The Urinary System ● Capillaries are covered with podocytes from the renal

Functions of the Urinary System tubule

● Elimination of waste products ● The glomerulus sits within a glomerular capsule (the first
− Nitrogenous wastes part of the renal tubule)
− Toxins ● Enclosed by Bowman’s capsule
− Drugs
● Regulate aspects of homeostasis
− Water balance Renal Tubule
− Electrolytes ● Glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
− Acid-base balance in the blood ● Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
− Blood pressure ● Loop of Henle
− Red blood cell production (erythropoietin) ● Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
− Activation of vitamin D
Types of Nephrons
Organs of the Urinary system ● Cortical nephrons – more common
● Kidneys − Located entirely in the renal cortex
● Ureters − Includes most nephrons
● Urinary bladder – hypogastric region ● Juxtamedullary nephrons
● Urethra – outlet of urine − Found at the boundary of the cortex and medulla
− Loop of Henle in the renal medulla
Location of the Kidneys
● Against the dorsal body wall Peritubular Capillaries
● At the level of T12 to L3 ● Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus
● The right kidney is slightly lower than the left ● Normal, low pressure capillaries
● Attached to ureters, renal blood vessels, and nerves at ● Attached to a venule
renal hilus- a medial indentation ● Cling close to the renal tubule
● Atop each kidney is an adrenal gland ● Reabsorb some substances from collecting tubes

Coverings of the Kidneys Urine Formation Processes

● Renal capsule ● Filtration – glomerular
− Surrounds each kidney − Glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
● Adipose capsule ● Reabsorption – tubular
− Surrounds the kidney − PCT, renal tubule, peritubular capillaries
− Provides protection to the kidney ● Secretion – tubular
− Helps keep the kidney in its correct location
Filtration
Regions of the Kidney ● Nonselective passive process
● Renal cortex – outer region ● Water and solutes smaller than proteins are forced
● Renal medulla – inside the cortex through capillary walls
● Renal pelvis – inner collecting tube ● Blood cells cannot pass out to the capillaries
● Filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule and leaves
Kidney Structures via the renal tubule
● Medullary pyramids – triangular regions of tissue in the
medulla Reabsorption
● Renal columns – extensions of cortex-like material inward ● The peritubular capillaries reabsorb several materials
● Calyces – cup-shaped structures that funnel urine − Some water − Amino acids
towards the renal pelvis − Glucose − Ions

Blood Flow in the Kidneys ● Some reabsorption is passive, most is active

aorta → renal artery → segmental artery → lobar artery → ● Most reabsorption occurs in the PCT
interlobar artery → arcuate artery → interlobular artery → afferent ● Materials not reabsorbed
arteriole → glomerulus (capillaries) → efferent arteriole → − Nitrogenous waste products − Creatinine
peritubular capillaries → interlobular vein → arcuate vein → − Excess water − Urea
interlobar vein → renal vein → inferior vena cava − Uric acid

Nephrons
● The structural and functional units of the kidneys Secretion – Reabsorption in Reverse
● Responsible for forming urine ● Some materials move from the peritubular capillaries
● Main structures of the nephrons into the renal tubules
− Glomerulus − Hydrogen and potassium ions and Creatinine
− Renal tubule ● Materials left in the renal tubule move toward the ureter

Glomerulus – filtering ability Flow of Urine

● A specialized capillary bed Medullary pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx →renal
● Attached to arterioles on both sides (maintains high pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra
pressure)
− Large afferent arteriole Characteristics of Urine Used for Medical Diagnosis
− Narrow efferent arteriole
● Colored somewhat yellow due to the pigment urochrome Distribution of Body Fluid
(from the destruction of hemoglobin) ● Intracellular fluid (inside cells)
● Sterile ● Extracellular fluid (outside cells)
● Slightly aromatic − Interstitial fluid
● Normal pH of around 6 − Blood plasma
● Specific gravity of 1.001 to 1.035
− Pyuria – fat cells (UTI)
− Glycosuria – diabetic The Link between Water and Salt
− Bacteriuria – UTI ● Changes in electrolyte balance causes water to move
− Bilirubinuria – hepatitis from one compartment to another
− Proteinuria – pregnant women ● Alters blood volume and blood pressure
− Hemoglobinuria – exaggerated RBC ● Can impair the activity of cells
− Hematuria – kidney stones or trauma
Maintaining Water Balance
Ureters ● Water intake must equal water output
● Slender tubes attaching the kidney to the bladder ● Sources for water intake
− Continuous with the renal pelvis − Ingested foods and fluids
− Enter the posterior aspect of the bladder − Water produced from metabolic processes
● Peristalsis aids gravity in urine transport ● Sources for water output
− Vaporization out of the lungs
Urinary Bladder − Lost in perspiration
● Temporarily stores urine − Leaves the body in the feces
● Trigone – three openings − Urine production
− Two from the ureters ● Dilute urine is produced if water intake is excessive
− One to the urethra ● Less urine (concentrated) is produced if large amounts of
● Wall water are lost
− Three layers of smooth muscle (detrusor muscle) ● Proper concentrations of various electrolytes must be
− Mucosa made of transitional epithelium present
− Walls are thick and folded in an empty bladder
− Bladder can expand significantly without increasing Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Reabsorption
internal pressure ● Regulation is primarily by hormones
− Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents excessive
Urethra water loss in urine
● Thin-walled tube that carries urine from the bladder to − Aldosterone regulates sodium ion content of
the outside of the body by peristalsis extracellular fluid (blood volume ↑ pressure ↑)
● Release of urine is controlled by two sphincters ● Triggered by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
− Internal urethral sphincter (involuntary) mechanism
− External urethral sphincter (voluntary) ● Vasoconstriction
● Peripheral assistance ↑ blood pressure ↑
Urethra Gender Differences
● Length Maintaining Acid-Base Balance in Blood
− Females – 3–4 cm (1 inch) ● Blood pH must remain between 7.35 and 7.45 to
− Males – 20 cm (8 inches) maintain homeostasis
● Location − Alkalosis – pH above 7.45
− Females – along wall of the vagina − Acidosis – pH below 7.35
− Males – through the prostate and penis ● Most ions originate as byproducts of cellular metabolism
● Function ● Most acid-base balance is maintained by the kidneys
− Females – only carries urine ● Other acid-base controlling systems
− Males – carries urine; passageway for sperm cells − Blood buffers
− Respiration
Micturition (Voiding) Blood Buffers
● Both sphincter muscles must open to allow voiding ● Molecules react to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen
− The internal urethral sphincter is relaxed after ion (H+) concentrations
stretching of the bladder − Bind to H+ when pH drops
− Activation is from an impulse sent to the spinal cord − Release H+ when pH rises
and then back via the pelvic splanchnic nerves ● Three major chemical buffer systems
− The external urethral sphincter must be voluntarily − Bicarbonate buffer system
relaxed − Phosphate buffer system
Maintaining Water Balance − Protein buffer system
● Normal amount of water in the human body
− Young adult females – 50% The Bicarbonate Buffer System
− Young adult males – 60% ● Mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and sodium bicarbonate
− Babies – 75% (NaHCO3)
− Old age – 45% ● Bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) react with) strong acids to
● Water is necessary for many body functions and levels change them to weak acids
must be maintained ● Carbonic acid dissociates in the presence of a strong base
to form a weak base and water
Respiratory System Controls of Acid-Base Balance
● Carbon dioxide in the blood is converted to bicarbonate
ion and transported in the plasma
● Increases in hydrogen ion concentration produces more
carbonic acid
● Excess hydrogen ion can be blown off with the release of
carbon dioxide from the lungs
● Respiratory rate can rise and fall depending on changing
blood pH

Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance

● Excrete bicarbonate ions if needed
● Conserve or generate new bicarbonate ions if needed
● Urine pH varies from 4.5 to 8.0

Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System

● Functional kidneys are developed by the third month
● Urinary system of a newborn
− Bladder is small
− Urine cannot be concentrated
● Control of the voluntary urethral sphincter does not start
until age 18 months
● Urinary infections are the only common problems before
old age

Aging and the Urinary System

● There is a progressive decline in urinary function
● The bladder shrinks with aging
● Urinary retention is common in males