6 Passive Microwave Components: Definitions

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6 Passive Microwave Components

Definitions

I Linear transfer characteristic


– S-parameters do not depend on the power
– A continuous wave signal does not get distorted
I Most passive components are reciprocal Sij = Sji , Ferrite isolators and circulators are an exception
I For lossless two-port devices:
– Reflections at both ports are identical S11 = S22
– Energy conservation |S11 |2 + |S21 |2 = 1

Design depends on the frequency range, the required performance and other aspects (e.g. costs, size, mass,
power handling)

6.1 Termination
A termination is a one-port component meant to absorb all the power applied to it

I Typically connected at an unused port in a system, such as an unused port of a power


divider that is splitting off signal power to other parts of the system.
I used when a passive component (such as a filter or a coupler) is being matched to 50 Ω for
measurement purposes.
I Terminations used for establishing reference impedances at high power levels are usually
referred to as dummy loads.
I Terminates a transmission line (ideally S11= −∞ dB ).
I Tapered absorbing dielectrics in waveguides, resistive films in planar or coaxial devices.
I Standard coaxial 0-18 GHz terminations specified with return loss < -26dB (VSWR<1.1), expensive
matched termination for VNA calibration have ≥ -36 dB.
I Free space terminations for anechoic chambers or radiometric calibration targets. Often made of lossy
foams with a pyramidal surface to improve the matching.
6.2 Attenuator
An attenuator is a two-port component that reduces the level of the power passing through it
by a fixed or variable amount

I Ideally well matched and frequency independent.


I Resistive networks in coaxial and planar devices, absorbing vane in waveguides.
I Often used to reduce standing waves caused by components with a bad matching.

6.3 Filter
I Used to reject certain frequency bands
I Realized as low, high or bandpass filter (and also band-reject)

6.3.1 Cavity Filter Example


High pass filter made out a series of iris coupled waveguide resonators.

Mesh of the finite element model and simulation results.

Simulated E-fields in the rejection and transmission band


6.3.2 Planar Filter

Steps to get from a lumped element lowpass filter (a) to an equivalent microstrip design (d).

Inductors and capacitors are replaced by microstrip ”stubs”. Easy to integrate in a circuit, but degraded out of band
performance

6.4 Power Splitter

Used to distribute an input signal at port 1 equally and in phase between the two output ports 2 and 3. An
example is a simple waveguide or microstrip T-junction.

It can be shown, however, that it is not possible to match all ports of a symmetric, reciprocal and lossless
device, i.e. the Sii parameters cannot be zero.
6.5 Couplers and Hybrid Rings
Couplers and hybrid rings are four ports devices. Power incident at port 1 is directed (coupled) with port 2 (called the
througt port) with port three the coupled port, but not with port 4 (called isolated port). Similarly power at port 2 will be
coupled with ports 1 and 4 but not 3. Ports 1 and 4 are decoupled as ports 2 and 3.

6.5.1Waveguide coupler: the two holes directional coupler

The geometry of the two holes directional coupler is reported below it consists of two waveguide segments soldered
together and two circular holes placed at a distance of quarter wavelength each other.

A similar geometry could be designed also with planar technology (microstrip). The behavior of the device is the
following, the two small apertures spaced quarter wavelength each other couple the two waveguide sections. A wave
enter at port 1 is mostly transmitted at port two, but a little amount of power is coupled trough the two apertures.
I 4-port device, input port 1 is isolated from port 4.
I Splits the power coming from port 1 equally or with a different coupling ratio between ports 2 and 3.
I Most important characteristics:
Directivity, bandwidth, phase and amplitude balance
I Very usefull to measure the return loss of a device.

Reflectometer setup with a directional coupler to measure the return loss ρL of a device. which corresponds
to the power ration P4 /P3.
6.5.2Hybrid ring: the quadrature (90°) hybrid ring

Quadrature hybrid rings are 3 dB directional couplers with a 90° phase difference at the output ports. Usually the hybrid rings
are often made in microstrip or stripline form. As reported in the following figure:

6.5.3 Hybrid ring: the 180° hybrid ring

The 180° hybrid junction is a four ports network with a 180° phase shift between the two output ports. The schema of the 180°
hybrid is reported below:

A signal applied at port 1 will be equally split into two components with a 180° phase difference at port 2 and 3,
and port 4 wuill be isolated. When the Hybryd operated as a combiner, with input signals applied at ports 2 and
3, the sum of the inputs will be formed at port 1, while the difference at port 4. Port 1 and 4 are referred to as
the sum and difference ports respectively.

The scattering matrix of an ideal hybrid 180°


junction is reported in the following:

The hybrid ring can be fabricated in several forms, waveguide


microstrip. The following photo shows the geometry of a
hybrid ring fabricated with microstrip.
For a matched and lossless device the phase difference has to be either 90 or 180 degrees.

Let us first consider a unit amplitude wave incident at port 1 (the sum port). At the ring junctions this wave
will be divided into two components. These two components arrive in phase at ports 2 and 3, and 1port 4 is
isolated. If the signal is applied at port 4 it will be splitted at ports 2 and 3 with a phase difference of 180°.

6.6 Ferrites
The most practical anisotropic materials for microwave applications are ferromagnetic compounds such as
YIG (yttrium iron garnet) and ferrites composed of iron oxides.
In particular magnetic anisotropy is actually inducted with a magneto-static bias field. The magnetic field
aligns the magnetic dipoles in the ferrite material and produce a non-zero magnetic dipole momentum and
causes the magnetic dipoles in the ferrite material to precess at a frequency controlled by the strength of the
magneto-static field.

A microwave signal polarized in the same direction of as this precession will interact strongly with the dipole
moments, while an oppositely polarized field will interact less strongly.

This effect could be used to fabricate devices such as:


•Isolators.
•gyrators
•circulators

Since for a given direction of rotation (polarization) the sense of polarization changes with the direction of
propagation , so a microwave signal will propagate through a ferrite material differently in different directions.

I Ferromagnetic ceramic (Fe2 O3 +impurities) with high resistivity, μr > 1000, εr < 10.
I Can be magnetized permanently by an external magnetic field.
I Electromagnetic waves interact with the magnetic dipoles.
6.6.1 Isolator
One of the most useful microwave device made with ferrite components is the isolator, the isolator is a
two-port device having unidirectional transmission characteristics. The scattering matrix of this device is
reported in the following:

I Non-reciprocal two-port device to reduce standing waves (ideally S21 = 1 and S12 = 0)
I Resistive vanes at both ports of a circular waveguide are oriented at an angle of 45◦ to each other and
absorb energy when they are parallel to the E field.
I Ferrite rod in the center rotates the polarization by ±45◦ , depending on the propagation
direction.

6.6.2 Gyrators
Another important nonreciprocal component is the gyrator a two port device having a 180° phase shift,
characterized by a scattering matrix reported in the following.

The scattering matrix show us that this device is lossless, matched and nonreciprocal. The gyrator can be
used as phase shifter with 180° or as building box for the implementation of other non reciprocal devices.
6.6.3 Circulator
A circulator is a three port device that can be lossless and matched at all ports. From the scattering matrix
we can show that this kind of device is not nonreciprocal.

Example of disassembled ferrite circulator

I Non-reciprocal three-port device with a ferrite post at the junction.


I Allows to use the same antenna for transmission and reception (radar, communications).
7 Introduction to Active Microwave Devices
I Nonlinear transfer characteristic leads to signal distortions and frequency conversion, which is not the
case on a linear curve
I Nonlinear devices can still have an almost linear behavior for small scale signals

7.1 Frequency Multiplication


A nonlinear device generates harmonics of an input signal with the fundamental frequency f0
|V(t)|

|V(t)|

Time Time

7.2 Mixers
I Single ended mixer : Common for mm wavelengths. No isolation between RF and LO.
I Balanced mixer : Two mixing elements, 3dB hybrid combines LO and RF. Good LO to RF isolation, LO
noise and spurious harmonics are rejected.
I Double balanced mixer : Also IF port is isolated, dynamic range is improved.

7.3 Amplifier
I Increase signal amplitude
I Made with bipolar or FET in Transistors
I Tradeoff between low noise and high power
7.4 Oscillator
An electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a square
wave. Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current (AC) signal.
Active element (1) with a resonant feedback (2)

(1) Transistor, electrons in a vacuum tube (for high power), Gunn diode (semiconductor), ...

(2) LC-circuit, microstrip and dielectric resonator, waveguide cavity, quartz crystal

7.4.1 Resonators
Devices or systems that exhibit resonance or resonant behavior, that is, they naturally oscillate at
some frequencies, called its resonant frequencies, with greater amplitude than at others.

Waveguide Cavities, or resonators, are widely used for:


•klystron and magnetron tubes,
•band-pass filters.
•frequency meters.
•Antennas.

The equivalent circuit of a resonators is a RLC circuit at high frequency


The shape of a resonator (the cavity), could be either cylindrical or cubical.

Example of dielectric resonator antenna.


7.4.2 Magnetron

The following schema represents a magnetron, a microwave vacuum tube able to generate
high power microwave signals.

Some Microwave Systems and Applications

Microwave Oven
A microwave oven, which has a circular polarized wave stirrer for uniformly heating food, is
disclosed. The microwave oven includes a magnetron generating electromagnetic waves, a wave
guide guiding the electromagnetic waves generated from the magnetron to a cavity, and a stirrer
formed to an outlet of the waveguide, receiving electromagnetic waves from the magnetron, and
generating two polarized waves having different electric field directions and phases.
Radars

Radar Jammers

Stand off jammers


Microwave TX/RX

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