 INDEX:

Sl Name of Experiment Page Date

No no
01 Study of following Network Devices 1-5
in detail.
02  Study of network IP 6-13
 Classification of IP address
 Sub netting
 Super netting

03 To study different types of network 14-16

cables and practically implement the
cross- wired cable and straight
through the cable using clamping tool.
04 To study different types of router 17-20
commands.
05 Familiarization with Static Routing. 21-22

06 To Study the Dynamic Routing 23-25

Protocol.
 Experiment- 1

AIM-Study of following Network Devices in detail.

REPEATER-
Functioning of physical layer. A repeater in an electronic device that
receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power,
or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer
distances. Repeater have two ports, so cannot be used to connect for more
than two devices.

HUB-
An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, hub or
concentrator is a device for connecting multiple twisted pair or fibre optic
Ethernet devices together and making these act as a single network
segment. Hubs work at the physical layer (layer 1) of the OSI model. The
device is a form of multiport repeater. Repeater hubs also participate in
collision detection, forwarding a jaw signal to all ports if it detects a
collision.

SWITCH-
A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that
connects network segments. The term commonly refers to a network bridge
that processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI
model. Switches that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3
and above) are often referred to as layer 3 switches or multiplayer
switches. Switch divides collision domain.

BRIDGE-
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at data link
layer(layer 2) of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term bridge
formally means a device that behaves according to the IEEE 702- 1D
standard. A bridge and switches are very much alike; a switch being a
bridge with numerous ports. Switch or layer 2 switch is often used
interchangeably with bridge. Bridges can analyze incoming data packets to
determine if the bridge is able to send the packets to another segment of the
network.
ROUTER-
A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more
computer networks and selectively interchanges packets of data
between them. Each data packet contains address information that a
router can use to determine if the source and destination are on the
same network, or if the data packet must be transferred from one
network to another where multiple routers are used in a large
collection of interconnected networks, the routers exchange
 information about target system addresses, so that each router can
build up a table showing the preferred paths between any two systems
on the interconnected networks.

GATE WAY-
In a communication network, a network node equipped for interfacing
with another network that uses different protocols. A gate way contain
devices such as protocol, translators, impedance, matching devices,
rate converters, fault isolators, or signal translators as necessary to
provide system interoperability. It also requires the establishment of
mutually acceptable administrative produces between both networks.
A protocol translation mapping gateway interconnects networks with
different network technologies by performing the required protocol
conversion.

NETWORK DEVICES-
OSI model – open system interconnection model.

I. Physical layer- Hub, Repeater

II. Data link layer- Bridge, Switch, NIC, AP

III. Network layer- Router, Switch

IV. Transport layer

V. Session layer

VI. Presentation layer

VII. Application layer

 
The OSI model is a conceptual model that characterises and
standardises the communication functions of a telecommunication or
communicating system without regard to its underlying internal
structures and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse
communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of
the model defined seven layer.
A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
For example, a layer that provides error free communications across a
network provides the path needed by application above it. While it
calls the next lower layer is send and receive packets that comprise the
 contents of the path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as
connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.

CONCLUSION-
From this experiment we have learnt about different devices such as
repeater, hub, switch, router, gate way and how they work. Moreover,
we have also learnt about the OSI model.

Experiment No-2

Aim-
 Study of network IP
 Classification of IP address
 Sub netting
 Super netting

Apparatus(Software) - NA
IP Address-
IP Addressing-
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identification for a node or
host connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number
usually represented at 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the
range 0 to 255(known as octet) separated by decimal points. This is known
as ‘dotted decimal’ notation.

Example: 140.179.220.200

It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form –

140.179.220.200

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000

Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one
identifying the node. The clan of address and the subnet mark determine
which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the
node address.

Address Classes-
There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any
IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address.
 Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal.
 Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal.
 Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal.
 Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239decimal.
 Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254decimal.
Addresses beginning with 0111 1111, 0H 127 decimal, are reserved for
loopback and for internal testing on a local machine.

Class D addresses are reserved for multitasking. Class E addresses are

reserved for future use. They should not be used for host address. Now we
can see how the class determines, by default, which port of the IP address
belongs to the network (N) and which port belongs to the node (n).

 Class A - - NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.
 Class B - - NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.
 Class C - - NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.

In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a class B address. So by default the

network port of the address (also known as the network address) is defined
by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is defined by the last
two octets (x.x.22.200).
In order of specify the network address for a given IP address, the node
section is set to all ‘0’s. In our example, 140.79.0.0 specifies the network
address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to all ‘1’s it
specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network.
140.179.220.200 specifies the example broadcast address. Note that this is
true regardless of the length of the node section.

Sub - Netting-
Sub netting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including
organization, use of different media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.),
preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to
control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see
all the packets transmitted by all the other nodes on that segment.
Performance can be adverse by affected under heavy traffic loads due to
collisions and the resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP
networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive.

Subnet- Hacking-
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network
and node parts of the address. Performing a bitwise logical AND operation
between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network
Address or Number.

For example, using our test IP address and the default class B subnet mask,
we got:

10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP

Address
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B
subnet mask
______________________________________
10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network
address

Default subnet masks:

Class A – 255.0.0.0.11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
Class B – 255.255.0.0.11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
Class C – 255.255.255.0.11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

More Restrictive Subnet masks Additional bits can be added to the default
subnet mask for a given class to further subnet, or break down a network.
When a bitwise logical AND operation is performed between the subnet
mask and IP address, the result defines the subnet address. There are some
restrictions on the subnet address. Node addresses of all ‘0’s and all ‘1’s are
reserved for specifying the local network (when a host does not know it’s
network address) and all hosts on the network (broadcast address)
respectively. This also applies to subnets. A subnet address cannot be all
‘0’s or all ‘1’s. This also implies that a 1 bitsubnet mask is not allowed. This
restriction is required because older standards enforced this restriction.
Recent standards that allow one of these subnets have superseded these
standards, but many ‘legacy’ devices do not support the newer standards.
If you are operating in a controlled environment such as a lab, you can
safely use the restricted subnets. To calculate the number of subnets or
nodes, use the formula (2n-2) where n = no of bits in ether field. Multiplying
the no of subnets by the no of nodes available per subnet gives you the total
no of nodes available for your class and subnet mask. Also, note that
although subnet masks with non- contiguous mask bits are allowed they are
not recommended.
Example 1:

10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000 140.179.220.200 IP Address

11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000 255.255.224.000 Subnet mask
______________________________________
10001100.10110011.11000000.00000000 140.179.192.000 Subnet address
10001100.10110011.11011111.11111111 140.179.223.255 Broadcast
address
In this example a 3 bit subnet mask was used. There are 6 subnets available
with this mask.
(Remember that subnets with all ‘0’s and all ‘1’s are not allowed). Each
subnet has 8190 nodes. Each subnet can have nodes assigned to any address
between the subnet address and the broadcast address. This gives a total of
49,140 nodes for the entire class B address sub netted this way. Notice that
this less than 85,534 nodes, a un- sub netted class B address would have
submitting always reduces the number of possible node for a given
network. There are complete subnets tables available here for class A, class
B and class C.

These tables list all the possible subnet masks for each class, along with
calculations of the no. of networks ,nodes and total hosts for each subnet.
An example:
Here is another more detailed example. Say you are assigned a class e
network number of 200.133.175.0. you want to utilize this network across
multiple small groups with in an organisation. You can do this by
subnetting that network with a subnet address. We will break this network
into 14 subnets of 14 nodes each.
This will limit us to 196 nodes on the network, instead of 284 we would
have without subnetting , but gives us the advantages of traffic isolation
and security.
To accomplish this we need to use a subnet mask 4 bits long.
Recall that the default class C subnet mask is
255.255.255.0(11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 binary)
Extending this by 4 bits yields a subnet mask of
255.255.255.240(11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000 binary)
This gives us 16 possible network numbers, 2 of which cannot be used:
Subnet bits network number node addresses broadcast address.
0000 200.133.175.0 Reserved none.
0001 200.133.175.16.17 through .30 200.133.175.31
0010 200.133.175.32.33 through .46 200.133.175.47
0011 200.133.175.48.49 through .62 200.133.175.63
0100 200.133.175.64.65 through .78 200.133.175.79
0101 200.133.175.80.81 through .94 200.133.175.95
0110 200.133.175.96.97 through .110 200.133.175.111
0111 200.133.175.112.113 through .126 200.133.175.127
1000 200.133.175.128.129 through .142 200.133.175.143
1001 200.133.175.144.145 through .158 200.133.175.159
1010 200.133.175.160.161 through .174 200.133.175.175
1011 200.133.175.176.177 through .190 200.133.175.191

1100 200.133.175.192.193 through .206 200.133.175.207

1101 200.133.175.208.209 through .222 200.133.175.223
1110 200.133.175.224.225 through .238 200.133.175.239

CIDR- Classless Inter domain Routing.

Now that you understood ‘classful’ IP subnetting principles , you can forget
them, the reason is CIDR. CIDR was invented several years ago to keep the
internet from running out of IP address. The ‘classful’ system of allocating
IP address can be very wasteful, anyone who could reasonably show a need
for more than a host address was given by class B address block of 65533
host addresses.
Even more wasteful were companies and organisations boat were allocated
class A address blocks, which contain over 16 million host addresses. Only
a tiny percentage of the allocated class A and class B address space has
been actually assigned to a host computer on the internet.
People realized that addresses could be conserved; if the class system was
eliminated. By accurately allocating only the amount of address space that
was actually needed, the address space crisis could be avoided for many
years. This was first proposed in 1992 as a scheme called Supernetting .
Under supernetting, the classful subnet masks are extended so that a
network address and subnet mask could .
For example specify multiple class, subnets with one address.
For example if I needed about 1000 addresses. I could represent 4 class C
network together:
192.60.128.0 class C subnet address.
192.60.129.0 class C subnet address.
192.60.130.0 class C subnet address.
192.60.131.0 class C subnet address.
192.60.128.0 supernetled subnet address.
255.255.252.0 subnet mask
192.60.131.255 Broadcast address.

In this example the subnet 192.60.1258.0 includes all the address from
192.60.128.0 to 192.60.131.255 The network portion of the address is 22 bits
long and the host portion is 10 bits long. Under CIDR, the subnet mask
notation is reduced to simplified shorthand. Instead of spelling out of the
bits of the subnet mask, it is simply listed on the number of 1’s bits that
start the mask.
In the above example , the network address would be written simply as:
192.60.128.0/22 which indicates starting address of the network and no. of
0/1’s bits in the network portion of the address.
It is currently almost impossible to be allocated IP address blocks, you will
simply told to get them from your ISP. The reason for this is the even
growing size of the internet routing table. Today there are over 80,000
network router in the entire internet. Using CIDR,ISP are allocated large
chunks of address spaces; the ISP’s customers are accessible via network
rout on the internet. It is expected that CIDR will keep the internet happily
in IP address for the next few years at least.
Example 1:
IP address : 192.168.10.0/25
 Subnet address:255.255.255.128
a )How many subnet addresses?
b) How many host addresses?
c)What is the block size?

No. of subnet addresses =2^1=2

No. of host addresses =2^7=128
Block size=256-128=128
Valid subnet: 0:128
For subnet:0

First host: 192.168.0.1

Last host: 192.168.10.126
Network address: 192.168.10.0
Broadcast address: 192.168.10.27

For subnet 128

First host: 192.168.10.129

Last host: 192.68.10.254

Network address: 192.168.10.128

Broadcast address: 192.168.10.255

Example 2:

IPaddress : 192.168.10.0/27

Subnet 0 Subnet 32 Subnet 64 Subnet 96

1’st host 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.33 192.168.10.65 192.168.10.97

Last host 192.16810.30 192.168.10.62 192.168.10.99 192.168.10.126

N/W 192.168.10.0 192.168.10.32 192.168.10.69 192.168.10.96

address

Broadcast 192.168.10.31 192.168.10.95 192.168.10.127

address 192.168.10.63

Subnet address: 255.255.255.24a

No. of subnetworks=2^3=8

No. of hosts=2^5=32
Block size=256-224=32

Valid subnet=0,32,64,96,128,160,192

1’st host 192.168.10.1 192.168.10.33 192.168.10.65 192.168.10.97

Last host 192.16810.30 192.168.10.62 192.168.10.99 192.168.10.126

N/W 192.168.10.0 192.168.10.32 192.168.10.69 192.168.10.96

address

Broadcast 192.168.10.31 192.168.10.95 192.168.10.127

address 192.168.10.63

Subnet 128 Subnet 160 Subnet 192 Subnet 224

1’st host 192.168.10.129 192.168.10.161 192.168.10.193 192.168.10.225

Last host 192.168.10.158 192.168.10.190 192.168.10.222 192.168.10.254

N/W address
192.168.10.158 192.168.10.160 192.168.10.192 192.168.10.224

Broadcast
address 192.168.10.154 192.168.10.191 192.168.10.223 192.168.10.225

Conclusion:
Thus we have studied about network IP,how IP addresses are classified
and how subnetting is done. We also have studied some examples regarding
the same.

EXPERIMENT NO- 3

AIM-
To study different types of network cables and practically implement the cross-
wired cable and straight through the cable using clamping tool.

APPARATUS-
 RJ-45 connector.
 Clamping tool.
 Twisted pair cable.

EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION-
All the cables used in the lab are terminated with data rate connectors on both
ends. Two major types of cables will be used in the lab, power supply and data
cables. The power cables are necessary for the equipment to be powered, but it
does not participate in the transmission of data signals.

For data communication, we will use different cables depending on the Link
layer technology, though the media will always be copper. For the Ethernet
connections, we will use four- pair category 5 unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
cabling with RJ-45 plugs on both ends. This type of cable contains eight
individually insulated wires twisted in pairs. Each pair is coloured with one wire
 having a stripe of the same colour over with background. Each wire is named by
its colour when it is solid (eg: green) on by pair white and colour of the stripe
otherwise (eg: white green). The pairs are identified by the solid colours (eg:
green pair).The RJ-45 has eight pins, numbered from 1 to 8. So that each one of
the wire of the four-pair UTP cable will be connected to one pin. The
assignment of wires to pins is named colour code and it is different depending
on the standard.

PROCEDURE-
1. We should start by stripping of about 2 inches of the thick plastic jacket
of the end of the cable. We should be very careful at this point as to not
cut into the wires which are inside. Doing so, should allow the
characteristics of the cable, or even worse render to useless. The wires
should he checked one more time cuts. If there is any cut, we should just
whack the whole end off and start over.

2. We should spread the wires apart holding on to the bow of the jacket
with other hand. We do not want the wires to become untwisted down
inside the jacket. Category V cable must only have half open inch of
untwisted wire at the end otherwise it will be out of space. At this point
we obviously have a lot more than half an inch of untwisted wires.

3. We have two end jacks which must be installed on our cable. If we are
using a pre-made cables with one of the ends wacked of we only have
one end to install.
Below are two diagrams which shows how we need to arrange the cables of
each type of cable end.

 Diagram shows how to prepare cross-wired connection:

RJ-45 pin# Wire Diagram End#1 RJ-45 pin# Wire Diagram End#2
End1 colour End2 colour
1 White 1 White
green orange
2 Green 2 Orange

3 White 3 White
orange green
4 Blue 4 Blue

5 White 5 White
Blue Blue
6 Orange 6 Green

7 White 7 White
brown brown
8 Brown 8 Brown

 Diagram shows how to prepare straight-wired connection:

RJ-45 pin# Wire Diagram End#1 RJ-45 pin# Wire Diagram End#2
End1 colour End2 colour
1 White 1 White
green green
2 Green 2 Green

3 White 3 White
orange orange
4 Blue 4 Blue

5 White 5 White
Blue Blue
6 Orange 6 Green

7 White 7 White
brown brown
8 Brown 8 Brown
CONCLUSION-
Thus we have studied different types of network cables and practically
implemented RJ-45 cable port clamping tool.

EXPERIMENT NO-4

AIM-
To study different types of router commands.

CISCO IOS OPERATION MODES-

The Cisco software provides access to four different command modes. There
are more commands, but in normal we use they are not necessary. Each
command provides a different group of related commands. For security
purposes, CISCO IOS software provides two level of access to commands: user
and privileged. The unprivileged user mode is called user EXEC mode. The
privileged mode is called privileged EXEC mode user requires a password.

 The following table describes for used modes and the resulting prompts.
The prompts will help in identification of mode and therefore which
commands are available
Command Access method Prompt Exit Exit method
mode
USER EXESC Log in Router> Use the logout
command
Privileged From user Router# To return to
EXEC EXEC mode, user EXEC
 use the enable mode use the
EXEC disable
command. command.
Global From Router(config)# To return to
Configuration privileged privileged
EXEC mode, EXEC mode
use from global
configuration configuration
terminal mode use the
privileged exit or end
EXEC command or
command. press Ctrl-z.
Interface From global Router(config.if)# To return to
Configuration configuration Or global
mode, specify Router(configuration)# configuration
an interface for mode use the
router exit command.
command. To return to
privileged
EXEC mode,
use the end
command or
press Ctrl-z.
.

USER EXEC MODE-

When one is connected to the router, he is started in user EXEC mode. The
USER EXEC commands are a subject of privileged EXEC command.

PRIVILEGED EXEC MODE -

Privileged commands include the following:
 Configure- Change the software configuration.
 Debug- Display process and hardware event manages.
 Setup- Enter configuration information at the prompts.
Enter the command disable to exit from the privileged EXEC mode and return
to user EXEC mode.

CONFIGURATION MODE-
Configuration mode has a set of sub modes that you use for modifying interface
settings, router protocol setting, line settings and so forth. Use caution with
configuration mode because all changes entered take effect immediately. To
enter configuration mode, enter the command configure terminal and exit by
pressing Ctrl-z.

NO FORM-
Almost every configuration command also has a no form. In general, we use the
no form to disable a feature or function. The command is used without the
keyword no to re-enable a disabled feature or to enable a feature that is disabled
by default. For example, IP routing is enabled by default. To disable IP routing,
enter the no i/p routing command and enter i/p router to re-enable it.

GETTING HELP-
In any command mode, we can get a list of available commands by entering a
question mark (?)
Router>?
To obtain a list of command that begin with a particular character sequence,
type in those characters followed immediately by the question mark(?)
Router#Co?
Configure correct copy.
To hit keyword or arguments, enter a question mark in place of a keyword or
argument. Include a space before the question mark.
Router #configure?
Memory configure from NV memory.
Network configure from a TFTF network host.
Terminal configures from the terminal.
We can also abbreviate commands and keywords by entering just enough
characters to make the command unique from other commands. For example we
can abbreviate the show command to sh.

CONFIGURATION FILES–
Any time we can make changes to the router configuration. We must save the
changes to memory because if we do not they will be lost if there is a system
reload or power outage. There are two types of configuration files: the running
(current operating) configuration and the start up configuration, which is loaded
up in re- booting of router.
Following privileged mode are used with configuration files:
 Configure terminal- modify the running configuration manually, from the
terminal.
 Show running config- displays the running configuration.
 Show start up config- displays the start up configuration.
  Copy start up config running config- copy the running configuration to
the running configuration.
 Erase start up config- erase the start up configuration in NVRAM.
 Copy tftp running config- load a configuration file stored on a Trivial File
Transfer Protocol (TFTP) server into the running configuration.
 Copy running config tftp- store the running configuration on a TFTP
server.

CONFIGURATION SYSTEM(SETUP)-
In privileged EXEC mode we can setup the whole system, for example setup
network cards, put IP addresses. Start simple RIP routing. Router# setup. In
CISO routers interfaces are name as Fast Ethernet 0/0 and Fast Ethernet 0/1.
Some of our lab routers also include serial cable interfaces.

IP ADDRESSES AND INTERFACE CONFIGURATION-

If we don’t like to put IP address like in 1.4 configuration system (setup) we can
put them with the following instructions.
In privileged EXEC mode give the wrt command:
Router# config terminal.
Then enter the interface type port to enter the interface configuration mode.
Router (config)# interface Fast Ethernet 0/0.
Now we are in interface configuration mode and we can modify this choosen
interface.
Enter the IP address and subnet mask of the interface using i/p address.
Subnet command.
Router(config.if)# IP address 10.12.0.1 255.255.255.252
In this mode, we can give parameters like for example hello protocol interval in
OSPF for an interface. Exit interface configuration made by giving command
Ctrl-z.

CONCLUSION-
Thus we have studied different types of router command and practiced the same
using GNS3 software.
 EXPERIMENT NO-5

AIM-
Familiarization with Static Routing.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: GNS3

THEORY:
There are two basic method of obtaining a routing table
1. Static Routing
2. Dynamic Routing
 Static Routing: A static routing table is created, maintained and updated
by a network administrator manually. It becomes impractical on large
networks.
Routers will not share static routers with each other,
thus reducing CPU/RAM overhead and saving bandwidth. However static
routing is not fault tolerant, as to any change in routing infrastructure requires
manual intervention. Routers operating on a purely static environment cannot
seamlessly chase a better router if a link becomes unavailable. Static routers
have an administrative defence (AD) and thus always preferred over dynamic
routers, unless the fault is changed.

Followings are advantages of static Routing –

1. Minimal CPU/memory overload

2. No bandwidth overhead

3. Granular control on how traffic is routed

Disadvantages of static Routing –

 Infrastructure charges must be manually adjusted
 No dynamic fault tolerance if a link goes down
 Impractical on large network

APPLICATION OF ROUTERS:
When multiple routers are used as interconnected networks the router exchange
information about destination address, using a dynamic routing protocol. Each
routers build up a table listing the preferred routers between two systems on the
interconnected networks.
Routers may also be used to connect two or more logical groups of computer
devices known as subnets each with a different sub network address. The subnet
addresses recorded in the routers do not necessarily map directly to the physical
interface connections. A router has two stages of operations –
 Control Panel: A router records a routing table listing what rout should
be used to form a data packet and through which physical interface
connections. It does this using interval pre-configured address called
static routes.

 Forwarding Plane: The router forwards data packets between incoming

and outgoing interface connections. It routes it to the correct network type
using information that the packet contains.
Routers may provide connectivity within enterprises between enterprises and
the internet and between internet service providers (ISP) networks.
CONCLUSION-
Thus we have studied how static routing works and how to ping a router.

EXPERIMENT NO-6

AIM-
To Study the Dynamic Routing Protocol.

THEORY-
In it the administrators configure a routing protocol on the network interfaces
routing protocol learns about other routers automatically. Routers and other
routers and each learn about the network that other is connected to when new
networks are added or removed the router update each other.

BEENEFITS OF DYNAMIC ROUTING-

4. More Automation: Routing updates are automatically sent to all other
routers.

5. Change Notification: The dynamic routing protocol may be able to

resolve traffic around a line i.e, drawn on congested.
 6. Greater Uptime for Users: Because the routing protocol can react faster,
the users may see more uptimes.

DISADVANTAGES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING-

 Routers may need more CPUs and RAM to hold routing tables and
calculated dynamic routes.

 Dynamic routing protocols are not perfect and can experience routing
loops in some cases.

 Dynamic routing protocols will improve complexity of the networks. It

will need to understand how to configure and troubleshoot the new
dynamic protocols.

DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOL-

1. OSPF(Open Shortest Path First): It is the most popular dynamic
routing protocol in use today. It is an open protocol so that any router or
server operating systems can OSPE. It selects the burst router using ‘cost’
as it’s metric.

2. EIGRIP(Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): It is a

CISCO preparatory protocol. Only CISCO devices ran EPIGRIP. It is full
featured routing protocol similar to OSPF. EIGRIP has some great
features but unless its predecessor units EIGRIP the metric used to select
the best route is calculated using a formula that takes into account the
bandwidth reliability, load and delay of the links.

3. RIP(Routing Information Protocol): It is a version 2 of RIP provides

support for VLSMC variable length subnet masks. RIP is the simplest
and easiest routing protocol to configure but it also has former features
than OSPF and is limited to routing for a network with former than is
hope. RIP works very well for a small network that does not plan on
growing large however. Another great thing about RIP is that it is
commonly supported by even small routes and firewalls.
 4. BGP(Border Gateway Protocol): It is a routing protocol of the Ethernet
BGP is an extension gateway protocol(EGP). BGP is used by routers that
make routing decisions on the internet-
Router B
Router vip
ver 2
Network 10.2.2.0
Network 63. 248. 29. 0
Configuring dynamic routing
Router A
Router vip
ver 2
Network 10. 1. 1. 0
Network 63. 248. 129. 0
Enter routing configuration mode on each router
 Enable version 2 of the RIP routing protocol
 Enable RIP routing on both to advertise these networks to other
routers and to try and find others routers on these networks.

CONCLUSION-
Thus we have studied how dynamic routing works and how to ping a router no
matter whether neighbour or remote from a specific routers.