CARBOHYDRATES

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 Objectives
Know the functions of carbohydrates.
Distinguish among monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Describe the structure of a sugar.
Name the different forms of carbohydrate
molecules.
Relate the structure of polysaccharides to their
functions.
Compare storage polysaccharides with structural
polysaccharides.

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 Introduction
• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen atoms in a ratio of approximately one
carbon to two hydrogens to one oxygen (CH2O)n
where the n refers to the number of “carbon
hydrate” groups. The value of n can vary from 3,
for the smallest sugar, to well over a thousand for
some of the large polymers.
• The term carbohydrate, meaning “hydrate
(water) of carbon,” reflects the 2:1 ratio of
hydrogen to oxygen, the same ratio found in
water (H2O).

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• They are molecules with a carbonyl (C=O) and
several hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups, along with
several to many carbon–hydrogen (C-H) bonds.
• The presence of a carbonyl group along with
multiple hydroxyl groups provides sugars with an
array of reactive and hydrophilic functional groups.
• Carbohydrates are either aldehyde (aldoses) or
ketone (ketoses) in nature and they all contain
several hydroxyl (OH) groups.
• Aldoses (with a terminal carbonyl group) are more
easily oxidised than ketoses (with a non-terminal
carbonyl group). Hence, aldoses act as reducing
agents.
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 Functions
• Energy production (immediate energy provision)
• Energy storage
• Building macromolecules
• Structural support
• Sparing protein (Protein-saving action)
• Assisting in lipid metabolism
• Prevention of development of ketosis
• Plays an important role in cellular recognition
processes
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• Carbohydrates are divided into three main
classes:
– Monosaccharides.
– Disaccharides.
– Polysaccharides.
• Another class is oligosaccharides
• Their names typically end in a suffix -ose.

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Monosaccharides

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Trioses

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Pentose sugars

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Cyclization of Pentose sugars

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Hexose sugars

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Hexose sugars

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 Glucose
• Glucose (C6H12O6), the most abundant
monosaccharide, is used as an energy source in
most organisms.
• During cellular respiration, cells oxidize glucose
molecules, converting the stored energy to a form
that can be readily used for cell work.
• Glucose is also used in the synthesis of other types
of compounds such as amino acids and fatty acids.

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D and L glucose

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The formation of the glucose pyranose
ring

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 Galactose
• Galactose is a water soluble monosaccharide (aldose
sugar). It is a stereoisomer of glucose. While on OH
group on C4 of glucose is below the plane, the OH
group on C4 of galactose is above the plane i.e., It
forms a pyranose ring which differs from glucose at
C4 where the OH group is above the plane in
galactose and below the plane in glucose.
• Galactose combines with glucose to form a dimer
called lactose (milk sugar) which is present in milk.
• Galactose is a powerful reducing sugar because its
open chain has an aldehyde group.
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The formation of the galactose
pyranose ring

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 Fructose
• Fructose (fruit sugar) is a water-soluble monosaccharide
found in honey, fruits, flowers, berries, and in root crops.
• The open chain of fructose is a ketone (ketose) whose
carbon 2 combines with the OH group of carbon 5 to form
a five-membered furanose ring. Like glucose, fructose is
used as a source of energy in cellular respiration.
• Fructose is a weak reducing sugar because its open chain
structure is able to isomerise into an aldose (glucose).
• Carbon 2 of fructose is asymmetric leading to the
formation of the α- and β- isomers like in glucose.
• Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose.

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The formation of the fructose furanose
ring

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The formation of the fructose furanose
ring

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DISACCHARIDES

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Lactose

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Sucrose

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Maltose

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 POLYSACCHARIDES

• Storage polysaccharides
• Structural polysaccharides

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Starch: Amylose

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Starch: Amylopectin

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Glycogen

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Cellulose

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Chitin

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Metabolism of carbohydrates

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