Topic 2 MSS 111-CSS 216

MZUMBE UNIVERSITY
MSS 111/CSS 216

CALCULUS & FOUNDATION ANALYSIS
BAED-AM I, BAED-EM I, BSC-EDU (MICT) I, BSC-
ICTB II, BSC-ICTM II & BSC-ITS II
TOPIC 2: LOGIC
Outline
• Propositions
• Truth tables
• Logical connectives
• Tautologies, contradictions, logical equivalences
• Algebra of propositions
• Arguments
• Quantifiers.
INTRODUCTION
• Definition: Mathematical Logic is a branch of Mathematics

that deals with the study of the truth and systematic reasoning
through mathematical deduction.
• It is a tool where hypothesis and assumptions are made to

simplify things or complicated statements.
• It includes a methodology for objectively reasoning about

3
their truth or falsity.
2021-11-24 Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri
INTRODUCTION CONT…
• Definition: Statement (Proposition): This is something

that you say or write that gives information or an opinion.
• Two types of statements,
i) Mathematical statements/propositions
ii) Non mathematical statements/propositions.

MATHEMATICAL STATEMENTS
• Definition: A mathematical statement is a declarative sentence

(a sentence that declares a fact) that it is either true or false, but
not both.
Example: -John is sick (Yes)
−4 + 6 = 3 (No)
• Any mathematical statement can be represented/denoted by
using letter/letters
• The truth value of a mathematical statement is determined by
true or false denoted as T or F respectively.
MATHEMATICAL STATEMENTS
There are two types of mathematical statements, namely
(a) Simple mathematical statement:
This is the one which give only one meaning.
Examples: -John is sick
-4 + 6 = 3
(b) Compound/complex mathematical statement :
This is the one which give more than one meaning.
Examples: -Amina is beautiful and attractive
-If you study hardly then you will pass
NON-MATHEMATICAL STATEMENTS
• Definition : A Non mathematical statement is any statement

which is neither true nor false.
• Examples:
-Go away
-Come here
TRUTH TABLE
• Definition: Truth Table is a table which is used to show the

truth values of a given mathematical statement.
• It is used to combine more than one statement in summary.
• They are Venn diagrams for logic.
• In general, 2n rows are required if a proposition involves n

propositional variables in order to get the combination of all
truth values.
TRUTH TABLE CONT…
• Example: Let P=John is sick, Truth table for P
is
P
T
F
LOGICAL OPERATORS/CONNECTIVES
• Logical operators/connectives are used to form new

propositions from two or more existing propositions.
• Operators/connectives to be discussed here are
i. Negation operator
ii. Conjunction operator
iii. Disjunction operator
iv. Exclusive or operator
v. Implication operator
vi. Biconditional operator
Topic #1.0 – Propositional Logic: Operators
The Negation Operator
• The negation operator “¬ or ~” (NOT) transforms a

proposition into its logical negation.
• Example: If p = “I have brown hair.” then ¬p = “I do not

have brown hair.”
• Truth table for NOT: p p

T F
2021-11-24T :≡ True; F :≡ False F T
Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri 11
• The Conjunction Operator
The conjunction operator “” or “AND” combines two
propositions to form their logical conjunction.
• Example: If 𝑝 = “I will have salad for lunch.” and 𝑞 = “I will

have steak for dinner.”, then 𝑝𝑞 = “I will have salad for lunch
and I will have steak for dinner.”
2021-11-24 Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri 12
Conjunction Truth Table
• The proposition “p and q,” denoted by pq is true when both

p and q are true otherwise it is false.
• Note that a conjunction p q pq

p1  p2  …  pn of F F F
F T F
n propositions will have
T F F
2 n rows in its truth table.
2021-11-24
T
Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri
T T 13
• The Disjunction Operator
The disjunction operator “” or “OR” combines two
propositions to form their logical disjunction.

• Example: 𝑝 = “My car has a bad engine.”
𝑞 = “My car has a bad carburetor.”
𝑝𝑞 = “Either my car has a bad engine, or
my car has a bad carburetor.”
• The Disjunction Operator
The disjunction operator “” or “OR” combines two
propositions to form their logical disjunction.

• Example: 𝑝 = “My car has a bad engine.”
𝑞 = “My car has a bad carburetor.”
𝑝𝑞 = “Either my car has a bad engine, or
my car has a bad carburetor.”
DISJUNCTION TRUTH TABLE
• The proposition “p or q,” denoted by pq, is the proposition

that is false when p and q are both false and true otherwise.
• Note that pq means that p is true,

p q pq
or q is true, or both are true! F F F
• So, this operation is also called F T T Note
difference
T F T from AND
inclusive or, because it includes the
T T T
possibility that both p and q are true.
The Exclusive Or Operator
• The exclusive-or operator “” or XOR combines two

propositions to form their logical “exclusive or” (exjunction).
• Example: p = “I will earn an A in this course,”
q = “I will drop this course,”
p  q = “I will either earn an A for this course, or I will
drop it (but not both)”

Exclusive-Or Truth Table
• Note that pq means that p is
true, or q is true, but not both! p q pq

F F F
• This operation is called F T T
T F T
exclusive or, because it excludes Note
T T F difference
from OR.
the possibility that both p and q
are true.
The Implication Operator (→)
• The implication p → q read as p implies q. That is, If p is true,

then q is true; but if p is not true, then q could be either true
or false.
• Example: Let p = “You study hard.” and q = “You will get a

good grade.” Then p → q = “If you study hard, then you will
get a good grade.” (else,Dr.Eng.
2021-11-24 it Mohammed
couldAlhanjouri
go either way) 19
• The implication statement is false when p is true and q is

false, and true otherwise.
• In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis

(or antecedent or premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequence).
• An implication statement is also called a conditional.

Implication Truth Table
• p → q is false only when

p is true but q is not true. p q p→q
F F T
• p → q does not require
F T T The
that p or q are ever true! T F F only
False
T T T case!
• Example. “(1=0) → pigs can fly”
is TRUE!
CONVERSE, INVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE
Some terminology, for an implication p → q:
• Its converse is: q → p.
• Its inverse is: ¬p → ¬q.
• Its contrapositive: ¬q → ¬ p.
• One of these three has the same meaning (same truth table)
as p → q.
• Example 1: Find the converse of the contrapositive of
(i) P→Q (ii) (PQ) →P
• Example 2: Find the inverse of the converse of
(i) (P Q) →R (ii) Q→(P Q)
• Example 3: Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of
(i) If it is cloudy, then it will rain.
(ii) You will pass only if you

2021-11-25
study hardly.
Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri 23
• Check!!, Use the truth table

Proving the equivalence of p → q and its contrapositive
using truth tables:
p q q p p→q q →p
F F T T T T
F T F T T T
T F T F F F
T T F F T T
The biconditional operator
• The biconditional p  q states that p is true if and only if (IFF)

q is true and vice versa.
• Example: p = “Obama wins the 2008 election.”
q = “Obama will be president for all of 2009.”
p  q = “If and only if, Obama wins the 2008 election,
Obama will be president for all of 2009.”
I’m still
here!
2008 2009 25
2021-11-24 Dr.Eng. Mohammed Alhanjouri
Biconditional Truth Table
• The biconditional statement p  q

is true when p and q have the same p q pq
truth values, and is false otherwise. F F T
• Biconditional statements are also called F T F
T F F
bi-implications.
T T T
• p ↔ q has the same truth value as
(p → q) Λ (q → p)
• Also, “if and only if” can be expressed by “iff”
TRUTH TABLES OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
• We can use connectives to build up complicated compound

propositions involving any number of propositional variables, then
use truth tables to determine the truth value of these compound
propositions.
• Example: Construct the truth table of the compound proposition
(p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).
27
TRUTH TABLES OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
The Truth Table of (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q).
p q ¬q p ν ¬q pΛq (p ν ¬q) → (p Λ q)
T T F T T T
T F T T F F
F T F F F T
F F T T F F
28
Topic #1.1 – Propositional Logic: Equivalences
EQUIVALENCE
• Propositional Equivalence: This means two textually

different propositions having the same meaning.
• Logical equivalence: propositions p and q are logically

equivalent to each other, IFF p and q contain the same truth
values as each other in all rows of their truth tables.
• Symbols used for equivalence are  or ≡

EQUIVALENCE
• Equivalences are proved using:

(i) Truth tables.
(ii) Symbolic derivations(equivalence laws).

EQUIVALENCE LAWS OF ALGEBRA
1. Identity law: pT  p
pF  p
2. Domination law: pT  T
pF  F
3. Idempotent law: pp  p
pp  p
EQUIVALENCE LAWS OF ALGEBRA
4. Commutative law: pq  qp

pq  qp
5. Double Negation ~(~𝑝)p
6. Associative law: (pq)r  p(qr)

(pq)r  p(qr)

EQUIVALENCE LAWS OF ALGEBRA CONT…
7. Distributive law : p (q  r) (p  q) (p  r)
p (q  r) (p  q) (p  r)
8. Complement law: p ~p  F p~p  T
~p  F ~p  T
9. De morgan’s law: ~(p  q) ~p  ~𝐪
~(p  q) ~p  ~𝐪
EQUIVALENCE LAWS OF ALGEBRA CONT…
Example: Use equivalence laws to simplify the following

propositions:
i. ~(p  q)  (~p  𝐪)
ii. (p  q) ↔(p  ~q)
iii. [ p (q p) ] [q (p q) ]

PROVING EQUIVALENCE
Example: Prove that pq and (p  q) are logically

equivalent, i.e., pq  (p  q)..
• Using the truth table:
p q pq p q p  q (p  q)

F F F T T T F
F T T T F F T
T F T F T F T
T T T F F F T
TAUTOLOGIES
• Definition: A tautology is a proposition that is true no matter

what the truth values of its atomic propositions are!
• Example: p  ~p
Truth table: p ~p p  ~p
T F T
F T T
CONTRADICTIONS
• Definition: A contradiction is a proposition that is false no
matter what!
• Example: p  ~p
Truth table: p ~p p  ~p
T F F
F T F
CONTINGENCY
• A compound proposition that is neither a tautology or a
contradiction is called a Contingency.

EXAMPLE
• Determine whether the proposition, (p  q) →(p  q) is a

tautology or contradictions or contingency (use both, truth
table and equivalence laws of algebra)
ARGUMENTS
• Definition: An argument is the one which consists of a
sequence of statements called the premises and a final
statement which is a conclusion.
• Example of an argument:
“If 6 is even then 2 does not divide 7.Either 5 is not prime or 2

divide 7.But 5 is prime. Therefore 6 is odd.”
ARGUMENTS
• Notation: 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 ͰC or
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 ; C or
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 : C or
𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 , 𝐶
• Where in each case, 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 is the sequence of

statements (premises) and C is a conclusion statement.
ARGUMENTS
• Definition: Validity:
An argument 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 ├ C is valid if and only if
𝑃1  𝑃2 𝑃3  ……,  𝑃𝑛 → 𝐶 is a tautology, otherwise it is
invalid.
• Definition: Fallacy:
An argument 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 ,……, 𝑃𝑛 ├ C is fallacy if and only if
𝑃1  𝑃2 𝑃3  ……,  𝑃𝑛 → 𝐶 consist of all values being
false (i.e., contradiction).
ARGUMENTS
• Example: Test the validity of the following argument
i) (p  q) →(p  q)
ii) If I like logic then I will study. Either I study or fail.

Therefore if I fail then I do not like logic.
iii) If 6 is even then 2 does not divide 7.Either 5 is not prime or

2 divide 7.But 5 is prime. Therefore 6 is odd.
Topic #3 – Predicate Logic
QUANTIFIERS
• A quantifier is “an operator that limits the variables of a

proposition”
• Quantifiers provide a notation that allows us to quantify (count)

how many objects in the universes satisfy given predicate.
• There are two types of quantifier, namely

(i) Universal quantifier
(ii) Existential quantifier.
Universal quantifiers
• It is represented by an upside-down A: 
It means “for all” or “for every” or “for ever ”
• Example: Let P(x) = x+1 > x
• We can state the following from the proposition P(x):

-x P(x)
-English translation: “for all values of x, P(x) is true”
-English translation: “for all values of x, 𝑥 + 1>𝑥 is true”
52
Universal quantifiers cont…
Question: Is 𝑥 𝑃(𝑥) in example above always true?
• Check!
-Let x = the character ‘a’. Is ‘a’+1 > ‘a’?
-Let x = the state of Virginia. Is Virginia+1 > Virginia?
• You need to specify your universe, (i.e., What values x can

represent). This is Called the “domain” or “universe of
discourse” 53
Universal quantifiers cont…
• In example above, let the universe be the real numbers.
Then, x P(x) is true always.
• Note: - Given some propositional function P(x)
- And values in the universe x1 .. xn
- The universal quantification x P(x) implies:
P(x1)  P(x2)  …  P(xn) 54

Existential quantification
• Represented by an backwards E: 
It means “there exists”
Example: Let P(x) = 𝑥 + 1 > x
• We can state the following from the proposition P(x):

-x P(x)
-English translation: “there exists (a value of) x such that
P(x) is true” 56
• Note that you still have to specify your universe
-If the universe we are talking about is all the states in the
US, then x P(x) is not true, this is because when P(x) =
x+1 < x there is no numerical value x for which x+1<x
-Thus, x P(x) is false

• Note:
- Given some propositional function P(x)
- And values in the universe x1 .. xn
- The universal quantification ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) implies:
P(x1)  P(x2)  …  P(xn)
58
• Example : Let P(x) denote the statement “ x=x+1”. What is
the truth value of the quantification ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) , where the
universe of discourse is the set of all real numbers?
• Solution: Since P(x) is false for every real number x , the
existential quantification of P(x) is false. That is ∃𝑥𝑃(𝑥) is
false.
THE END OF THE TOPIC

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MZUMBE UNIVERSITY

MSS 111/CSS 216

• Definition: Mathematical Logic is a branch of Mathematics

• It is a tool where hypothesis and assumptions are made to

• It includes a methodology for objectively reasoning about

• Definition: Statement (Proposition): This is something

• Two types of statements,

ii) Non mathematical statements/propositions.

• Definition: A mathematical statement is a declarative sentence

• Definition : A Non mathematical statement is any statement

• Definition: Truth Table is a table which is used to show the

• It is used to combine more than one statement in summary.

• They are Venn diagrams for logic.

• In general, 2n rows are required if a proposition involves n

• Example: Let P=John is sick, Truth table for P

• Logical operators/connectives are used to form new

The Negation Operator

• The negation operator “¬ or ~” (NOT) transforms a

• Example: If p = “I have brown hair.” then ¬p = “I do not

• Truth table for NOT: p p

• The Conjunction Operator

The conjunction operator “” or “AND” combines two

propositions to form their logical conjunction.

• Example: If 𝑝 = “I will have salad for lunch.” and 𝑞 = “I will

Conjunction Truth Table

• The proposition “p and q,” denoted by pq is true when both

• Note that a conjunction p q pq

• The Disjunction Operator

The disjunction operator “” or “OR” combines two

propositions to form their logical disjunction.

• The Disjunction Operator

The disjunction operator “” or “OR” combines two

propositions to form their logical disjunction.

DISJUNCTION TRUTH TABLE

• The proposition “p or q,” denoted by pq, is the proposition

• Note that pq means that p is true,

• The exclusive-or operator “” or XOR combines two

• Example: p = “I will earn an A in this course,”

q = “I will drop this course,”

p  q = “I will either earn an A for this course, or I will

drop it (but not both)”

Exclusive-Or Truth Table

• Note that pq means that p is

true, or q is true, but not both! p q pq

The Implication Operator (→)

• The implication p → q read as p implies q. That is, If p is true,

• Example: Let p = “You study hard.” and q = “You will get a

• The implication statement is false when p is true and q is

• In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis

• An implication statement is also called a conditional.

• p → q is false only when

CONVERSE, INVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE

Some terminology, for an implication p → q:

• Its converse is: q → p.

• Its inverse is: ¬p → ¬q.

CONVERSE, INVERSE, CONTRAPOSITIVE

• Example 1: Find the converse of the contrapositive of

(i) P→Q (ii) (PQ) →P

• Example 2: Find the inverse of the converse of

(i) (P Q) →R (ii) Q→(P Q)

• Example 3: Write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of

(i) If it is cloudy, then it will rain.

(ii) You will pass only if you