Reviewer
 Care for your soul (true self)
Lesson 1: PHILOSOPHY
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES OF THE
SELF
Philosophy is often called the mother of all
disciplines simply because all fields of study
began as philosophical discourse.
WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?
-Study of acquiring knowledge through rational
thinking and inquiries that involves in answering
questions regarding the nature and existence of
man and the world we live in.
-The love of learning
-Seek of truth
WHAT IS SELF?
- Defined as “a unified human being, essentially
connected to consciousness, awareness and
agency.
PHILOSOPHERS
A. Socrates
 First martyr of education, knowledge,
and philosophy.
 His philosophy underlies in the
importance of the notion “knowing
oneself”
 Knowing ourselves, lies in our own
abilities, and wisdom. Understanding
ourselves is through internal
questioning or introspection.
 “by fully knowing oneself a person will
be able to achieve happiness”
 He was charged with corruption of
minors and died as a martyr that fought
against ignorance and narrow-
mindedness.
 He believed there was definite “right”
and wrong.
B. Plato
 He is a student of Socrates, he followed
the idea of Socrates in “knowing
thyself”
 Father of Academy
 He also wrote several literatures that
tackles politics, human nature and
established the idea of virtue and
intelligence
 “A person who is a follower of truth and
wisdom will not be tempted by vices
and will always be
correct/moral/ethical”
Ethics – Discipline concerned with what is
morally good and bad and morally right and
wrong.
Utilitarianism – general good
 He believed that the soul is divided into
3 different part that has different views,
leading to different behaviors.
Appetitive Soul – part of the person
driven by desire and need to satisfy
oneself. The satisfaction involves
physical needs, pleasures and desire,
objects and situation.
Spirited Soul – Courageous part of a
person. One who want to do something
or to right the wrongs that they observe.
Competitiveness drives one to expect
positive results and winnings
Rational Soul – The Drive of our Lives.
The part that thinks and plan for the
future. It decides what to do, when to do
it and the possible results one could
have depending on their actions.
C. St. Augustine
 He follows the idea that God
encompasses us all, that everything will
be better if we are with God.
 His idea of a man and how to
understand who we are as a person is
related to our understanding of who we
are and how we question ourselves.
 Relates our existence to God being
modelled in his likeness though being
alive means that we are still far from
god and has yet to be truly with him.
 He emphasized that we may not be able
to give our agreement to everything
other people tell us, but we can still
agree to those who we are from our
own perception.
D. Rene Descartes
 French Philosopher known to be the
“Father of Modern Philosophy”
because of his radical use of systematic
and early scientific method to aid his
ideas and assumption
 He believed in modern dualism
 Known to be the proponent of the
“Methodical Doubt” doubting, asking
questions are part of one’s existence.
 He is known for the statement “cogito
ergo sum”
 According to him, a person is comprised
of mind and body. The body and its
perception cannot fully be trusted or can
easily be deceived.
 He believes that we should focus on the
mind in order to perceive as who we are
or the essence of our existence because
we cannot always trust our senses.
E. John Locke
 English Philosopher and Physician
 “Father of Classical Liberation”
 His work paved the way to several
revolutions to fight the absolute powers
of monarchs and rulers of his time that
led to the development of governance,
politics and economic system.
 “Tabula Rasa” means blank slate
 He stated that a person is born with
knowing nothing and that is susceptible
to stimulation and accumulation of
learning from the experiences, failures,
references and observation of the person
F. David Hume
 A Scottish Philosopher
 He focused his work in the field of
empiricism, skepticism, and
naturalism.
 There is no permanent self because
impressions of things are based from our
experience where we can create our
ideas and knowledge.
 Self is accumulation of different
impression
G. Immanuel Kant
 A German Philosopher known for his
works on empiricism and rationalism.
 He emphasizes that a person who fully
understand the self has a certain level of
consciousness or sense that uses our
intuition which synthesizes all the
experience, impression and perception
of ourselves will pave the way to define
and know who we really are.
 “Transcendental Apperception” is an
essence of our consciousness that
provides basis for understanding and
establishing the notion of self by
synthesizing one’s accumulation of
experience, intuition and imagination.
H. Sigmund Freud
 An Austrian Psychologist and
Physician.
 “The Father of Psychoanalysis”
 He believed that man has different
constructs of personality.
  Freud is well known for his work on
human nature and the unconscious.
 He conceptualized different level of
consciousness that provides an idea how
a person develops a sense of self.
 He believed that we are by-product of
our experience in the past and that are
actions are driven by the idea of
avoiding pain.
3 components of Personality according to
Freud
ID – the child aspect of a person;
attention is on satisfaction of one’s
needs and self - gratification. Driven by
pleasure principle.
Super Ego – the conscience of one’s
personality. Has the inclination to
uphold justice and do what is morally
right and socially acceptable actions.
Involved in the notion of right or wrong
that is imparted to us by our parents or
people that took care for us during
childhood.
Ego – Police or the mediator between id
and super ego. Operates within the
boundaries of reality, primary function
is to maintain the impulses of the id to
an acceptable degree.
INTRODUCED THE LEVEL OF
CONCIOUSNESS
1. Conscious – where minority of our
memory are being stored and the
memories that are in the conscious is
easier to be tapped or access.
2. Pre – Conscious – the middle part of the
entirety pf our consciousness; the
memories stored in this area can still be
accessed but with a little difficulty.
3. Unconscious – This area where majority
of our memories since childhood are
restored. It is difficult to tap the
memories. It would need a trained
professional and several techniques in
order to make some memories resurface.
I. Gilbert Ryle
 He used behavioristic approach to itself.
 Self is the behavior presented by the
person.
 He does not believe that the mind and
body are two separate entities which is
said to be evident in the unexplainable
phenomenon or abilities of the mind
where the soul is considered.
 He explained that the self is exemplified
in his “ghost machine” view behavior
of man is represented by the ghost in the
said machine.
J. Paul Churchland
 A Canadian Philosopher, he’s focused
on idea that people should improve our
association and use of worth in
identifying the self.
 The self is defined by the movement of
our brain. A constant movement of the
brain can be the basis of who the person
is.
 He focused on the “eliminative
materialism” and understanding the
different neural pathways, how they
work, and what implications are those
movement to people is measurable
classification on one’s behavior.
K. Maurice Jean Jacques Merleau-Ponty
 A French Philosopher, known for his
works on existentialism and
phenomenology.
 Coined the idea of phenomenology of
perception which is divided into three
division
 He regarded that the body and mind are
not separate entities but rather those two
components is one and the same.
  He follows the ideas of Gestalt
Psychology.
 The perception guides our action based
on our experiences.
 Self – develop through interacting and
reflecting on that interaction.
Social Interaction = Socialization

Characteristic of Sociology
L. Thomas Aquinas
 The most eminent 13th century scholar  It is Neutral
and stalwart of the medieval philosophy,  Concerned with the study of human
appended something to this Christian social life
View.  It is Science
 Man is composed of two parts: Matter of
Hyle in Greek, refers to the “common
stuff that makes up everything in the
Social Change Agents
universe” and form or morphe in greek
refers to the “essence of a substance Family
thing” Peer/Friends
 The body of human person is something Religion
that he shares even with animals.
 The cells in man’s body are akin to the Areas of Sociology according to HAUSER
cells of any other living, organic being Social Organization
in the world Social Psychology
 “The soul is what animates the body; it Social Change
is what make us humans. Human Ecology
Population Studies
Sociological Theory
Applied Sociology
Lesson 1: SOCIOLOGY
WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY FORRUNNING OF SOCIOLOGY
 Study of human social relationship and Henri de Saint – Simon (1760 – 1825)
institution.
 Came from the greek words socius  Historic founder of French Socialism
(Association/group) and logos (study)  He insisted on the necessity of new and
 Science that deals with the study of positive reorganization of society
society and the societal interaction Industrial chiefs should control society
taking place.  The social aim was to produce things
useful to life
Call for “Society of Science” Influenced his
THEORY OF SELF
disciple August Comte
 Two parts of Self: Self- Awareness and
Self- image our body are biologically,
but the self is something that emerges
through social interaction
 Self – develop as we grow
Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903)
 Synthetic Philosophy – Encompasses
realms of Physical, Psychological,
Biological, Sociological, and Ethical.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY
(page 12 to 13 of IM)
Social Statistic
Moral Dictum
Scientific Position
Social Statistics
Principle of Ethics – Basic Law of Ethics and
Morality
 He coined “Survival of the Fittest”
 He argued that human societies ho
through an evolutionary process
David Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
 French Sociologist
 Cited as the Principal of Modern Social
Science
 Established Academic discipline with
Marx and Webber
 He focused on characteristic of social
groups, the cohesion and non - cohesion
of religious groups.
 Classic study of suicide as it was
influences by certain social forces.
Language – a social product that structures and
shapes our experience daily.
Albert Bandura (1925)
 Social Learning Theory – attempts to
explain socialization and its effect on the
development of the self it looks at the
individual learning process, the
formation of self, and influence of
society in socializing individual.
Self - Efficacy –Beliefs about their capabilities
to produce designated performance assigned to
them. Self-efficacy reflects confidence in the
ability to exert control over one's own
motivation, behavior, and social environment.
4 main sources of Efficacy
Mastery Experience – Through
perseverant effort
Vicarious Experience – Provide by
social models
Social Persuasion – persuaded verbally
by people around the,
Psychological Responses – People rely
partly on their somatic and emotional
states In judging their capabilities
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
 Theory of Self-Estrangement or Self-
Alienation “The Alienation of man’s
essence, man’s loss of objectivity and
his loss of realness as self-discovery,
manifestation of his nature,
objectification and realization”
 Social Conditions and society itself were
based on economic factors
 Conflict and political revolution is
inevitable to overthrow capitalism and
to improve social condition.
 “Social conflict Paradigm”
August Comte (1796 -1857)
 French Philosopher and Writer
 Advocate the idea of Positivism
 Father of the “Science of Sociology”
and the “Religion of Humanity”

Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
 German Sociologist, historian, Jurist and
Political Economist
 Capitalism developed out of protestant
ethic
 Dwelt on the significance of subjective
meanings people give to their
interactions with other.
 Iron Cage – as the religion become
peripheral, capitalism decoupled from
its roots and established itself as the
dominant force in society.
 “Exercise Self-Help Imagination”
 Coined “Verstehen”
George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931)
 American Philosopher and Social
Theorist
 Symbolic interactions perspective
 Self-awareness and Self-Image
 One of the several distinguished
pragmatist
Lewis Morgan (1818 – 1881)
 American Ethnologist and a principal
founder of scientific anthropology.
 He wanted to provide evidence for
monogenesis, the theory that all human
beings descended from a common
source.
 The structure of the family and social
institutions develops and change
according to a specific sequence
 Theory of Social Evolution – kinship
Relations as a basic part of Society.
ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology
- 'anthropos' - human beings
- 'lohiya' – history
- evolutionary history of human beings
- systematic study of humanity
- scientific study of humanity, concerned with
human behavior, human biology, and societies,
in both the present and past, including past
human species
- also deals with society
- anthropological approach both starts and
finishes with the group
- humans a have a unique relationsip with other
members of their species, both communicatively
and socially there is no stimulus without a
response, and there is no response without
stimulus
~"Man by nature is a social animal" - Aristotle
4-field approach in Anthropology
Archaeology - archaeology of the self is the
exploration of gender, race, class, sexual
orientation, and religion that are living within us
(Ruiz, 2020)
Linguistics - language changes every cultural
value that is being traditionalized by a certain
community society
Physical or Biological - deals with the evolution
of humans, their variability, and adaptations to
environmental stresses. Using an evolutionary
perspective, we examine not only the physical
form of humans - the bones, muscles, and organs
- but also how it functions to allow survival and
reproduction.
Margaret Mead - 'human civilization began
when man started to care for others other than
himself.'
Cultural - a major division of anthropology that
deals with the study of culture in all of its
aspects and that uses the methods, concepts, and
data of archaeology, ethnography and ethnology,
folklore, and linguistics in its descriptions and
analyses of the diverse peoples of the world.
Anthropological Perspectives of the Self
Marcel Mauss - father of french anthropology
- made 'The Gift, Forms, and Functions of
exchange in Archaeic societies' -1954
- 'there is the giver and the receiver in our
society'
- every self has two faces:
1. Moi - person's basic identity
2. Personne - social concepts of what it means
to be who he is.
Clifford Geertz - strong supporter of symbolic
anthropology
Symbolic Anthropology
> How humans use symbols to
communicate.
> Study of cultural symbols and how
those symbols can be used to gain a better
understanding of a particular society.
> Thick Description - term Geertz used
meaning a detailed account of field experiences
in which the researcher makes explicit subjective
explanation and meanings provided by the
people engaged in the behavior making the data
a greater value for studies.
- basically cultural immersion.
- "a system of inherited conceptions expressed in
symbolic forms by means of which men
communicate, perpetuate, and develop their
knowledge about and attitudes towards life"
"The Impact of the Concept of Culture
on the Concept of Man," The Interpretation of
Cultures. (1966)
> Look for what makes people/cultures
different, not the same; it is more effective to
analyze human nature by noting the difference
between cultures that arise over time and space
than to try to form vague notions of universals
> Culture reveals the link between what
man is capable of and how he actually behaves,
which in turn helps define human nature.
> Culture is the "accumulated totality" of
symbolic patterns that appear in different
societies.
PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology - derived from two greek words,
psyche meaning soul/mind; and logos meaning
study ~ study of soul/mind (old definition)
- study of behavior (new definition)
- primarily studies WHO and WHAT we are,
WHY we act and think in a particular manner
and what is our potential as an individual.
- focused on the individual, cognitive functions
and other possible factors that affect the
individual.
Who am I?
> "Self" is the "sense of personal
identity and of who we are as individuals
(Jhangiani and Tarry 2014)
> Identity - concept of an individual
about himself and often referred to as "self-
identity"
> Self-identity - is the belief of what the
individuals thinks and feels about him. Can also
be influenced by how others perceive and
individual.
 > Self-development is a continuous
process throughout the lifespan; one's sense of
self may change, at least somewhat, throughout
one's life.
> Self-representation has important
implications for socio-emotional (how you deal
with people and your emotional stability)
functioning throughout the lifespan.
Thomas Aquinas - he perceives that man is co-
created in the image of God
- The "I Self" reflects what people see or
perceive themselves doing in the physical world
(e.g., recognizing that one is walking, eating,
writing), in other words, the one who acts and
decides.
- "Me Self" is a more subjective and
psychological phenomenon, referring to
individual's reflections about themselves (e.g.
characterizing oneself as athletic, smart,
cooperative)

> Self-Schema
Psychological Perspectives of the Self
- is our organized system or colletion of
William James
knowledge about who we are (associating
-conceptualized the self as having 2 yourself with others)
aspects - the "I" and the "me"
- "I" is the response of an individual to
a. When someone states your first name
the attitudes of others, while the "me" is the
even if they're not talking about you, your
organized set of attitudes of others which an
attention is drawn to them.
individual assumes.
b. If you have provincial language and
- "I" is the thinking, acting, feeling self.
you hear someone using it, it catches your
While the "me" is the physical characteristics an
attention.
as well psychological capability that makes who
you are. c. If you consider yourself a book-lover,
a bookstore may always entice you out of all
other stores in a mall.
> Attitudinal Change
- "The greatest discovery of my
> Experiences of the Self
generation is that human beings can alter their
lives by altering their attitudes of the mind". He - The Self-concept includes two
meant that with just the simple change of different experiences of the self:
attitude anyone even you can change your life
for better or for worse." He meant that with just
the simple change of attitude, anyone, even you, 1. The Existential self - the concept that you are
can change your life for better or for worse. unique/different from others. (Subjective; I)
2. The Categorical self - concept (and the
concept of others) tends to focus on his or her
Carl Rogers
own visible characteristics. (Objective; Me)
- "I" as the one who acts and decides
while the "me" is what you think or feel about
yourself as an object.
> Composition of Self-Concept - Once you are self-actualized, you've
met your full potential as an individual.
1. Self-Image (Real Self) - who you are
at the moment (e.g. - as a student you are
interested in basketball but academically
Characteristics of Self-Actualized People
challenged in most of your subjects), Self-image
includes: Physical description, Social Roles, Efficient perceptions of reality
Personal traits, existential statements
Comfortable acceptance of self, others, and
2. Ideal Self - who you like to be. It is nature
an idealized image that we have developed over
time, based on what we have learned and Spontaneity
experienced. Could include components of what Task Centering
our parents have taught us, what we admire in
others, what our society promotes, and what we Autonomy
think is in our best interest.
Continued freshness of Appreciation
3. Ought Self (Self-Esteem/Self-Worth)
Fellowship with humanity
- who you think you should be. Our group
identity and self-awareness also has a great Profound interpersonal relationships
impact on our Self-Esteem, one of the common
concepts associated with the "self". It is defined Comfort with solitude
as our own positive and negative perception or Non-hostile sense of humor
evaluation of ourselves.
Peak experiences

Maslow's Theory (Abraham Maslow)

- Abraham Maslow is considered the
father of the humanistic movement. He observed
the lives of (purportedly) healthy and creative
people to develop his theory.
Hierarchy of Needs - the motivational
component of Maslow's Theory, in which our
innate needs, which motivate our actions, are
hierarchically arranged.
> Self-Actualization
- refers to the need for personal growth
and development throughout one's life.
- It is the highest level of Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, which was developed by
psychologist Abraham Maslow.
Leon Festinger
- American Cognitive Psychologist
- developed the Social Comparison Theory
- We learn about ourselves, the appropriateness
of our behaviors, as well as our social status but
comparing aspects of ourselves with other
people.
> Social Comparison Theory
Types of Social Comparison:
1. Downward Social Comparison - is the more
common type of comparing ourselves with
others. We create a positive self-concept by
comparing ourselves with those who are worse
off than us. By having the advantage, we can
raise our self-esteem.
2. Upward Social Comparison - comparing
ourselves with those who are better off than us.
While it can be a form of motivation for some, a
lot of those who do this actually felt lower self-
esteem as they highlight more of their weakness
or inequities.
Social Comparison entails Self-Evaluation
Maintenance Theory
> Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory - In
this theory, we can feel threatened when
someone out-performs us, especially when that
person is close to us (i.e., a family or a friend).
In this case, we usually react in 3 ways:
1. We distance ourselves from that
person or redefine our relationship with them.
2. Reconsider the importance of the
aspect or skill in which you were outperformed.
3. Strengthen or resolve to improve that
certain aspect of ourselves.
Carver and Sheier
- identified 2 types of self that we can be aware
of:
1. The Private Self - your internal standards and
private thoughts and feelings.
2. The Public Self - public image commonly
geared toward having a good presentation of
yourself to others.
> Self-Consciousness
- is when self-awareness can be too much that
we are concerned about being observed and
criticized by others.
Carl Jung
- swiss psychiatrist who was a Freudian disciple,
believed that we are one of two personality
types:
1. Introvert: shy, self-centered person whose
attention is focused inward.
2. Extrovert: Bold, outgoing person whose
attention is directed outward.
Sigmund Freud
- was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of
psychoanalysis.
- provided not only a revolutionary way of
understanding human personality but also how
society affect our psychology.
> Elements of Personality
Id - the child in you, is illogical and can
simultaneously entertain incompatible ideas,
cannot distinguish between good and evil.
Ego - the adult in you, decision-making of
personality.
Superego - the parent in you, demand for
perfection.
> Conflict - may produce frustration.
- defined as "the simultaneous occurrence of two
mutually antagonistic or impulses"
> Defense Mechanism - tactic developed by ego
to protect against anxiety.
- thought to safeguard mind against feelings and
thoughts too difficult for the mind to cope with.
a. Repression - removal of threatening thoughts
from awareness; refusal to think about
something we think is unpleasant.
b. Projection - process of shifting the
responsibility for an act or thought from oneself
to an outside agency or to another person.
c. Denial - refusal to recognize a threatening
situation or thought
d. Regression - the return to a less mature,
anxiety reducing behaviour;
e. Reaction Formation - expression of the
opposite of disturbing ideas
f. Displacement - substituting a less threatening
object for impulses
g. Sublimation - the channeling of impulses to
socially acceptable outlets.
h. Rationalization - is a device whereby the
individual provides plausible reasons for his
behavior rather than the actual reasons which are
too painful to acknowledge.
i. Fantasy - is a mental mechanism whereby a
person substitutes imaginary satisfactions for
real satisfactions.