polymers
Article
Epoxy-Based Structural Self-Adhesive Tapes Modified
with Acrylic Syrups Prepared via a Free Radical
Photopolymerization Process
Konrad Gziut , Agnieszka Kowalczyk * , Beata Schmidt






Citation: Gziut, K.; Kowalczyk, A.;
Schmidt, B.; Kowalczyk, K.;
Weisbrodt, M. Epoxy-Based Structural
Self-Adhesive Tapes Modified with
Acrylic Syrups Prepared via a Free
Radical Photopolymerization Process.
Polymers 2021, 13, 189. https://
doi.org/10.3390/polym13020189
Received: 16 December 2020
Accepted: 3 January 2021
Published: 7 January 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Li-
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and con-
ditions of the Creative Commons At-
tribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Polymers 2021, 13, 189. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym13020189
, Krzysztof Kowalczyk and Mateusz Weisbrodt
Department of Chemical Organic Technology and Polymeric Materials, Faculty of Chemical Technology
and Engineering, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, 70-322 Szczecin, Poland;
kgziut@zut.edu.pl (K.G.); bschmidt@zut.edu.pl or beata.schmidt@zut.edu.pl (B.S.);
kkowalczyk@zut.edu.pl (K.K.); mweisbrodt@zut.edu.pl or mateusz.weisbrodt@zut.edu.pl (M.W.)
* Correspondence: agnieszka.kowalczyk@zut.edu.pl
Abstract: New modifiers (i.e., acrylic syrups; ASs) of epoxy-resin-based thermally curable structural
self-adhesive tapes (SATs) were prepared via a free radical bulk polymerization (FRBP) of n-butyl
acrylate, butyl methacrylate, glycidyl methacrylate, and hydroxybutyl acrylate. In the process, two
kinds of UV-photoinitiators (i.e., monoacylphosphine oxide/Omnirad TPO and bisacylphosphine
oxide/Omnirad 819) and various mixing speed of the monomers mixture (200–1000 rpm) were
applied. The TPO-based syrups exhibited a lower copolymers content (10–24 wt%), dynamic viscosity
(<0.1 Pa·s), molecular weights (Mn and Mw , and polydispersity (1.9–2.5) than these with Omnirad
819. Additionally, the higher mixing speed significantly reduced monomers conversion and viscosity
of ASs as well as molecular weights of the acrylate copolymers. These parameters influenced
the properties of thermally uncured (e.g., adhesion) and thermally cured SATs (shear strength of
aluminum/SAT/aluminum overlap joints). Better self-adhesive features were observed for SATs-TPO
(based on ASs with lower monomers conversion, Mn and Mw ); however, a slightly higher shear
strength was noted for the thermally cured SAT-819 (ASs with higher monomers conversion, Mn
and Mw ). An impact of polydispersity of the acrylate copolymers as well as crosslinking degree of
thermally cured SATs on the mechanical strength was also revealed.
Keywords: thermoset polymers; epoxyacrylate compositions; structural adhesives; photopolymer-
ization; aerospace
1. Introduction
Epoxy resins (ERs) are widely used in coatings, adhesives, fiber-reinforced composites,
electrical cast insulations, and other applications [1–3]; however, their high crosslinking
density leads to low-impact and crack-propagation resistance of the materials. Many at-
tempts have been made to improve these features, i.e., chemical and physical modification,
including the incorporation of solid polymers or inorganic micro-and nanoparticles [4–9]
as well as liquid (meth) acrylate monomers into uncured ERs. One of the first reports
on this subject referred to in situ UV radiation copolymerization processes of n-butyl
acrylate (BA) with glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) or monoethylene glycol dimethacrylate
in the presence of ER. The influence of the interaction between acrylic polymer domains
and an epoxy matrix (due to their chemical reactions or IPN structure creation) on in-
ternal stress reduction was proved [10]. Copolymers of butyl acrylate (BA) and glycidyl
methacrylate (GMA), prepared via an in situ polymerization process, were also tested as
impact modifiers of ERs [11]. Results showed that the copolymers improve the tough-
ness of the epoxy systems, regardless of a slight reduction of the tensile modulus and
glass transition temperature. Besides, triblock copolymers, i.e., poly(styrene-b-butadiene-b-
methylmethacrylate) and poly(methylmethacrylate-b-butylacrylate-b-methylmethacrylate)
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 2 of 13

improve fracture toughness of the epoxy materials as well [12–14]. Acrylate copolymers
can be incorporated into ERs in the form of hybrid nanoparticles consisting of an inorganic
core (silica or aluminum oxide) and a reactive methacrylate-based shell. A UV/heat dual-
curable epoxy–acrylate adhesive containing the mentioned core-shell particles exhibits
outstanding water resistance [15]. Applications of epoxyacrylate copolymers (based on BA,
GMA, and 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate) prepared by a conventional radical polymerization
process in an organic solvent [16–19] or by bulk photopolymerization [20] are also known.
In the latter case, the acrylate-type modifier was used in the form of a prepolymer also
called acrylic syrup (i.e., a solution of the copolymer in the unreacted monomers). Incorpo-
ration of these acrylate-based modifiers allows the preparation of structural adhesives as
self-adhesive tapes (SATs) that have relatively high adhesion to bonded substrates (before
their thermal curing) and very high shear strength (after the process). This type of adhesive
is commonly used in the aviation industry [21–25]. Preparation of the structural adhesives
as thin films (based on epoxyacrylate copolymers obtained by a relatively new method, i.e.,
free radical bulk photopolymerization process (FRBP)) was first described in the literature
by the authors of this manuscript [20].
Physicochemical properties of the prepolymers (prepared via the FRBP method)
strongly depend on the process parameters such as UV dose, type and concentration of a
photoinitiator, and mixing speed. This technique—as the other methods of photopolymeriz-
ation—is characterized by high reaction rates and low energy costs. Moreover, it does not
require elevated temperature and can be realized in the absence of organic solvents [26–32].
Listed advantages defined photopolymerization as a pro-ecological process, especially
if cheap light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used as a source of excitation light [33–38].
Nevertheless, the FRBP method is also subject to certain limitations. One of the main
drawbacks is the formation of a gel fraction. Due to the fact that this process is carried
out without solvents and the radical polymerization is a highly exo-energetic reaction, it
must be conducted under appropriate conditions (such as photoinitiator or irradiation
doses) to achieve a useful product. The preparation of a few different products from
acrylic syrups was presented in the literature; however, the FRBP process has not yet been
thoroughly explored. In detail, the influence of mixing speed on properties of acrylate
(co)polymers and related adhesives has not been investigated as well. It should be noted
that mixing speed was recognized as early as the 20th century as a crucial parameter of
bulk photopolymerization processes. In 1969, Yemin and Hill described the influence of
agitation on nonuniformly photoinitiated homopolymerization of methyl methacrylate
(MMA). It should be noted that they used no photoinitiator. They also reported that the rate
of MMA bulk photopolymerization increases with the increase in the speed of mixing [39].
Mendiratta et al. (1975) revealed that partial illumination of a reactor charge (styrene) (at
a relatively low mixing speed) causes the formation of high molecular weight polymer
chains in a shaded part of a reactor [40]. It is noteworthy that the above-mentioned papers
described one-monomer-type photopolymerization reactions (homopolymerization of
methyl methacrylate or styrene) based on benzoin or benzoin methyl ether as “sensitizers”
and the monomer conversion value never exceeded 2%.
The main aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the mixing speed
value applied during the preparation of acrylic syrups (ASs) on the selected mechanical
and thermal properties of epoxy-based SATs. The free radical bulk photopolymerization
process (FRBP) of various (meth)acrylates was realized using UV-LED lamps surrounding
the whole reactor and resulted in the formation of ASs with different solids content and
molecular weight of copolymers.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials
The following components were used for the preparation of the acrylic syrups (ASs): n-
butyl acrylate (BA), butyl methacrylate (BMA), 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) (BASF, Lud-
wigshafen, Germany), and glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) (Dow Europe, Horgen, Germany).
 2.1. Materials
The following components were used for the preparation of the acrylic syrups (ASs):
n-butyl acrylate (BA), butyl methacrylate (BMA), 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) (BASF,
Ludwigshafen, Germany), and glycidyl methacrylate (GMA) (Dow Europe, Horgen, Ger-
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 3 of 13
many). Acylphosphine oxides, i.e., bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)-phenyl phosphine oxide
(Omnirad 819, IGM Resins, Waalkwijk, The Netherlands), and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-di-
phenyl phosphine oxide (Omnirad TPO; IGM Resins, Waalkwijk, The Netherlands) were
Acylphosphine oxides, i.e., bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)-phenyl phosphine oxide (Omni-
used as type I radical photoinitiators. Thermally curable double-sided SATs were com-
rad 819, IGM Resins, Waalkwijk, The Netherlands), and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-diphenyl
pounded using ASs, the Bisphenol
phosphine A-based
oxide (Omnirad liquid
TPO; IGMepoxy
Resins,resin with an
Waalkwijk, epoxy
The equivalent
Netherlands) were used as
weight of 202 g/equiv. and viscosity of 25 Pa·s (Epidian; Ciech Sarzyna, Nowa
type I radical photoinitiators. Thermally curable double-sided SATs were Sarzyna,
compounded
Poland), the Omnirad 127 photoinitiator
using ASs, (IGM Resins,
the Bisphenol A-based Waalwijk,
liquid epoxy Thean
resin with Netherlands), 1,6-weight of
epoxy equivalent
hexanediol diacrylate (Laromer
202 g/equiv. andHDDA, BASF,
viscosity of 25Ludwigshafen, Germany),
Pa·s (Epidian; Ciech Sarzyna,theNowa
epoxy-mod-
Sarzyna, Poland),
ified acrylic resinthe Omnirad9023;
(Laromer 127 photoinitiator (IGM Resins,
BASF, Ludwigshafen, Waalwijk,the
Germany), TheLewis
Netherlands), 1,6-hexanediol
acid adduct
(as a latent curing agent) (Nacure Super Catalyst A218; Worleé Chemie, Hamburg, Ger- acrylic
diacrylate (Laromer HDDA, BASF, Ludwigshafen, Germany), the epoxy-modified
many), Byk 4510 as resin
an (Laromer
adhesion9023; BASF, Ludwigshafen,
promoter, and Byk 378 asGermany), the Lewis(Byk-Chemie,
a surface additive acid adduct (as a latent
curing agent) (Nacure Super Catalyst A218; Worleé Chemie, Hamburg, Germany), Byk
Wesel, Germany).
4510 as an adhesion promoter, and Byk 378 as a surface additive (Byk-Chemie, Wesel,
Germany).
2.2. Synthesis of Acrylic Syrups
2.2. Synthesis
ASs were prepared of Acrylic
via the Syrups bulk photopolymerization process of BA (6
free radical
moles), BMA (2 moles), ASs were(1prepared
GMA via HEA
mole), and the free radicalunder
(1 mole) bulk photopolymerization
UV-LED irradiationprocess
and of BA
(6 moles), BMA (2 moles), GMA (1 mole), and HEA (1 mole)
using 0.01 mole of the photoinitiator. Chemical structures of the monomers, photoinitia- under UV-LED irradiation and
using 0.01 mole of the photoinitiator. Chemical structures
tors, and synthesized copolymer are shown in Figure 1. The copolymerization process wasof the monomers, photoinitiators,
and synthesized copolymer are shown in Figure 1. The copolymerization process was
initialized at 20 °C and carried out for 20 min in a glass reactor (250 cm3) equipped with a
initialized at 20 ◦ C and carried out for 20 min in a glass reactor (250 cm3 ) equipped with
mechanical stirrer and a thermocouple,
a mechanical stirrer and a and in the presence
thermocouple, and in of
theargon as of
presence anargon
inert as
gas. A gas. A
an inert
mixture of the monomers
mixture of (50 g) was introduced
the monomers (50 g) was into the reactor
introduced into the and purged
reactor and with
purged argon
with argon for
for 20 min. As a UV light source, the UV-LED stripe (390 ± 5 nm; MEiSSA,
20 min. As a UV light source, the UV-LED stripe (390 ± 5 nm; MEiSSA, Warsaw, Warsaw, Po- Poland)
land) was used. ThewasUV irradiation
used. density (10
The UV irradiation mW/cm
density 2
(10 mW/cm 2
) was controlled inside the
) was controlled reactor
inside the reactor by
means of the UV-radiometer
by means of the UV-radiometer SL2W (UV-Design,
SL2W (UV-Design, Brachttal,Brachttal,
Germany). Germany). The composition of
The composition
monomers/photoinitiator
of monomers/photoinitiator systems usedsystems
for theused for theof
synthesis synthesis of ASs is presented
ASs is presented in Table in1. Table 1.

Figure Figure 1. Schematic

1. Schematic chemicalchemical structures
structures of the
of the tested tested monomers,
monomers, photoinitiators,
photoinitiators, and the
and the prepared prepared
acrylic syrups (BA:
n-butylacrylic syrups
acrylate, BMA: (BA:
butyl n-butyl acrylate,
methacrylate, GMA: BMA: butyl
glicydyl methacrylate,
methacrylate, GMA:
HEA: glicydylacrylate,
hydroxyethyl methacrylate, HEA: 819,
O.819: Omnirad
O.TPO:hydroxyethyl
Omnirad TPO).acrylate, O.819: Omnirad 819, O.TPO: Omnirad TPO).
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 4 of 13

Table 1. The composition of monomer/photoinitiator systems used for ASs preparation (at different
mixing speeds).

Mixing Speed Monomers (mol%)

AS Symbol PI (0.01 mol%)
(rpm) BA BMA GMA HEA
AS-TPO-200 Omnirad TPO
200
AS-819-200 Omnirad 819
60.8 19.6 9.8 9.8
AS-TPO-400 Omnirad TPO
400
AS-819-400 Omnirad 819
AS-TPO-600 Omnirad TPO
600
AS-819-600 Omnirad 819
AS-TPO-800 Omnirad TPO
800 60.8 19.6 9.8 9.8
AS-819-800 Omnirad 819
AS-TPO-1000 Omnirad TPO
1000
AS-819-1000 Omnirad 819
PI: photoinitiator; BA: n-butyl acrylate; BMA: butyl methacrylate; GMA: glycidyl methacrylate; HEA:
2-hydroxyethyl acrylate.

2.3. Characterization of Acrylic Syrups

The maximum temperature (the peak temperature; Tmax ) of the FRBP process was
determined using an electronic thermometer equipped with a K-type thermocouple. Dy-
namic viscosity of ASs was measured at 23 ◦ C by means of the DV-II Pro Extra viscometer
(spindle #6 or #7, 50 rpm; Brookfield, New York, NY, USA). Solids content (SC) of the
prepared syrups was determined using the MA 50/1.X2.IC.A moisture analyzer (Radwag,
Radom, Poland); samples (ca. 2 mg) were heated in aluminum pans at 105 ◦ C for 4 h. The
SC parameter was calculated according to Equation (1),
m2
SC = · 100 (wt%) (1)
m1

where m1 is the initial weight of a sample snf m2 is the residual weight after an evaporation process.
Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was used for determination of molecular
weights (Mn , Mw ) and polydispersity (PDI) of the copolymers (the syrups were dried
at 140 ◦ C for 4 h before the test in order to remove unreacted monomers); the GPC
apparatus contained the refractive index detector (Merck Lachrom RI L-7490), the pump
(Merck Hitachi Liquid Chromatography L-7100, Abingdon, UK), the interface unit (Merck
Hitachi Liquid Chromatography D-7000, Abingdon, UK), and the Shodex OHpak SB-
806M MQ column connected with the Shodex OHpak SB-G pre-column (Merck Hitachi
Liquid Chromatography L-7100, Abingdon, UK). The GPC tests were performed using the
polystyrene standards (Fluka, Germany and Polymer Standards Service, Mainz, Germany)
and tetrahydrofurane.

2.4. Preparation of Structural Self-Adhesive Tapes (SATs)

SATs were compounded using the epoxy resin (50 wt parts), the prepared ASs
(50 wt parts), the latent curing agent (1.5 wt part), the multifunctional monomers (i.e., the
epoxy-modified acrylic resin; 2 wt parts), the difunctional acrylate monomer (1 wt part),
the Omnirad 127 photoinitiator (3 wt parts), and the adhesion promoter (0.1 wt part).
The multifunctional monomers and photoinitiators were incorporated in order to increase
the crosslinking density of the UV-irradiated system. The preparation steps of SATs are
graphically presented in Figure 2.
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 5 of 13
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 14

Figure2.2.The
Figure Thepreparation
preparationsteps
stepsofofthe
theself-adhesive
self-adhesivestructural
structuraltapes
tapes(SATs).
(SATs).

TheSATs
The SATscomponents
componentswere weremixedmixedusing
usinga ahigh-speed
high-speedmechanical
mechanicalmixer
mixer(T10
(T10Basic
Basic
Ultra-Turrax, IKA, Königswinter, Germany). The prepared
Ultra-Turrax, IKA, Königswinter, Germany). The prepared mixtures mixtures were applied onto a
a polyester
polyesterfoil
foil(samples
(samplesfor forself-adhesive
self-adhesivetests) oror
tests) a siliconized
a siliconizedpaper (other
paper tests)
(other andand
tests) UV-
UV-irradiated 2 ) using the medium pressure mercury lamp (UV-ABC;
irradiated for for
30 s30(8sJ/cm
(8 J/cm
2) using the medium pressure mercury lamp (UV-ABC; Hönle
Hönle UV-Technology,
UV-Technology, Gräfelfing,
Gräfelfing, Germany).
Germany). Theexposition
The UV UV expositionwas was controlled
controlled withwith the
the radi-
radiometer (Dynachem
ometer (Dynachem 500;500; Dynachem
Dynachem Corp.,
Corp., Westville,
Westville, IL, IL, USA).
USA). TheThe thickness
thickness of the
of the pre-
prepared self-adhesive
pared self-adhesive layers
layers (i.e.,
(i.e., the
the thermally
thermally uncuredSATs)
uncured SATs)was
wasca.
ca.120
120µm.
µm.

2.5.
2.5.Characterization
CharacterizationofofThermally
ThermallyUncured
UncuredStructural
StructuralSelf-Adhesive
Self-AdhesiveTapes
Tapes(SATs)
(SATs)
Self-adhesive properties of the thermally uncured SATs were
Self-adhesive properties of the thermally uncured SATs were tested according tested according to to
As-
Association
sociation des Fabricants Européens de RubansAuto-Adhésifs (AFERA) standards,i.e.,
des Fabricants Européens de RubansAuto-Adhésifs (AFERA) standards, i.e.,
AFERA
AFERA4001 (adhesion
4001 (adhesion to atosteel substrate),
a steel AFERA
substrate), AFERA 40154015
(tack), and AFERA
(tack), and AFERA4012 (cohesion).
4012 (cohe-
These
sion).parameters were evaluated
These parameters using three
were evaluated usingsamples of each adhesive
three samples tape by means
of each adhesive tape by
ofmeans
the Z010 machine (Zwick/Roell, Ulm, Germany). Generally,
of the Z010 machine (Zwick/Roell, Ulm, Germany). Generally, adhesion adhesion is defined as a
is defined
force value required to remove a pressure-sensitive material from a stainless steel plate;
as a force value required to remove a pressure-sensitive material from a stainless steel
the process is realized at the angle of 180◦ at a removal speed of 300 mm/min. Tack is
plate; the process is realized at the angle of 180° at a removal speed of 300 mm/min. Tack
characterized as a force value required for the separation of a stainless steel plate and an
is characterized as a force value required for the separation of a stainless steel plate and
adhesive tape applied under low pressure (contact time of 0.5 s). Cohesion (i.e., static shear
an adhesive tape applied under low pressure (contact time of 0.5 s). Cohesion (i.e., static
adhesion) describes the time needed to shear off an adhesive tape sample (under a load of
shear adhesion) describes the time needed to shear off an adhesive tape sample (under a
1 kg) from a defined steel surface.
load of 1 kg) from a defined steel surface.
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC Q100, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA)
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC Q100, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA)
was used for determination of the glass transition temperature (Tg ) of SATs, enthalpy
was used for determination of the glass transition temperature (Tg) of SATs, enthalpy of
of SAT curing processes (∆H), the onset temperature of the curing reactions (Ti ), and
SAT curing processes (ΔH), the onset temperature of the curing reactions (Ti), and maxi-
maximum temperature of the curing reaction (Tp ). Samples (ca. 10 mg) were analyzed
mum temperature of the curing reaction (Tp). Samples (ca. 10 mg) were analyzed using
using standard aluminum pans at the temperature from −80 to 350 ◦ C (the heating rate of
10standard
◦ C/min). aluminum
Two DSC pans at the temperature
measurements from −80 towere
for each composition 350 °C (the out.
carried heating rate of 10
°C/min). Two DSC measurements for each composition were carried out.
2.6. Preparation and Characterization of Aluminum Joints with Thermally Cured SATs
2.6. Preparation and Characterization of Aluminum Joints with Thermally Cured SATs
Aluminum–SAT–aluminum overlap joints (Al/SAT/Al) were prepared using the UV-
Aluminum–SAT–aluminum
crosslinked SATs and degreased 2024 overlap joints (Al/SAT/Al)
aluminum panels (100 × were
25 ×prepared
1.6 mm3using
). Thethe UV-
joints
crosslinked SATs and ◦
degreased 2024 aluminum panels (100 × 25 × 1.6
were thermally cured at 170 C for 60 min. Shear strength of the thermally cured Al/SAT/Al mm 3). The joints

were thermally
overlap joints wascured
measured at 170 °C for
at room 60 min. Shear
temperature strength
according to theofASTMD1002-10
the thermally stan- cured
Al/SAT/Al
dard overlap
(10 samples of eachjoints wasusing
system) measured
the Z010 atmachine
room temperature
(Zwick/Roell,according
Ulm, Germany).to the
ASTMD1002-10
Additionally, agingstandard
tests were(10 samplesaccording
conducted of eachtosystem) using thestandard
the MMM-A-132B Z010 machine
(shear
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 6 of 13

strength of the cured overlap joints was determined after their exposition at 82 ◦ C for
10 days). The glass transition temperature of the cured SATs was determined using the
DSC method. Samples of the cured SATs (ca. 10 mg) were analyzed using standard
aluminum pans at the temperature from −80 to 350 ◦ C (the heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min).
Crosslinking degree (α) of the thermally cured SATs was calculated using the DSC data
according to Equation (2) [41],

∆HT − ∆Hres
 
α= (a.u.) (2)
∆HT

where ∆HT is the total enthalpy of an SAT curing process (J/g) and ∆Hres is the enthalpy
of a post-curing process of the thermally cured SAT in an Al/SAT/Al joint.

3. Results
3.1. Properties of the Acrylic Syrups
Two groups of the acrylic syrups, i.e., syrups prepared with different photoinitiator
types (Omnirad TPO: monoacylphosphine oxide or Omnirad 819: bisacylphosphine oxide),
were tested. These photoinitiators were used due to their relatively high absorption
of the light emitted by the UV-LED lamps (the maximum absorption at 390 nm). Five
syntheses were carried out for each group (10 syrups) with different mixing speeds of the
reactor charge (200, 400, 600, 800, or 1000 rpm). Values of the selected physicochemical
parameters of the prepared ASs (i.e., viscosity, solids content, average molecular weights,
polydispersity) are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Dynamic viscosity, solids content, average molecular weights, and polydispersity of the acrylic syrups.

AS Symbol T max (◦ C) η (Pa·s) SC (wt%) M n (g/mol) M w (g/mol) PDI

AS-TPO-200 40 0.2 24 19,840 48,835 2.46
AS-TPO-400 38 0.1 21 17,955 37,570 2.09
AS-TPO-600 26 <0.1 10 12,530 23,020 1.84
AS-TPO-800 30 <0.1 12 13,580 26,545 1.95
AS-TPO-1000 31 <0.1 12 14,120 26,760 1.89
AS-819-200 100 gel 68 43,515 359,085 8.25
AS-819-400 51 13 49 28,670 103,285 3.60
AS-819-600 38 0.4 31 22,380 54,985 2.46
AS-819-800 42 1.2 37 24,865 63,370 2.55
AS-819-1000 39 0.7 34 22,700 55,090 2.43
Tmax -process temperature peak; η—viscosity; Mn —number-average molecular weight; Mw —weight-average molecular weight; PDI—
polydispersity index.

As can be seen, the mixing speed value (MS) of the reactor charge markedly affects
the properties of the syrups. Generally, an increment of MS causes a reduction in the
temperature peak value (Tmax ) of the photopolymerization process (MS influences the
kinetics of the process). Probably, the recorded decrement of the reaction rate (lower
temperature) is caused by rapid radical extinction (reactions between two radicals resulting
in polymer chain termination) and limited formation of longer/larger macroradicals. It
can be confirmed by the measured viscosity of the prepared ASs, their solids content, and
the molecular weights and polydispersity (PDI) of the copolymers. As can be observed,
the solids content value decreases (for both product types AS-TPO and AS-819) with the
increase in mixing speed value. It should be mentioned that photolysis of the Omnirad 819
photoinitiator generates four different radicals, while the TPO photoinitiator creates only
two types of radicals (per one molecule) [42]. In this case, ASs prepared using Omnirad
819 are characterized by a higher viscosity, solids content, Mw , and Mn values than the
AS-TPO-type syrups. It was previously proved by the authors (considering NMR studies)
that a solids content value directly correlates with monomers conversion in ASs [20]. The
syrups based on TPO and prepared at the lowest agitation speed values (200 rpm or
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 7 of 13

400 rpm) exhibited the highest monomers conversion (24% or 21%, respectively). Under
such conditions, the monomers conversion in AS-819 syrups was two-fold larger (68%
and 49%). It is noteworthy that the viscosity of the AS-819-200 system was extremely
high; the low MS value (200 rpm) revealed a high reactivity of the bisacylphosphine oxide
photoinitiator-based system (Tmax = 100 ◦ C) and its gelling tendency. Additionally, it can
be seen that the MS increment (from 600 rpm to 1000 rpm) causes only slight changes of
viscosity, SC, molecular weights, and PDI of AS-819-type syrups. Nevertheless, it seems to
be interesting that all the tested ASs reached the lowest values of these parameters exactly
at MS = 600 rpm. Markedly, higher molecular weights (Mw and Mn ) were measured at the
lower stirring speed values (200 rpm or 400 rpm) and for the Omnirad 819 photoinitiator.
Moreover, these systems exhibited the highest PDI values (8.25 at 200 rpm and 3.60 at
400 rpm). For the other samples, the PDI values were lower than 2.5 (<2 for the TPO-based
systems prepared at 600–1000 rpm). It should be noted that the AS-TPO and AS-819-type
syrups (MS = 600 rpm or higher) were characterized by very low viscosity (ca. 1 Pa·s or
less). The significant influence of these parameters on features of the SATs is presented in
further discussion.

3.2. Properties of the Thermally Uncured SATs

Structural self-adhesive tapes (SATs) were compounded using the Bisphenol A-type
epoxy resin (ER) and the prepared acrylic syrups. After the UV-crosslinking process, their
thermal properties were tested by the DSC method; the results are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Thermal features of the UV-crosslinked structural self-adhesive tapes (SATs), the results from the differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests, and the crosslinking degree of the thermally cured SATs.

SAT Symbol T g (◦ C) Ti (◦ C) Tp (◦ C) ∆H (J/g) α (a.u.) T g * (◦ C)

SAT-TPO-200 −11 114 193 211 0.78 46
SAT-TPO-400 −11 113 193 232 0.82 47
SAT-TPO-600 −11 114 192 231 0.90 51
SAT-TPO-800 −10 110 191 232 0.90 51
SAT-TPO-1000 −12 111 193 235 0.90 51
SAT-819-200 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
SAT-819-400 −12 107 198 217 0.75 15
SAT-819-600 −12 116 196 224 0.78 29
SAT-819-800 −11 121 194 230 0.78 27
SAT-819-1000 −11 121 192 238 0.84 27
Tg —the glass transition temperature of uncured SATs; Ti —the onset temperature of the curing reactions; Tp —the maximum temperature of
the curing reaction; ∆H—enthalpy of the SAT curing process; α—the crosslinking degree of thermally cured SATs; Tg *—the glass transition
temperature for the thermally cured SATs; n.d.—no data.

As can be seen, the prepared SATs exhibit similar values of glass transition temper-
ature (Tg varies from −10 to −12 ◦ C), and these values are not markedly affected by the
physicochemical properties of the applied ASs. Nevertheless, significant differences can be
observed during the thermal hardening processes of the tapes. Namely, SATs based on the
ASs with a higher content of unreacted monomers (a lower SC value) are characterized
by the wider and flatter curing peak and lower onset temperature value (Ti ) (Figure 3). It
is especially visible for all the systems based on the AS-819 syrups exhibiting higher SC
values (31–68%). In the case of the AS-819-200 syrup (the highest solids content), the Ti
reached the relatively lowest value (107 ◦ C), while the Ti for the AS-819-1000 system (the
lowest SC) was 121 ◦ C. These variations of the SATs curing processes (consisting of cationic
polymerization of epoxy groups of the epoxy resin and the acrylate copolymers) can be
explained by the different content of linear copolymers (i.e., flexible chains of acrylate
copolymer prepared via the FRBP process) and crosslinked polyacrylate network structure
(created during the UV-irradiation process of SATs). The research shows that the thermal
hardening of SATs, i.e., the reaction of the epoxy groups is easier (a lower Ti ) in the case of
the systems based on ASs with a higher solids content (a higher content of the mentioned
21, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

copolymer prepared via the FRBP process) and crosslinked polyacrylate network struc-
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 8 of 13
ture (created during the UV-irradiation process of SATs). The research shows that the
thermal hardening of SATs, i.e., the reaction of the epoxy groups is easier (a lower Ti) in
the case of the systems based on ASs with a higher solids content (a higher content of the
mentioned linear copolymers
linear copolymers than the thanUV-crosslinked
the UV-crosslinkedproducts). Therefore,
products). it is resulted
Therefore, it is resulted from a lower
from a lower concentration
concentration of the initial
of the polyacrylate
initial polyacrylate network
networkin SATs.
in SATs.In contrast,
In contrast, thisthis effect was not
effect was not so markedly
so markedly observed
observedfor the
for SAT-TPO
the SAT-TPO samples (the (the
samples similar Ti values:
similar 110– 110–114 ◦ C) due
Ti values:
114 °C) due to thetorelatively high content
the relatively of theofUV-crosslinked
high content the UV-crosslinked components
components (the low(the SClow SC value for the
value for the AS-TPO
AS-TPO syrups, i.e., <24%)
syrups, and low
i.e., <24%) and molecular
low molecularweights of theoflinear
weights acrylate
the linear acrylate copolymers.
copolymers. For these reasons,
For these the initial
reasons, temperature
the initial of theof
temperature epoxy groups
the epoxy polymerization
groups polymerization in the SATs-
in the SATs-TPO-type tapes was
TPO-type tapes lower
was (ca.
lower112(ca.
°C)112 ◦
in relation to the SAT-819-800
C) in relation and SAT-and SAT-819-1000
to the SAT-819-800
819-1000 systems (121
systems °C).(121 ◦ C). Generally,
Generally, it can be it
concluded that SAT-TPO
can be concluded materials
that SAT-TPO contain contain more UV-
materials
more UV-crosslinkedcrosslinked
components components
(a denser (a denser polyacrylate
polyacrylate network)
network) than than SATs-819.
SATs-819. ThisThis phenomenon
phenomenon has ahas a significant
significant impactimpact
on theonother
the other parameters
parameters of SATs.
of SATs. ValuesValues
of the oftem-
the temperature peak
perature peak (Tp(T) of
p ) of
thethe epoxy
epoxy groups
groups polymerization
polymerization process
process were similar
similar for
forall
allthe
theSATs-TPO samples
(191–193 ◦ C) and slightly varied for SATs-819-type materials (192–198 ◦ C). On the other
SATs-TPO samples (191–193 °C) and slightly varied for SATs-819-type materials (192–198
hand,the
°C). On the other hand, thevalues
valuesof ofthis
thisprocess
process enthalpy
enthalpy (ΔH))
(∆H) were higher
higher for the SATs-TPO
SATs- and SATs-819
TPO and SATs-819 systems
systems based
based onon thethesyrups
syrupswith
withlowered
lowered SC SC
parameter,
parameter, i.e., i.e., ∆H ΔH
the the value increased with
increasing
value increased with increasing content
contentof the
of UV-crosslinked
the UV-crosslinked polyacrylate networks).
polyacrylate networks).

2
––––––– SAT_819_400
–––– SAT_819_600
––––– · SAT_819_800
––– – – SAT_819_1000
0
Heat Flow (mW)

-2

-4

-6
-80 -30 20 70 120 170 220 270
Exo Up Temperature (°C)

(a)
8
––––––– SAT_TPO_200
–––– SAT_TPO_400
6
––––– · SAT_TPO_600
––– – – SAT_TPO_800
4 ––– ––– SAT_TPO_1000
Heat Flow (mW)

-2

-4

-6
-80 -30 20 70 120 170 220 270
Exo Up Temperature (°C)
(b)
Figure 3. Differential scanning
Figure calorimetry
3. Differential (DSC) thermographs
scanning for the
calorimetry (DSC) uncured (a) SATs-TPO
thermographs for the uncured (a) SATs-TPO and
and (b) SATs-819 tapes.
(b) SATs-819 tapes.

Self-adhesive features of the UV-crosslinked

Self-adhesive SATs samples (i.e.,
features of the UV-crosslinked SATs adhesion to steel,
samples (i.e., adhesion to steel, tack,
and
tack, and cohesion) cohesion)
were tested were tested
before theirbefore their
thermal thermal
curing curing
as well. as well. Generally,
Generally, it can be it can be claimed
that these properties depend on SC, the average molecular weights, and polydispersity
of the acrylic syrups incorporated into SATs (while the latter parameters are affected
by the mixing speed value of the reactor charge during the ASs preparation process).
As can be seen, the adhesion values of SATs are relatively low (2.0–3.9 N/25 mm for
 Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

claimed that these properties depend on SC, the average molecular weights, and polydis-
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 9 of 13
persity of the acrylic syrups incorporated into SATs (while the latter parameters are af-
fected by the mixing speed value of the reactor charge during the ASs preparation pro-
cess). As can be seen, the adhesion values of SATs are relatively low (2.0–3.9 N/25 mm for
SATs-TPOand
SATs-TPO and0.6–1.0
0.6–1.0N/25
N/25mm mmfor forSATs-819;
SATs-819;Figure Figure4)4)andandtheytheyare
aresimilar
similartotothe
thetack
tack
values;however,
values; however,the theSATs-TPO-type
SATs-TPO-typesamples samplesexhibited
exhibitedrelatively
relativelybetter
betteradhesion
adhesionand and
tack.That
tack. Thatphenomenon
phenomenoncan canbe beexplained
explainedby bythethestructure
structureofofSATs.
SATs.The Thetested
testedtapes
tapeswere
were
compounded
compoundedusing usingca.ca.
5050
wt% wt%of the
of theacrylic syrup
acrylic (a mixture
syrup (a mixture of epoxyacrylate
of epoxyacrylatecopolymers
copoly-
and unreacted monomers); the rest was the epoxy resin and the
mers and unreacted monomers); the rest was the epoxy resin and the auxiliary additives.auxiliary additives. During
the UV-crosslinking
During process, the
the UV-crosslinking liquidthe
process, SATs compositions
liquid formed the
SATs compositions solid double-sided
formed the solid dou-
pressure-sensitive films via radical
ble-sided pressure-sensitive films photopolymerization
via radical photopolymerizationof the acrylicofcompounds
the acrylicwithcom-
double
pounds bonds. Finally,bonds.
with double the intact epoxy
Finally, theresin
intactis trapped
epoxy resinin the acrylic matrix
is trapped in the consisting
acrylic matrix of
the epoxyacrylate
consisting copolymers and
of the epoxyacrylate created epoxyacrylate
copolymers and created network.
epoxyacrylateIn thenetwork.
authors’ Inopinion,
the au-
the self-adhesive
thors’ opinion, the properties mainly
self-adhesive depend on
properties the content
mainly dependofon linear acrylateofcopolymers
the content linear acry-
(formed in the free radical bulk polymerization (FRBP)
late copolymers (formed in the free radical bulk polymerization (FRBP) process) in the applied syrupin
process) andthe
especially on their molecular weights (as it was presented in [20]);
applied syrup and especially on their molecular weights (as it was presented in [20]); it is it is known that end
groups
knownofthat (co)polymers
end groups act as
of dipoles and canact
(co)polymers interact with surface
as dipoles and can groups of steel
interact with(during
surface
the adhesion
groups or tack
of steel tests).
(during theThus, all the
adhesion orSAT
tacksamples based
tests). Thus, allon
thethe
SATAS-TPO
samples syrups
based (M n in
on the
the range of 19,840–14,120 g/mol) reached higher values of
AS-TPO syrups (Mn in the range of 19,840–14,120 g/mol) reached higher values of thesethese self-adhesive features
than the SAT-819-type
self-adhesive featuressamples
than the(28,670–22,700
SAT-819-typeg/mol). samplesAdditionally,
(28,670–22,700 theg/mol). Mn (or Mw )
higherAdditionally,
ofthe
thehigher
selected syrup type, the better the adhesion and tack of prepared
Mn (or Mw) of the selected syrup type, the better the adhesion and tack SATs. On the ofother
pre-
hand, the SATs-819 systems exhibited much better cohesion
pared SATs. On the other hand, the SATs-819 systems exhibited much better cohesion (2559–4722 min; Figure 4c)
than the SATs-TPO tapes. In this case, the mentioned parameter
(2559–4722 min; Figure 4c) than the SATs-TPO tapes. In this case, the mentioned parame- depends on ASs features
aster
well. It seems
depends that features
on ASs the cohesion of SATs
as well. directly
It seems that depends
the cohesion on linear
of SATscopolymer
directly content
depends
(and its molecular
on linear copolymer weight) in the
content (and applied syrup (Table
its molecular weight)2). in the applied syrup (Table 2).

4.5 3.2
SAT-TPO SAT-TPO
3.0
4.0 SAT-819
SAT-819 2.8
3.5 2.6
2.4
Adhesion (N/25 mm)

3.0
2.2
Tack (N)

2.5 2.0
1.8
2.0
1.6
1.5 1.4
1.2
1.0
1.0

0.5 0.8
0.6
200 400 600 800 1000 200 400 600 800 1000
Mixing speed (rpm) Mixing speed (rpm)

(a) (b)
5500

5000 SAT-TPO
4500 SAT-819

4000

3500
Cohesion (min)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

200 400 600 800 1000

Mixing speed (rpm)
(c)

Figure 4. Self-adhesive features of the selected UV-crosslinked (thermally uncured) SATs: (a) adhesion to steel, (b) tack, and
(c) cohesion at 20 ◦ C.
 Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

PolymersFigure
2021, 13,
4. 189 10 of 13
Self-adhesive features of the selected UV-crosslinked (thermally uncured) SATs: (a) adhesion to steel, (b) tack,
and (c) cohesion at 20 °C.

The tested SATs exhibited limited adhesion and tack; however, the values of these
The tested
parameters areSATs exhibited
enough limited
to apply themadhesion and tack; however,
as pressure-sensitive the values
adhesives of these pa-
in aluminum-alu-
rameters are enough to apply them as pressure-sensitive adhesives in aluminum-aluminum
minum overlap joints. It should be mentioned that SATs reach their final mechanical prop-
overlap joints. It should be mentioned that SATs reach their final mechanical properties
erties after their thermal curing.
after their thermal curing.
3.3.Properties
3.3. Propertiesofofthe
theThermally
ThermallyCured
CuredSATs
SATsand
andthetheAl/SAT/Al
Al/SAT/Al Joints
Joints
TheUV-crosslinked
The UV-crosslinkedSATs SATswere
wereapplied
appliedbetween
betweenaluminum
aluminumpanels
panelsand
andthermally
thermally
cured at 170◦ °C for 60 min. Additionally, a few of the prepared Al/SAT/Al
cured at 170 C for 60 min. Additionally, a few of the prepared Al/SAT/Al joints were joints were
thermally aged. Shear strength (τ) values for the joints (before and after thermal
thermally aged. Shear strength (τ) values for the joints (before and after thermal aging test) aging
test)
are are presented
presented in Figure
in Figure 5. 5.

20
Shear strenght after 24h/RT
19 o
Shear strenght after 10 days/82 C
18

17
16
Shear strenght (MPa)

15

14
13

12
11
10

9
8
7
00

000
00

00
400

800
00
0

00

00
0
O-2

O-6

9-2

9-6
O-4

O-8

O-1

9- 1
9-

9-
-81

-81
-81

-81
-TP

-TP

-TP

-TP

-81
-TP

AS

AS

AS

AS
AS

AS
AS

AS

AS
AS

Figure5.5.Shear
Figure Shearstrength
strengthofofthermally
thermallycured
curedaluminum–SAT–aluminum
aluminum–SAT–aluminumoverlap
overlapjoints.
joints.

As
Ascan
canbebeseen,
seen,the
thebest
bestshear
shearstrength
strength(before
(beforethetheaging
agingtest)
test)was
wasrecorded
recordedforforthe
the
joint
joint with SAT-819-800 (17.6 MPa), while the lowest value of this parameter was notedfor
with SAT-819-800 (17.6 MPa), while the lowest value of this parameter was noted for
SAT-819-400
SAT-819-400(15.5(15.5MPa).
MPa).ItItshould
shouldbebenoted
notedthat
thatthe
thelatter
lattersystem
systemwas wasbased
basedononthe
thesyrup
syrup
characterized by the highest PDI value (3.6) in relation to the other samples; the thermally
characterized by the highest PDI value (3.6) in relation to the other samples; the thermally
cured SAT-819-400 joint exhibited the lowest α value (0.75 a.u), as well. In the case of
cured SAT-819-400 joint exhibited the lowest α value (0.75 a.u), as well. In the case of
SATs-TPO-based joints, the τ values were quite similar for all the samples (16.5–17.1 MPa).
SATs-TPO-based joints, the τ values were quite similar for all the samples (16.5–17.1 MPa).
It is known that the shear strength of structural adhesives depends on their crosslinking
It is known that the shear strength of structural adhesives depends on their crosslinking
degree and an optimal range of the latter parameter value is often observed [20]. Figure 6a
degree and an optimal range of the latter parameter value is often observed [20]. Figure
shows the relationship between the shear strength of Al/SAT/Al joints and the crosslinking
6a shows the relationship between the shear strength of Al/SAT/Al joints and the cross-
degree of the applied SAT sample. The highest τ values for the tested joints were noted at
linking degree of the applied SAT sample. The highest τ values for the tested joints were
crosslinking degree of ca. 0.78 a.u. or higher (the SATs-819-based systems) and 0.82–0.84 a.u.
noted at crosslinking degree of ca. 0.78 a.u. or higher (the SATs-819-based systems) and
(the SATs-TPO-type samples). It was also found (Figure 6b) that the crosslinking degree
0.82–0.84 a.u. (the SATs-TPO-type samples). It was also found (Figure 6b) that the cross-
of SATs increases with increasing mixing speed value (or with increasing content of the
linking degree of SATs increases with increasing mixing speed value (or with increasing
unreacted monomers, which finally participate in the UV-crosslinking process and increase
content
the of the unreacted
crosslinking density of monomers,
SATs). It canwhich finally participate
be generally concluded thatin the
theUV-crosslinking
higher content andpro-
cess and increase the crosslinking density of SATs). It can be generally concluded
molecular weights of the acrylate copolymer in the syrups (prepared via the FRBP method) that the
higher content and molecular weights of the acrylate copolymer in the syrups
positively affect the shear strength of thermally cured Al/SAT/Al joints. It is noteworthy (prepared
via SATs
that the FRBP
basedmethod)
on syrupspositively affect
with lower SC the shear
values strength
have of thermally
a greater tendency to cured
flowAl/SAT/Al
out from
Al/SAT/Al joints during a thermal curing process (exemplary photos are presented in
Figure 7).
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14
Polymers 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

joints. It is noteworthy that SATs based on syrups with lower SC values have a greater
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 11 of 13
joints. It is
tendency to noteworthy that
flow out from SATs based
Al/SAT/Al on during
joints syrups awith lower
thermal SC values
curing have
process a greater
(exemplary
tendency
photos areto flow outin
presented from Al/SAT/Al
Figure 7). joints during a thermal curing process (exemplary
photos are presented in Figure 7).
1.00
0.98
1.00
SAT-TPO
0.96
0.98 SAT-819
SAT-TPO
0.94
0.96
SAT-819

(a.u.)
0.92
0.94

(a.u.)
0.90
0.92

degree
0.88
0.90

degree
0.86
0.88

Crosslinking
0.84
0.86

Crosslinking
0.82
0.84
0.80
0.82
0.78
0.80
0.76
0.78
0.74
0.76
200 400 600 800 1000
0.74
200 400 Mixing speed
600 (rpm) 800 1000
Mixing speed (rpm)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure6.6.The
Theinfluence
influenceofof(a)
(a)the
thecrosslinking
crosslinkingdegree
degreeofofthermally
thermallycured
cured SATs
SATs on
on overlap
overlap shear strength of
shear strength of Al/SAT/Al
Al/SAT/Al
joints
Figureand6. (b)
The mixing speed
influence of on
(a) the crosslinking
crosslinking degree.
degree
joints and (b) mixing speed on the crosslinking degree. of thermally cured SATs on overlap shear strength of Al/SAT/Al
joints and (b) mixing speed on the crosslinking degree.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Photos of (a) Al/SAT-819-600/Al (slight adhesive outflow) and (b) Al/SAT-TPO-800/Al overlap joints (significant
adhesive
Figure 7.outflow).
Figure 7. Photos
Photosof
of(a)
(a) Al/SAT-819-600/Al
Al/SAT-819-600/Al(slight
(slightadhesive
adhesiveoutflow)
outflow)and
and (b)
(b) Al/SAT-TPO-800/Al
Al/SAT-TPO-800/Aloverlap
overlapjoints
joints(significant
(significant
adhesive outflow).
adhesive outflow).
Additional mechanical measurements (after the aging test) revealed a larger decre-
ment Additional
of the shearmechanical
Additional strength of
mechanical measurements
the SATs-TPO-based
measurements (afterthe
(after theaging
aging
joints test)
(the
test) revealed
decrement
revealed aoflarger
a larger 24–32%)decre-
decrement in
ment
of the shear strength of the SATs-TPO-based joints (the decrement of 24–32%) in relation in
relation of the
to the shear
joints strength
with of the
SATs-819 SATs-TPO-based
(reduction by joints
16–24%). (the decrement
Probably, it was of 24–32%)
affected byto
relation
the
theincreased
joints towith
thecrosslinking
joints
SATs-819with(reduction
SATs-819
degree (reduction
of by
the former SATs
16–24%). by 16–24%).
during
Probably, Probably,
the
it was it was
long-lasting
affected by the affected
thermal by
ag-
increased
the
ing increased
process.
crosslinking Thecrosslinking
degreethermally degree of theduring
cured SATs-TPO
of the former SATs former(the SATs
the unaged during the
systems)
long-lasting long-lasting
exhibited
thermal thermal
aging aprocess.
markedly ag-
The
ing
higher process.
thermally value The
of
cured thermally
this parameter
SATs-TPO cured
(the(i.e.,SATs-TPO
0.78–0.90
unaged (theexhibited
a.u.)
systems) unaged
than systems)
SATs-819
a markedly exhibited
(0.75–0.84
higher a markedly
a.u.; Table
value 3).
of this
Ithigher
parameter value
was presented of this
(i.e., in parameter
0.78–0.90 a.u.) (i.e.,
references than 0.78–0.90
[16,20] that too
SATs-819 a.u.)
highthan
(0.75–0.84 α SATs-819
value may(0.75–0.84
a.u.; Table It wasa.u.;
deteriorate
3). Table
the shear
presented 3).
in
Itreferences
was presented
strength [16,20] in
of Al/SAT/Al thatreferences
overlap [16,20]
too highjoints.
α valuethat
maytoo high α value
deteriorate the shear maystrength
deteriorate the shear
of Al/SAT/Al
strength of Al/SAT/Al overlap joints.
overlap joints.
4. Conclusions
4.Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this paper, a new preparation method (i.e., free radical bulk polymerization; FRBP)
Inthis
In thispaper,
of epoxyacrylate paper, aanew
newpreparation
components preparation method
(acrylicmethod (i.e.,free
syrups, (i.e.,
ASs) free radicalbulk
for radical
epoxy-basedbulkpolymerization;
polymerization;
structural self-adhe- FRBP)
FRBP)
of
sive epoxyacrylate
of epoxyacrylate components
tapes (SATs)components was presented. (acrylic
(acrylic syrups,
Thesyrups,
influenceASs)
ASs) for
of forepoxy-based
theepoxy-based structural self-adhesive
structural self-adhe-
applied photoinitiators (mono-
tapestapes
sive (SATs)
acylphosphine was
(SATs) presented.
was presented.
oxide/Omnirad TheTPO influence
The of the applied
andinfluence photoinitiators
of the applied
bisacylphosphine (monoacylphos-
photoinitiators
oxide/Omnirad 819) and (mono-
the
phine oxide/Omnirad
acylphosphine
mixing speed ofoxide/Omnirad
a reactor TPO and
charge bisacylphosphine
TPO and bisacylphosphine
(during oxide/Omnirad
the FRBP process) oxide/Omnirad
on selected819)features
and theand
819) mixing
of the
ASs
speed
mixing of a
speedreactor
and SATs were studied. of a charge
reactor (during
charge the FRBP
(during theprocess)
FRBP on selected
process) on features
selected of ASs
features andof SATs
ASs
were
and It studied.
SATs
can were studied.
be claimed that an increment of mixing speed causes a reduction of viscosity
It cancontent
It can
and solids be claimed
be claimed that an
that
(monomers an increment
increment of
conversion) ofinmixing
mixing speed
ASs asspeed causes
causes
well as aa reduction
molecular reduction
weights ofand
of viscosity
viscosity
PDI
ofand
and solids
thesolids
acrylatecontent
content (monomers
(monomers
copolymers. conversion)
conversion)
Nevertheless, in ASs as
in relation
this well
ASs as well as
wasas molecular
notmolecular weights
significantly weights andand
observed PDI atof
PDI
the
of the acrylate
acrylate copolymers.
copolymers. Nevertheless, this relation was not significantly observed at the
the mixing speed higher thanNevertheless,
600 rpm. The this relationfeatures
mentioned was notinfluence
significantlyselectedobserved
param- at
mixing
the mixing speedspeed higher
higherthan 600600
than rpm. TheThe
rpm. mentioned
mentioned features
featuresinfluence
influence selected
selectedparameters
param-
eters of SATs (prepared via UV-photopolymerization/crosslinking of mixtures consisting
of SATs
eters ofan (prepared
SATs (preparedvia UV-photopolymerization/crosslinking
via UV-photopolymerization/crosslinking of mixtures consisting
of mixtures of ASs,
consisting
of ASs, epoxy resin, multifunctional acrylate monomers, a photoinitiator, and a latent
anASs,
of epoxy an resin,
epoxymultifunctional
resin, multifunctionalacrylateacrylate
monomers, a photoinitiator,
monomers, and a latent
a photoinitiator, and acuring
latent
agent of the epoxy components). Conversion of the acrylate monomers in ASs generally
represents the content of linear acrylate copolymers in SATs. It was revealed that SATs-TPO
systems (based on ASs with monomers conversion lower than 24%) contain more dense
polyacrylate networks because larger amounts of unreacted monomers are involved in a
Polymers 2021, 13, 189 12 of 13

polymeric phase (based on multifunctional acrylate monomers) created during the UV-
crosslinking process of SATs. It was also found that the cationic polymerization process
(i.e., the thermal curing of UV-crosslinked SATs) occurs more easily in systems with a
higher content of the linear polyacrylates (samples based on ASs with higher monomers
conversion values; SATs-819) than in the presence of a dense polyacrylate network (SATs-
TPO). Additionally, adhesion and tack of SATs depend on monomers conversion as well as
molecular weights of the linear acrylate copolymers in the applied ASs; higher values of
these self-adhesive features were observed at low monomers conversion values (<24%) and
molecular weights (SATs-TPO). In the case of the thermally cured SATs (i.e., Al/SAT/Al
joints), the lowest shear strength value was recorded for SAT-819-400 (15.5 MPa) based on
the syrup with the highest polydispersity (3.6) while the highest value of this mechanical
parameter was observed for SAT-819-800 (17.6 MPa). Thermally cured SATs-TPO systems
were characterized by higher crosslinking densities (0.78–0.9 a.u.) and higher glass tran-
sition temperatures (46–51 ◦ C) than SATs-819 (0.75–0.84 a.u. and 15–27 ◦ C, respectively).
These features increased with the increase in the mixing speed value (and with decreasing
monomer conversion). Additionally, it was observed that ASs with low monomers con-
version create SATs, which flowed out from the overlap Al/SAT/Al joints during their
thermal hardening process. It may negatively affect the mechanical strength and aesthetics
of the SAT-based overlap joints.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.G. and A.K.; methodology, A.K. and K.G.; investigation,
K.G., A.K., M.W., K.K., and B.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.K. and K.G.; writing—review
and editing, A.K.; supervision, A.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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