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Subi T3
SCANNING ELECTRON MICRoSCoPE (SEM) 2

n mamy as Chemsiy,
elds xuck

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ERAPARAATAAASAVTooaoeuuma
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eluctim opiei as &hon.
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elecliim bian
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magnalic ezecine lons euve
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spol fha uaca details

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e l e c o m miurscope AcuiGilatai clitri
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fe in o Ra delaclir Small and

A ppticalaons
SEM SooUndes mshsto qie andl Copogaphie
ngnclim alsent h w4aa %Bsids
SEM uanushas qualilalime amd

qantiabwe uiormalimi alsoul Ri

uao Bds
3. Contamenalimni on the bupaca ean ha
2clant ad
 LUPy

with a
finely focused beam of clecirons or with a suit-
able probe. A raster is a an individual lens is
used in a
scanning pattern similar to that ween 10 cylindrically symneirical and be.
and 15 cm in
cathode-ray tube or in a television set in which of heigh. The details of the optics
an clectron beam is
(1) swept across a surface in a magnetic Jens
l e c tsystema-is
a b m beyond
0 9 nthe
straight line (the x direction), (2) Teturmed to its tcxt. o tsgope this
i cofcoil
position, and (3) shifted downward starting Scanning with a SEM is
pairg of cleciromagnetic coils accomplished
(the y direction) by by
a standard increment. This a located within the
is
desired area of the surface process
has been
repeated until a
tivelens (see Figure 21-15), one pair deflects objec.
scanned. During in the the beam
this scanning
process, a signal is received above the sur-
x direction across the
face (the z direction) and stored in a deflects it in the y direction. sample, ánd the otheT Dair
where it is ultimately converted to computer system, applying an electrical Scanning is courolled ky
an
image. such that the electron beam
signal to cne
peis of star coils7
strikes the
side of the center axis of the sarmple to one
1C-1 He Scanning Electron lens
elcctrical signal to this pair of coils system.Ey
varying the
(SEM)15 Microscope as a function of (that is, the x (oils)
time, the electron beam is
In a scanning electron
microscope, surface.ofa.solid straight line across the sample and then moved in a
sampleis scanned ina raster pattemthewith original position. After completion of the reiurmed ío its

ergeticelectrons Several types of signals aarebeam of en- other set of coils (y coils in this line scan the
case) is used to
from a surface in this process, inclyding produced the beam slightly, and the deflection
of the
deiect
secondary, and Auger electrons; X-raybackscattered,
beam
the x coils is
repeated. Thus, by rapidBy movingusing
photons; and other photons of various fluorescence beam, the entire sample surface can be the
these signals have been used energies. All of the electron beam. The iradiated with
two most common
for surface studies, but the
either analog or
signals to the scan coils car te
are (1)
backscattered and secondary digital. Digital scanning has the advan-
electrons, which serve as the basis of scanning electron tage that it offers very
reproducible movement and io
microscopy, and (2) X-ray emission, which is used in cation of the electron beam. The signal
electror mroprobe analysis. can be encoded and from the sanile
stored in digital form
digital representations
of the x and y elong with
póstions of the
instrumentation bearp
The
Figure 21-15 is a signals that are used to drive the electron beam
that is both a schematic of a combined instrament in the and y directions are also
x
scanning electron microscope and a scan- zontal and vertical scans of a used to drive the heri-
ning electron microprobe. Note that a The image of the cathode-ray tube (CR?).
common electron
gun source and electron sample is produced
by using the oui-
the electron focusing system is used but that put of adetector to control the
microscope employs an electron the intensity of the spot cn
whereas the microprobe uses an X-ray detector,detector, of the
CRT.Thus, this method of scanning produces a
those such as map
sarhple in which there is a one-to-one corelatioa
described in Section 12B-4.
between the signal
the sample produced at a particular location ou
Electron Optics. The
magnetic condenser and objec- CRT
surface and a corresponding point on the
tive lens system
shewnin Eigure 21-15serve to reduce SEM
display/The magnification (M) achievable in th
the image to a final image isgiven by
spot size on the sample of 5 to 200
nm. The
condenser lens system, which
one or more may consist of
lenses, is responsible for the where W is the width of the
(M-Whw (21-7
the electron beam
reaching throughput of
the objective lens; the CRT display and w is the
ob- width of a single line scan
jective lens is responsible for the size of the W is a constant,
across the
sample. Because
beam electron increased
impinging on decreasing w. The inverse magnification
the surface of the isachieved by
sample. Typically, relationship between
fication and the width of the scan
magni-
plies that a beam across the sample im-
15
Monographs dealing with SEM include Goldstein et of electrons that has been focused to
Electron Microscopy al,
an
infinitely small point could provide infinite
and
Press, 1981; O. C. Wells X-Ray
et al.,
Microanalysis. New York: Scanning
Plenum catión.)A variety of other factors, however, limitmagnif-
York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. Scanning Electron Microscopy. New the
magaiication that is achievable to a
range from about
7asLey the
10X to 100,000x.

Tectang ular ormatton

o rmatton barallel
nesthat
ines 9ids tA eloctron beam
 Variable high-voltage
Electron gun
power supply

Eiectron beam.

booo
01ooo
Magnetic O00
0
condenser 1 o oo
R L e c l r o m a g n s t i c

lens
6000
cotls
Scan (magnification)
coil controls

Magnetic op
objective
lens

]s E e detector

X-Ray detector7
]eathóde
Specimen CRT Taj lube
To vacuum
display

Sample chamber

Schematic of an SEM.
21-15
Figure

conductors of electricity
addition, samples that are good
chambers are
Sanpleand Sampler Holder Sample re
also good
usyally
conductors of heat, which mini-
désigned for rapid changing ofsamples am
ainte e likelihood of their thermal degradation. untor
used to hastenrthe switch-frem and most mineral
tunately, most biological specimens
vacuum pumps are

torT or less. The sample

holder, o
bient pressure to i0
stae, in most
instruments is capableof holding sam
ples many centimeters
on an edge./Furthermore,
the x, y, and z dîtections;
and it
stage can be moved in
the
can be rotated about each
axis.. As a consequence,
be viewed from almqst
surfaces of most samples can
any perspective.
are easiest to
(Samples that conduct electricity
of electrons to ground mini-.
because The unimpeded flow
mizes artifacts associated with
the of
buildup charge In
am bunt -s Complot
have
conduct. A variety of techniques
samples do not
been developed for oblaining
SEM images of noncon
the the most common approaches
in-
ducting samples, but metal
the sample with a thin
volve coating the surface of
or by vacuum
lic filmroduced by sputtering
method of producing a
evaporationRegardless of the
balance must be struck be-
study. conduetive tbating, a delicate
uniform coating achievable and
anex-
tween the thinnest
details.
cessively thick coating that
obscures surface
envelop tN9.