Nuclear forces:

An atom consists of neutrons and positively charged protons bound together by very strong
nuclear forces in the nucleus, and negatively charged electrons orbiting around it. The
internal energy associated with the atomic bonds in a molecule is called chemical energy.
During a chemical reaction, such as a combustion process, some chemical bonds are
destroyed while others are formed. As a result, the internal energy changes. The nuclear
forces are much larger than the forces that bind the electrons to the nucleus. The tremendous
amount of energy associated with the strong bonds within the nucleus of the atom itself is
called nuclear energy. Obviously, we need not be concerned with nuclear energy in
thermodynamics unless, of course, we deal with fusion or fission reactions. A chemical
reaction involves changes in the structure of the electrons of the atoms, but a nuclear reaction
involves changes in the core or nucleus.

Nuclear Reaction:
The best known fission reaction involves the split of the uranium atom (the U-235 isotope)
into other elements and is commonly used to generate electricity in nuclear power plants, to
power nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers, and even to power spacecraft as well as
building nuclear bombs.

The percentage of electricity produced by nuclear power is 78 percent in France, 25 percent

in Japan, 28 percent in Germany, and 20 percent in the United States. When a uranium-235
atom absorbs a neutron and splits during a fission process, it produces a cesium-140 atom, a
rubidium-93 atom, 3 neutrons, and 3.2 X
10-11J of energy. In practical terms, the complete fission of 1 kg of uranium-235 releases 6.73
X 1010 kJ of heat, which is more than the heat released when 3000 tons of coal are burned.
Therefore, for the same amount of fuel, a nuclear fission reaction releases several million
times more energy than a chemical reaction. The safe disposal of used nuclear fuel, however,
remains a concern.
Nuclear energy by fusion is released when two small nuclei combine into a larger one. The
huge amount of energy radiated by the sun and the other stars originates from such a fusion
process that involves the combination of two hydrogen atoms into a helium atom. When two
heavy hydrogen (deuterium) nuclei combine during a fusion process, they produce a helium-3
atom, a free neutron, and 5.1 X 10-13 J of energy.

Fusion reactions are much more difficult to achieve in practice because of the strong
repulsion between the positively charged nuclei, called the Coulomb repulsion. To overcome
this repulsive force and to enable the two nuclei to fuse together, the energy level of the
nuclei must be raised by heating them to about 100 million °C. But such high temperatures
are found only in the stars or in exploding atomic bombs (the A-bomb). In fact, the
uncontrolled fusion reaction in a hydrogen bomb (the H-bomb) is initiated by a small atomic
bomb. The uncontrolled fusion reaction was achieved in the early 1950s, but all the efforts
since then to achieve controlled fusion by massive lasers, powerful magnetic fields, and
electric currents to generate power have failed.
Solar energy: Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy,
which comes to the earth from sun. This energy keeps the temperature of the earth above that
in colder space, causes wind currents in the ocean and the atmosphere, causes water cycle and
generates photosynthesis in plants. The solar energy reaching the surface of the earth is about
1016 W, whereas the worldwide power demand is about 1013 W. That means solar energy
gives us 1000 times more energy than our requirement. Even if we use 5 per cent of this
energy, it is more than 50 times our requirement. The total solar radiation absorbed by the
earth and its atmosphere is 3.8 × 1024 J/yr.

Solar Radiation
It is the energy produced and radiated by the sun that reaches the surface of radiation can be
converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy such as heat and electricity. Solar
energy is radiated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic waves of shorter wavelengths
of 0.2– 4.0 μm (1 μm = 10−6 m). Out of all the solar energy radiations reaching the earth’s
atmosphere, 8 per cent is by ultraviolet radiation (wavelength < 0.39 μm), 40 per cent is by
visible light (wavelength, 0.39–0.78 μm) and 46 per cent is by infrared radiation (long wave
of length > 0.78 μm).
Major drawbacks
(i) It is intermittent and variable in nature.
(ii) It requires large area to collect the energy at a useful rate.

Solar Radiation at Earth’s Surface

The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and reaches the surface differs in
both amount and character from radiation at the top of the atmosphere. The radiation entering
the atmosphere is partly absorbed by molecules, and a part of the radiation is reflected back
into the space by clouds. Part of the solar radiation is scattered by droplets in clouds by
atmospheric molecules and dust particles. Oxygen and ozone absorb nearly all the ultraviolet
radiation, whereas CO2 and H2O vapours absorb some energy from infrared range.

1. Direct radiation or beam radiation

Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly from
the sun is called ‘direct radiation’ or ‘beam radiation’. It is the radiation, which produces a
shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.
2. Diffuse radiation
It is the solar radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by
reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Since the solar radiation is scattered in all
directions in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky.
3. Insolation
It is the total solar radiation received at any point on the earth’s surface and is the sum of the
direct and diffuse radiation. More specifically insolation is defined as the total solar radiation
energy received on a horizontal surface of unit area on the ground in unit time.

Photovoltaic Power System

Photovoltaic (PV) technology converts one form of energy (sunlight) into another form
(electricity) without using moving parts, consuming no conventional fossil fuels, creating no
pollution and lasting for decades with very little maintenance. The energy from the sun is
widely available and reasonably reliable with no associated storage or transportation
difficulties and no emissions.
Solar cells operate on the principle based on semiconductor technology that electricity will
flow between two semiconductors when they are put into contact with each other and
exposed to light (photons). This phenomenon, known as the PV effect, was first discovered
by Edmund Becquerel in 1839.
Although a PV array produces power when exposed to sunlight, a number of other
components are required to properly conduct, control, convert, distribute and store the energy
produced by the array.
The specific components required for the system may include a DC–AC power inverter,
battery bank, system and battery controller, auxiliary energy sources and sometimes the
Specified electrical load (appliances).
Some PV systems use batteries for the purpose of storing energy produced by the PV array
during the day, and to supply it to electrical loads as needed (during the night and periods of
cloudy weather). Apart from this batteries are used in PV systems to operate the PV array
near its maximum power point, to power electrical loads at stable voltages and to supply
surge currents to electrical loads and inverters. In most cases, a battery charge controller is
used in these systems to protect the battery from overcharge and over-discharge.