, international
standardisation is of prime importance in order to
harmonise the quality requirements for equipment as
well as methodologies in order to enable comparable
results to be obtained. Table 3 briefly summarises
the Technical Committees involved in CEN and ISO
and the ongoing standards and technical specifica-
tions (TS) they are producing.
The paper by Eitner et al. describes in detail the
general framework of committees belonging to the
International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO)
and the European Committee for Standardisation
(CEN) and their labours to prepare common
standards on equipment and methods used for soil
and rock identification, drilling, sampling, field and
laboratory testing as well as groundwater
measurements for geo-engineering practice. The
paper by Stölben et al. deals exclusively with
standards on sampling by drilling and groundwater
measurements.
Table 2: Session 1 by tests & subject– summary of papers
Nº of
Test Authors Main subject & Notes
papers
Standards 2 V. Eitner, R. Katzenbach & F. ISO & EN standards on Geotechnical investigation and testing for site
Stölben characterisation: current framework in European countries. See Table 3.
F. Stölben, V. Eitner & H. ISO & EN Standards on Geotechnical investigation and testing for site
Hoffmann characterisation: sampling by drilling and groundwater measurements.
See Table 3.
SPT 5 E. Odebrecht, F. Schnaid, M.M. Energy ratio with instrumentation of system. Different location of sen-
Rocha & G.P. Bernardes sors. Effect of rod length analysed. New approach to define Energy effi-
ciency. See Table 4.
Dong-Soo Kim, Won-Seok Seo Energy ratio with instrumentation of system. Different hammers. Force
& Eun Scok Bang waveforms and factors affecting efficiency analysed. See Table 4..
E.H. Cavalcante, F.A.B. Dan- Energy ratio with instrumentation of system. Manual donut hammer. Dif-
ziger & B.R. Danziger ferent ranges of Nspt blow count with different behaviours. See Table 4.
A.S.P. Peixoto, D. de Carvalho CPT-T: CPT with torque measurement. Electrical torquemeter. State of
& H.L. Giacheti the art in Brazilian practice. Suggestion of test procedure. Comparison of
4 methods to predict pile capacity based on CPT-T.
C.R. Daniel, J.A. Howie, R.G. Characterisation of SPT grain size effects in gravels.
Campanella & A. Sy
CPT 6 V. Whenham, N. Huybrechts, M. CPT case study with comparative analysis of results using 3 types of me-
De Vos, J. Maertens, G. Simon chanical cones (mantle cone, Begemann cone and simple cone with clos-
& G. Van Alboom ing nut) and electrical cone. Ratios of cone resistance qc mech / qc elec pre-
sented.
S.G. Fityus & L. Bates CPT case study assessing parameters on expansive residual clay at Mary-
land, where others data available. Thickness and identification of expan-
sive soil as well as degree of weathering of basal rock.
D.J. Balbi & F. Saboya Jr. CPTU case study with statistical treatment of data to identify soil groups
in Quaternary soils north Rio de Janeiro. Cluster analysis using Bq and Qt
(normalised net qT) as variables as Hegazy & Mayne (2003).
M.F. Silva & M.D. Bolton Centrifuge model to investigate sensitivity of CPTU to layering effects
and grain size at different penetration rates under different loading condi-
tions & permeabilities.
S.M. Fairuz, J. Rohani & T. CPTU off shore case study. Characterisation of sands, NC clays and OC
Lunne clays at four locations in South China Sea. Nkt of fine grained soils 15 to
20 recommended.
F.A. Trevor & P.W. Mayne CPTU & lab tests case study in marine clays in Southeast Asia to esti-
mate OCR and Su using Mayne (1991) method based on cavity expan-
sion theory and critical state concepts. Determination of correction fac-
tors ξ for this method.
CPT&DMT 1 P.W. Mayne & T. Liao CPT-DMT interrelationships in Piedemont Residum: ID f(FR%), ED
f(qT). Equivalent CPT method developed for obtaining constrained
modulus.
DMT 1 A. Arulrajah, M.W. Bo & H. DMT test case study in soft marine clays under pre-load improvement
Nikraz treatment. Dissipation testing with DMT to determine ch and kh as a tool
to evaluate degree of consolidation of pre-loaded area using Bo et al.
(1977) method.
DP 2 A. Fakher & M. Khodaparast Dynamic penetration in cohesive soft soils. Correlation N – E.
A.M. Rahim & K.P. George Dynamic penetration to estimate subgrade resilient modulus.
DP & PLT 1 A. Arbaoui, R. Gourvès, Ph. Determination of in situ deformation modulus with a penetrometer.
Bressolette, L. Bodé Method. Deformation, at depth load test described.
PBP & PLT 1 A. Agharazi & M. Moradi Comparison between plate load test results and dilatometer test results.
FVT 1 H. Åhnberg, R. Larsson & C. Influence of vane size and equipment on the results of field vane tests.
Berglund Method. Different equipment used and commented. Disturbance effects.

3.2 Standard Penetration Test

As can be seen in Table 2, special interest is paid by
several papers to the instrumentation of the SPT test
in order to determine the energy transmitted from
the falling hammer, which is in accordance with the
current CEN ISO procedures (EN ISO 22476, Part 4
in Table 3).
3.2.1 Instrumentation of SPT: Energy Efficiency
Transmitted energy to the rods by SPT hammer
blows is highly dependent on different aspects such
as the type of hammer, rod length, blow rate and en-
ergy calculation methods. Three papers to ISC’2 –
two from Brazil and one from Korea- report
investigations in this field using nearly the same
Table 3: ISO and CEN framework standards in geotechnical site investigation. Compiled after Eitner et al. and Stölben et al.
Technical Committees
(TC) &Sub-committees Goals Standards
(SC)
ISO/TC 182/SC 1 “Geo- Prepares standards on identification, de- ISO 14688-1 to 3 “Geotechnical investigation and testing
technical Investigation and scription and classification of soils and – Identification, description and classification of soil”
Testing” rocks. International “mirror” of CEN/TC Part 1: Identification and description. 2002.
341. Part 2: Classification principles. 2003.
Part 3: Electronic exchange of data of identification
and description of soil. Technical Specification: TS.
Under development
ISO 14689-1 to 2 “Geotechnical investigation and testing
– Identification and classification of rock”
Part 1: Identification and description”. 2003.
Part 2: Electronic exchange of data of identification
and description of rock. Technical Specification (TS):
Under development.
CEN/TC 341 “Geotechni- Standardization in equipment and methods Several standards on field investigation in preparation
cal Investigation and Test- used for drilling, sampling, field and will be published:
ing” laboratory testing of rock and soil as well as EN ISO 22475-1 to 3 “Geotechnical investigation and
groundwater measurements. In co-operation testing – Sampling by drilling and excavation and
with ISO/TC 182/SC 1. groundwater measurements”
Five working groups: Part 1: Technical principles for execution

Drilling and sampling methods and Part 2: Technical qualification criteria for enterprises
groundwater measurements. Germany and personnel
(DIN). See Stölben et al. Part 3: Conformity assessment of enterprise and per-

Cone and piezocone penetration Tests. sonnel
Netherlands (NEN) EN ISO 22476 1 to 16 “Geotechnical investigation and

Dynamic probing and SPT. Germany testing – Field testing”
(DIN) Part 1: Electrical cone and piezocone penetration tests

Testing of geotechnical structures. Part 2: Dynamic probing
France (AFNOR) Part 3: Standard penetration test

Borehole expansion tests. France (AF- Part 4: Ménard pressuremeter test
NOR) Part 5: Flexible dilatometer test
Part 6: Self-boring pressuremeter test
Part 7: Borehole jack test
Part 8: Full displacement pressuremeter test
Part 9: Field vane test
Part 10: Weight sounding test (TS)
Part 11: Flat dilatometer test (TS)
Part 12: Lefranc permeability tests
Part 13: Water pressure tests
Part 14: Pumping tests
Part 15: Mechanical cone penetration test
Part 16: Plate loading tests
CEN/TC 250/SC 7 “Geo- Eurocode 7, the base code for geotechnical ENV 1997-1 (European pre-standard), soon available as
technical Design” design. Test results are used for evaluation EN.
and interpretation leading to derived values. ENV 1997-2, design assisted by laboratory tests.
ENV 1997-3, design assisted by field-testing.

instrumentation consisting of strain gauges & accel-

erometers with a data acquisition system to measure
force and velocity in order to evaluate the maximum
energy delivered to the rods. Typical configuration
is shown in Figure 1. Table 4 summarises the main
topics of these investigations.
Odebrecht et al. observe that the theoretical
maximum potential energy PEh+r* delivered to the
soil should be expressed as a function of the nomi-
nal potential energy (E* = 0.76.Mh.g =
0.76m*63.5kg*9.801m/s = 474J), the permanent
sampler penetration and the weight of both hammer
and rods, that is:
Figure 1: Configuration of instrumented SPT test. Dong-Soo
Kim et al. PE h*+ r = (0.76 + ∆ρ ) M h g + ∆ρM r g (1)
Table 4: Instrumented SPT for energy ratio assessment
Odebrecht, Schnaid, Rocha & Dong-Soo Kim, Won-Seok Seo &
Author Cavalcante, Danziger & Danziger
Bernardes Eun Scok Bang
Type of instrumenta- Load cell with 4 strain gauges Strain gauges and piezoelectric 8 strain gauges in full bridge and
tion sensitive to axial strains only. accelerometers 2 accelerometers
2 accelerometers of different
range
Analysed parameters Force and acceleration (integrated Force and velocity Force and velocity
to velocities)
Location of sensors Just below the anvil 0,5 m below the anvil Just below the anvil
Above the sampler some near the sampler
Attached to rod, middle position
between anvil & sampler
Computational method FV FV FV & V2 compared
Type of hammer Manual pin guided Donut hand operated with rope 4 types compared:
donut hydraulically lifted (WD)
chain automatic (CA)
manual safety w/rope (RS)
manual donut w/rope (RD)
Theoretical energy 478 J 478 J 474 J
Type of soil Granular with different DR% Different types 10 to 15 m of weathered soil
Nspt blow range 10 to 60 1 to 60
Main results / findings / Instrumentation at depth, above Transmitted energy to the rod Wave shapes of each hammer.
contributions the sampler. fount to be 83% of 474 J nominal Effects of rod length & blow
Energy delivered to the spoon is energy (ISSMFE, 1989). Previous speed.
influenced by both test depth and works in Brazil showed ≈70% ef- Energy ratios for each hammer
actual penetration. ficiency (energy ratio). type.
New concept and definition of ef- Ranges of Nspt with different be- Energy ratios from FV method
ficiency accounted by 3 empirical haviour found, 1-6, 7-16, 18-60. larger than F2 one: ≈70% and
coefficients, η1, η2, η3, being η1 Correlations Ncorr/N for these ≈60% respectively for CA ham-
function of rod length and in- values. mer.
versely proportional to the length Efficiency depends on type of
of the rods hammer, rod length, blow rate
and energy calculation method.

where Mh is the hammer weight, Mr the rod weight,
g the gravity acceleration and ∆ρ sampler penetra-
tion under one blow.
The first part of equation (1) represents the ham-
mer potential energy (nominal + additional) and sec-
ond the rod potential energy. In other words, both
length of the rods and permanent spoon penetration
contribute to the theoretical energy delivered to the
sampler. This becomes significant in loose soils
where ∆ρ is high. This factor is independent of the
length of the rods.
Energy losses take place during the penetration
process. The energy ratio ERr or efficiency is tradi-
tionally defined as the ratio between the actual
maximum delivered energy Er (i.e. instrumentation)
and the nominal potential energy, E*:
Er
ERr =
E*
ured Nspt value to the value with a reference energy
ratio such as N60 can be made.
A new concept of efficiency is postulated by
Odebrecht et al. These authors present experimental
results of energy measurement in SPT tests carried
out under controlled boundary conditions in a cali-
bration chamber and the effective energy measured
at the top and the bottom of the rods during impact
of hammer. They conclude that efficiency is ac-
counted for by three coefficients, η1, η2, η3 using:
PE h + r = η 3 [η1 (0.76 + ∆ρ ) M h g + η 2 ∆ρM r g ] (3)
where η1, the hammer efficiency, is obtained from
measurement at the top of the rod stem, η2 can be
assumed as unity and η3, the energy efficiency, is
expressed as a function of the length of the rods l,
(2) being inversely proportional to them:

It is generally accepted to correct the Nspt result
to a reference energy value of 60% of the potential
nominal energy of the SPT hammer using standard
correction factors (Seed et al., 1985; Skempton,
1986; ISSMFE 1989). However, these corrections
assume a theoretical energy input and by using in-
strumented tests the correct adjustment of the meas-
η 3 = 1 − 0.0042l (4)
3.2.2 SPT-T procedure & practice
The state of the art in Brazilian practice and proce-
dure suggestion for SPT-T test is presented by
Peixoto et al. The use of the SPT with torque meas-
urement, that required to turn the sampler, was pro-
posed by Ranzini (1988), being the torque as a kind may be the result of torque and friction not being
of static component of a dynamic test. The torque is eliminated with this simple device. It should be
empirically used to estimate pile skin friction – noted that the Mackintosh probe is not covered by
mainly for driven piles, being the T/Nspt ratio an in- the new dynamic probing standard in Table 3.
teresting index for practical purposes, though spe- Another paper by Rahim & George presents a
cific local correlations are needed. correlation to obtain subgrade resilient modulus
General suggestions for test procedure are re- from N.
viewed in Table 5; Figure 2 presents an example of a
3.4 CPT and DMT tests
test with an electric device and data acquisition sys-
tem. Oscillations in the curves are due to lateral A total of 8 papers dealing with CPT(u), flat dila-
movements of the rods. tometer (DMT) and CPT-DMT combined investiga-
Four methods for predicting bearing capacity of tion are presented to Session 1 (Table 1).
piles based on SPT-T are summarised and discussed
by Peixoto et al. (Decourt, 1996; Alonso, 1996a, 3.4.1 Mechanical CPT
1996b; Carvalho et al., 1998 and Peixoto, 2001). Although electrical CPT(u) is nowadays more com-
monly used -and recommended by current stan-
Table 5: SPT-T test general procedure according Peixoto et al. dards- mechanical devices are still in use in some
Topic Recommendations Notes countries. Whenham et al. present a comparative
Procedure After penetration, Torquemeter of analysis in Belgium soils establishing ratios qc mech/qc
an adapter is placed proper capacity elec for different mechanical devices (mantle cone,
on the anvil for the must be used. friction sleeve mantle cone and simple cone) and
torquemeter to Torquemeter hori- different types of soils. Care is needed in extrapola-
twist. zontal during rota- tion to other electrical cones and soil types as qc is
A centralising de- tion. Alignment of used and not qt and so the results from the electrical
vice needed to rods during applica-
avoid rod lateral tion of torque im- cone in clays will be specific to that cone type as
movements. portant key. they are not corrected for pore pressure effects
Measurements Maximum and re- Mechanical creep- (Lunne et al 1997).
sidual torque must ing pointer torque-
be logged. meter provides 3.4.2 Soil profile interpretation
enough information. The excellent profiling capability of the CPT(u) test
Readings immedi- is a well recognised feature in the Geotechnical
ately after driving
sampler.
industry. Recent research has also shown that the
Rotation speed 5 turns/minute
CPT(u) is a powerful tool for the sedimentological
study of delta sediments, even allowing an under-
standing of how climatic changes and associated sea
level changes during Late Quaternary took place
(Amorosi & Marchi., 1999; Devincenzi et al., 2003,
2004).
Three papers related to this subject are presented
to Session 1 describing investigations on statistical
analysis as a helpful tool to use in layered strata, lo-
cation and depth of expansive soils and evaluation of
the degree of weathering in residual massifs.
Balby & Saboya present a case study using the
statistical method based on similarity criteria on
normalised Q and Bq (Hegazy & Mayne, 2003) to
Figure 2: SPT-T plot after Peixoto et al. identify soil groups in Quaternary soils. The inter-
pretation is based on cluster analysis, which has a
3.3 Dynamic penetration better capacity in detecting changes that could not be
Fakher & Khodaparast present a study about the re- detected by direct observation or classification
peatability of Mackintosh probe at three sites in Iran. charts, having three important advantages:
This equipment is a lightweight portable handy
penetrometer which is still widely used. The authors 1. Organise soils by similarity.
also present a local correlation between N10cm and su. 2. Locate boundaries between layers.
(errata: they do however incorrectly quote the corre- 3. Identify lenses and mixed soils.
lation of Butcher et al, quoting the relationship be- 4. Identify systematic errors as rod changes or cas-
tween su dynamic point resistance for stiff clays and ual pauses during the test.
not soft). Their correlation is lower than Butcher’s
i.e. more blows for the same shear strength and this
 Fytius and Bates present another interesting ap- Overconsolidation ratio (OCR)
plication of CPT in residual expansive clays. In fact, 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
residual soils have a characteristic behaviour, which 0
is not yet well understood. However, characterisa-
tion of these soils usually is no more than the basic 2
one. The data usually required for foundation design 4
in expansive soils are:
6
1. Thickness and position of the layers.
2. Swell potential. 8
3. Depths of suction and cracks (active layer). 10

Depth (m)
4. Magnitude of suction.
12
In the proposed approach the CPT results are
14
used to give either direct or indirect estimates of the
thickness of the top soil, the position and thickness 16
of expansive clay layers and the depth and degree of
weathering of underlying rock. 18
20
3.4.3 Centrifuge penetration
Silva & Bolton present research on the use of CPTu 22
tests carried out in centrifuge models to observe the
24
effect of layering of sand layers at different penetra-
tion rates and under different loading conditions and 26
permeabilities. The data are used to discuss the
past pressure estimate
methodology of characteristic grain size interpreta- Mayne 1991
oedometers pile area
tion and the use of viscous fluid in centrifuge tests. oedometers eng props
cpt 0.3 normalised cone
Trevor and Mayne 2004

3.4.4 Assessing undrained shear strength and OCR

of marine clays from CPTu
Trevor & Mayne present a modification of Mayne’s
1991 method based on cavity expansion theory and
critical state concepts to predict both the overcon-
solidation ratio (OCR) and undrained shear strength
from CPTu tests.
The predicted values of su and OCR for marine
clays soils using Mayne (1991) method are higher
than reference triaxial compression tests values,
though the interpreted CPTu profiles and the labora-
tory test profiles show similar trends.
The correction factors to improve the piezocone
data interpretation method incorporating the critical
state parameter (M) were derived by Trevor (2001)
on the basis of statistical evaluation and are desig-
nated as:
ξOCR = (0.029+0.409M) and :
ξSU = (0.56+0.095M)
Modified equations that can be used to predict
OCR and su in these soils from CPTu tests can be
written as:
Figure 3. OCR profile for glacial till site using Trevor and
Mayne method.
M  q − u2 
su = ξ su  t  (6)
2  1.9 M + 1 
These corrections imply limited sensitivity to M
for the correction for su, the range is 0.48 – 0.43 as
φ’ changes from 20 to 35o, whilst for OCR the
change is more significant ranging from 0.35 – 0.61.
Powell (2001) showed very good agreement for
OCR with the original equation i.e. a correction fac-
tor of 1, but Figure 3 shows results for a glacial till
site (Powell and Butcher, 2002) with both the old
and new correlations. It can be seen that the correc-
tion improves the predicted OCR profile but is still
too high; the use of a simplified normalised cone re-
sistance approach is seen to give a very good fit .
Trevor and Mayne recommended to re-evaluate the
proposed correction factors for other types of soil
and this will be important in understanding when to
apply it.

1.33
3.4.5 CPTu – DMT interrelationships
 1  qt − u 2   The main advantages of tests like CPT/CPTU and
OCR = 2ξ OCR  


 (5) DMT are related to cost effectiveness and fast col-
1.95M + 1  σ v 0  
'
lection of data which permits statistical and numeri-
cal analysis. Thus, it is possible to quickly get in-
formation to be used in the powerful numerical
models with good enough quality to give a compati-
ble input to the models that does not lower their effi-
ciency.
It should be stressed that combined
(DMT+CPT/U) characterisation campaigns offer an
approach to new possibilities to explore situations
unresolved by each test in isolation, both in sedi-
mentary and residual soils. Both tests, when used to-
gether in regular campaigns, can offer an improve-
ment both in geological and geotechnical
determinations. The combination of both tests pre-
sents the following advantages:
1. Cross checking of the same parameters.
2. Complementary data resulting from both tests.
3. Combination of basic parameters from both tests,
offering the possibility of assessing data that oth-
erwise could not be deduced.
With regards to geotechnical information, the
combined tests can allow the determination of pa-
rameters related to stress history, strength and de-
formability, permeability and consolidation proper-
ties, liquefaction potential, etc. in a continuous
manner.
The quantity and quality of information obtained
from both tests leads to a better knowledge of soil
characteristics, as well as numerical information for
design practice.
Interrelationships between CPTu and flat dila-
tometer (DMT) in Piedemont residual soils that are
comprised of silty fine sands to fine sandy silts are
investigated by Mayne & Liao who propose:
E D = 5qt (7)
and
I D = 2.0 − 0.14 FR% (8)
ED being the dilatometer modulus and ID the mate-
rial index obtained with DMT test.
The same subject was studied in a research pro-
gram based on the results from 7 investigations per-
formed in the region between Porto and Braga (Por-
tugal), with a total of 30 borings, 22 CPTU profiles
and 23 DMT profiles (Cruz et al, 2004). The region
under study is characterized by granitic residual
saprolitic soils with a flocculated structure, loose to
medium compacted and with a grain size distribution
that varies from sandy silts to sands (very similar to
Mayne experimental site). The results obtained led
to the following conclusions, related to this subject:

M/qt (where M is the constrained modulus calcu-
lated from the DMT as M = RM ED) seems to
have more potential than ED/qt, since the RM (cor-
relation factor between ED and M could be seen
as a selection parameter for the type of soil; in
fact, M parameter is calculated based on 3 basic
DMT test parameters, i.e. the calculation is de-
pendent on the type of soil (ID) and on KD (which
seems to reflect the cementation structure), be-
sides the dilatometer modulus ED; this seems to
be very helpful to work with a wider range of soil
types;

M/qt is not a constant value, but tends to increase
with the cementation structure in a similar man-
ner to the one proposed by Marchetti (1997) to
distinguish NC (M/qc = 5 -12) from OC sands
(M/qc = 12 – 24); Cruz et al (2004) found two dif-
ferent M/qt correlations in residual soils when
working on “NC” and “OC” sides equal to 6,4
and 16,8, respectively; of course these can be
sub-divided, but this is a basic well known fron-
tier of mechanical behaviours, which can be used
as a reference (Figure 4);

The overall ED data in the study ranges from 0,1
to 6,0 MPa, while ED/qt falls within the interval 1
– 20; in general ED/qt around 5 to 6 represents the
division between NC – OC; Analysing data indi-
vidually (from each of the 7 experimental sites) it
becomes clear that the relation ED/qt changes
with the level of cementation, as well as M/qt,
and the results range from 2 to 7;
In conclusion it could be said that both relations
are clearly not a constant value but increases with
the strength due to cementation effects; the relation
M/qt shows a high correlation factor when used to
deduce cohesive intercept due to cementation struc-
ture (Cruz et al, 2004). In that sense Mayne’s data
would be a local correlation that reflects a particular
level of cementation structure. The use of M/qt
seems to have a higher potential than ED/qt since in-
tegrates the numerical definition of type of soil
through identification index from DMT (ID).
160.0
120.0
M (MPa)
80.0
40.0
0.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
qt (MPa)
NC OC Potência (NC) Potência (OC)
Figure 4: M/qt for NC and OC (Cruz et al, 2004).
Considering the ID - Fr relation, the general data
given by Cruz et al. (2004) are not as well fitting as
Mayne & Liao’s. Nevertheless, results seem to con-
verge, since the global analysis gives 1,92 – 0,05 Fr
and if intersection is forced to 2 then it is 2 – 0,06
Fr. Analysing data separately and forcing the inter-
section at 2, then 3 of the experimental sites show a
variation of Fr dependent term varying between 0,06
and 0,1. At other sites it is not possible to find any
particular trend line.
Data from OC clays slightly cemented in Girona
(Spain) also show a good agreement with Mayne &
Liao’s ID-Fr proposed relationship, OCR ranging
from to 3 to 6 and M/qt ≈ 25.
On the contrary, no relation could be found be-
tween ID and Fr in Quaternary pro-delta silty clays
(OCR ≈ 1.1) with silt intercalations as can be seen in
Fig. 5. It must be stressed that these sediments are
not of the same nature as those studied by Mayne &
Liao.

2
ID

1 Figure 6: example of results from parallel vane tests in clay

0 with different vane sizes. Åhnberg et al.
0 1 2 3 4 5
FR%
Figure 5: ID vs. Fr in Quaternary pro-delta silty clays in Barce-
lona, Spain.
3.5 Influence of Vane size on results of vane tests
Vane test results are affected by several factors such
as the effect of disturbance at insertion, the effect of
waiting before starting the test, the shape of the rup-
ture surface, influences of the rate of rotation, the
length of the vane shaft protruding below the casing
for the vane, the number of blades and the relation
between height and diameter of the vane, among
other aspects
Research on the influence of the size of the vane
on the results of the vane test -an important fact that
has no effect on the standards yet- and a comparative
analysis of different equipment available on the
market today are presented by Åhnberg et al. A de-
tailed listing of different factors affecting the results
is also outlined.
The results of the investigation showed that for
tests in clay the larger the vane size, the higher the
shear strength, provided that the thickness of the
shafts and wings are the same. The small vane
(55x110mm2) showed shear strengths that were only
about 85% of those obtained with the normal vane
(65x130mm2). Figure 6 shows the comparison.
This can be related to the fact that the relative in-
fluence of the disturbance at installation of the vane
increases with decreasing vane size.
6
This effect is counteracted in organic soil owing
to the fibre content, this may result in the opposite
trend.
3.6 Deformability tests
Arbaoui et al. present an experimental device which
permits performing static loading tests when the
penetration is paused. The test allows the establish-
ment of monotonic or cyclic stress-displacement
curves to obtain deformation modulus.
A case study making a comparative analysis of
plate load tests (PLT) and dilatometer (i.e. rock
pressuremeter) tests results in rock masses are pre-
sented by Agharazi & Moradi. These two methods,
the two prevailing for rock deformability assess-
ment, do not result in an equal value of deformation
modulus. The authors present empirical ratios be-
tween them.
4 CONCLUSIONS
Successful geotechnical design requires a good
knowledge of the mechanical behaviour of the
ground and in situ tests are no doubt powerful tools
that can yield a great deal of valuable information. A
wide range of parameters can be reliably obtained
from in situ testing and it is noticeable that the rat-
ings of some tests have improved as the database of
experience has built up, but others have declined as
the initial predictions of their capability have been
found to be wanting.
 Effort is required in order to improve the situation
and get the best from existing tests. International
(i.e. global) standards are a subject of prime impor-
tance that will ensure that tests are carried out with
consistency in order to enable comparable results to
be obtained, a key matter to transfer experience from
one country to another or develop generic correla-
tions. There must be consistency in both equipment
and operation wherever it is specified and used not
just in one country but around the world. Session 1
detailed the present efforts being made by the Inter-
national Organization for Standardisation (ISO) and
the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN).
Furthermore, we should be encouraging accredi-
tation procedures for in situ testing. If current prac-
tice has resulted in cost cutting and bad practice,
then this should be firmly discouraged even if some
small additional costs are incurred.
On the other hand, it would appear that many
practitioners have felt that too often the capabilities
of in situ tests have been over-sold or inappropri-
ately applied. This has resulted in dissatisfaction
when the tests failed to deliver what was promised.
The fact that we continue to see papers with more
and more correlations for in situ devices often does
little to improve this feeling. However it is often not
the test that is as fault but its operation and applica-
tion.
The papers presented to Session 1, from 13 dif-
ferent countries around the world, cover a wide
range of topics and uses of in situ tests. This wide
range is a good example of their versatility and use-
fulness for a ground investigation programme pro-
vided the right test is selected for the situation and
the equipment and procedures allow repeatable and
quality data to be obtained.
The papers have shown that there is still value in
improving our understanding and operation of exist-
ing tests before indulging in evermore sophisticated
techniques.
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