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MECHANICS
2.1
2.2
Kinematics
CORE
2.3 Work, Energy and Power
TOK Background
T he late Richard Feynman described the process of Physics as akin to observing a vast chess game in which the
boundaries of the chessboard cannot be seen. Furthermore, we have no idea why the game is being played or by
whom. Nor do we know when the game started, nor will we ever see the end of the game. We don’t know the rules of the
game and our problem is to figure them out. By careful observation over a period of time we might, for example, discover
the rule that governs the move of the bishops and if we are really clever we might even find the rule which governs the
movement of the knights. Occasionally something really odd might happen like two white queens appearing on the
board at the same time. All our subsequent observations had led us to the conclusion that this could not be the case.
The chessboard in this analogy is the Universe and the chess pieces are the matter in the Universe. The rules that we
discover are the laws of Physics and the observation we make of the pieces are the experiments that we carry out to
establish the laws of Physics. The rules give the “how” and not the “why”. In other words they do not tell us why the
pieces move but they help us understand the manner in which they move. And so it is with Physics. We will never know
for example, why when we push something it moves. However, we can give a very good description of how it will move
under different circumstances. Physics is the science that describes how the Universe “works”.
Physics falls into two main categories. There is the Physics before 1926 – Classical Physics – and there is the Physics after
1926- Quantum Physics. Most of the Physics that is studied in an IB course is Classical Physics. However, it is important
to realise that ultimately our description of how the Universe works must be understood in terms of Quantum Physics
because we know this to be (so far) the ‘correct Physics’ So you might ask why do we spend so much time in teaching
you the ‘wrong’ Physics? Well, it’s not quite as bad as it sounds. For example, if we apply the laws of Classical Physics to
the behaviour of electrons in solids we get the wrong answer. The laws of Quantum Physics give the right answer. On the
other hand if we apply the laws of Classical Physics and the laws of Quantum Physics to the behaviour of billiard balls, at
slow enough speeds, both give the right answer. However, using Quantum Physics in this situation is rather like taking
the proverbial sledgehammer to crack a walnut. In many of the situations that we encounter, Classical Physics will give
us the right answer and so for this reason, and the fact that Quantum Physics is not easy to grasp on first acquaintance,
we spend a lot of time teaching students Classical Physics.
If we “plot” the speed of things against size, then we can see the sort of areas pertinent to each of the main areas of
Physics. Refer to Figure 201.
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Physics
32
NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
In this part of the course we start our journey through
Newtonian Mechanics, one of the great pillars of Classical 2.1.1 Define displacement, velocity, speed and
Physics. The essential problem in Mechanics is this: if at acceleration.
any given instant in time we know the positions and velocities
CORE
of all the particles that make up a particular system, can we 2.1.2 Explain the difference between
predict the future position and velocities of all the particles? instantaneous and average values of
speed, of velocity and of acceleration.
This is the mechanics problem in its most general form.
Specific examples are problems such as predicting solar 2.1.3 Outline the conditions under which the
eclipses, putting satellites into orbit, finding out how the equations for uniformly accelerated
positions of an oscillating object varies with time and motion may be applied.
finding out where a snooker ball ends up when it is struck
by another snooker ball. 2.1.4 Identify the acceleration of a body falling
in a vacuum near the Earth’s surface with
In 1687, Isaac Newton (1642-1727) published his Principia the acceleration g of free fall.
Mathematica in which he set out a method for solving
these type of problems; hence the name ‘Newtonian 2.1.5 Solve problems involving the equations of
Mechanics’. uniformly accelerated motion
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(6,2) distance
speed = _______
time
A
Velocity
Velocity is speed in a given direction. It is therefore a vector
Figure 204 Another method of calculating displacement quantity. To plot a course an airline pilot needs to know
not just the speed of the wind but from which direction it
Figures 203 and 204 are two examples of calculating is blowing i.e. the wind velocity must be known.
displacements. In Figure 203 the particle P is at the point
(4,0) at some instant and at a certain time later it is at a point
(8,0). Its displacement in this time interval is, therefore, 4
units in the positive x direction. Example
Exercise 2.1 (a) The solution to this problem involves simple vector addition.
O Resultant velocity of
A the boat
5
100 m
α
P
100 m
34
The direction can be measured relative to the original An experiment with free fall can help us understand this.
direction of the boat and is given by Figure 207 shows a ball being dropped between two light
gates which are connected to an electronic counter.
the angle α = tan
–1
( 2--5-( = 21.8° ( = 22°).
Acceleration
A
CORE
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity in a given
direction. (Change in velocity ÷ time taken). In the SI
system the unit is metres per second per second. i.e. the
change in velocity measured in m s-1 every second. We s
write this as m s-2. Since we define acceleration in terms counter
of velocity it is therefore a vector quantity. It is important
to understand that the word ‘deceleration’ has no place in
physics. If the acceleration of an object is positive then we B
understand its rate of change of velocity to be positive and
it could mean that the speed of the body is increasing. A Figure 207 An experiment in free fall
body that is slowing down will have a negative acceleration.
However, do not think of acceleration as a ‘slowing up’ or The ball is dropped from a fixed point somewhere above
‘getting faster’. If a car for example goes round a bend in the light gate A. The two light gates A and B connected to
the road at constant speed it is accelerating. Why? Because the counter will record the time t that it takes the ball to
the direction of the car is changing and therefore its fall the distance s. The average speed of the ball as it falls
s
velocity is changing. If its velocity is changing then it must between A and B is just -t . The ball is of course accelerating
have acceleration. This is sometimes difficult for people as it falls so its speed is changing. Now imagine the light gate
to grasp when they first meet the physics definition of B closer to A and repeat the experiment. We would obtain
acceleration because in everyday usage acceleration refers a different value for the average velocity. As we repeat the
to something getting faster. Similarly words like work and experiment several times, each time moving B closer to A,
power which can have very flexible meanings in everyday we will find that the values of the average speed obtained
usage are very precisely defined in physics. So beware. each time will be approaching some limiting value. This
limiting value is actually the instantaneous speed of the
As we shall see later on in this chapter it is very important ball as it passes A. When the distance between A and B
to keep in mind the vector nature of both velocity and becomes very small (as does the corresponding time of
acceleration. fall) then this distance divided by the time will very nearly
be equal to the instantaneous speed at A.
2.1.2 INSTANTANEOUS AND AVERAGE If we let the small distance equal Δs and the time of fall
VALUES equal Δt then the average speed vav over this distance is
Δs
vav = ___
Δt
If you travel by car between two towns a distance of
200 km apart and your journey time is 4 hours your and the instantaneous speed v is given by
average speed would be 50 km hr-1. Clearly this does not
mean that every time that you look at the speedometer v = lim ___Δs
Δt → 0 Δt
it would be reading 50 km h-1. Indeed for some of the
journey you could well have been having a cup of coffee Δs as Δt → 0
or v = ___
Δt
at a service station. This raises the question of what does
the reading on the speedometer actually mean. On a very (For those of you who do calculus you will recognise this as
simplistic level it tells us that if we maintain this speed ds ).
the derivative __
dt
then in one hour we will cover a distance of 50 km. At
another level it tells us that at that particular instant the
car has an instantaneous speed of 50 km h-1.
Δs
distance
But speed is ______ so what do we mean by an v = ------ as Δt → 0
time Δt
instantaneous speed?
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follows accordingly as
Δv
a = ------ as Δt → 0
Δt
0
Where Δv is the change in velocity in time Δt. t=T t
The equations only relate magnitudes and therefore we We can eliminate the time from this equation by substituting
v–u
will write the symbols in the equations in scalar form. in t = ----------- from the first equation such that
a
Let v–u 1 v–u 2
s = u × ----------- + --- a -----------
a 2 a
t = the time for which the body accelerates
If we expand the brackets and collect up terms then we
a = acceleration see that
2 2
u = the speed at time t = 0, the initial speed v = u + 2as
v = the speed after time t, the final speed This is the third equation for the set.
36
The following exercise demonstrates an alternative way assume that the value of g is 9.8 m s–2 and hence compute
of analysing data obtained using strobe photographic your error in measurement as ± 4%. You do not know
techniques. This method is based on the equations of what the value of g is at your location and that is why you
uniform motion. are measuring it. One correct way to calculate the error is
along the lines indicated in the preceeding exercise, i.e.,
Figure 209 shows the results of an experiment in which using error bars.
the strobe photograph of a falling ball has been analysed.
CORE
The strobe takes 20 pictures a second. The time between
each picture is therefore 0.05 s. The distance column is the 2.1.5 SOLVE PROBLEMS INVOLVING
measured distance of each successive photograph of the THE EQUATIONS OF UNIFORMLY
ball from the origin. The error in the distance has been
estimated from parallax error in reading from the scale ACCELERATED MOTION
against which the photographs have been taken and also
in locating the centre of the ball in each photograph.
Exercise 2.1 (b)
t2
You are to plot a graph of s against and from the graph
find a value of g. You should include error bars on the
graph and use these to calculate the error in the value of g 1. A stone is dropped down a well and a splash is
that you have determined. heard 2.4 s later. Determine the distance from the
top of the well to the surface of the water?
time t/s ±0.01/s distance s/cm ±0.4 cm
0 0 2. A girl stands on the edge of a vertical cliff and
0.05 1.2 she throws a stone vertically upwards. The stone
0.10 4.8 eventually lands in the sea below her. The stone
0.15 10.9 leaves her hand with a speed of 15 m s-1 and the
0.20 19.4 height of the cliff is 25 m.
0.25 30.3
Calculate
0.30 43.7
0.35 59.4
i. the maximum height reached by the stone.
0.40 77.6 ii. the time to reach the maximum height.
0.45 98.2 iii. the speed with which the stone hits the sea.
0.50 121.2 iv. the time from leaving the girl’s hand that it
0.55 146.7 takes the stone to hit the sea.
0.60 174.6
3. A sprinter starts off down a track at a speed of
Figure 209 Data For Free Fall 10 m s-1. At the same time a cyclist also starts
off down the track. The cyclist accelerates to
Some comments on g a top speed of 20 m s-1 in 4.0 s. Ignoring the
acceleration of the sprinter, determine the distance
In Chapter 6 we will see that the value of g varies with from the start that the cyclist will pass the sprinter.
position and with height above the Earth’s surface and also
in the absence of air resistance, the acceleration of free
falling objects is independent of their mass. This was first
noted by Galileo who is reputed to have timed the duration
of fall for different objects dropped from the top of the
Leaning Tower of Pisa. The fact that the acceleration of
free fall is independent of an object’s mass has far reaching
significance in Physics and is discussed in more detail in
“Topic H. (General relativity)”
37
velocity
E
So far in this discussion of motion we have ignored the G
B D
effects of air resistance. When an object moves though O time
the air, it is subjected to a retarding force and this force H
can be very complicated particularly if the object moves at C
F
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high speed. The force will also depend on the shape of the
object and its mass. Think of the way in which a feather
floats to Earth compared to the way in which a stone falls. Figure 210 Changes of velocity with time
However, for spherical objects moving at relatively low
speeds, experiment shows that the retarding force due to The ball leaves the hand at point O and accelerates
air resistance, sometimes referred to as the drag force, is uniformly until it hits the ground at A. At A it undergoes
directly proportional to the speed of the object (provided a large acceleration during which its velocity changes
that the density of the air stays constant). Effectively this from positive to negative (being zero at B). The change in
means that as the object moves faster and faster, the drag velocity between B and C is less than the change in velocity
force gets greater and greater until in fact it reaches a value between A and B since the rebound velocity is lower than
equal to the value of the force accelerating the object. the impact velocity. The ball accelerates from C to D at
When this occurs the object will no longer accelerate and which point it is at its maximum height and its velocity
will move with constant velocity. (We will discuss the is zero. Notice that even though its velocity is zero its
effect of forces on the motion of objects in much more acceleration is not. The ball now falls back to the surface
detail in the next section). The constant velocity that the and hits the surface at point E. Neglecting air resistance
object attains is called the terminal velocity. If a stone the speed of the ball at points C, and E will be the same.
is dropped from a balloon that is at a height of 5000 m, The process now repeats.
then, if we ignore air resistance, the velocity with which it
strikes the ground is about 320 m s-1 (about the speed of The lines OA, CE and FG are parallel and the gradient of
sound). Because of air resistance the actual speed is much these lines is the acceleration of free fall.g.
less than this. For example if you fell out of the balloon,
your terminal velocity would be about 60 m s-1. Still not a The lines AC, EF and GH are also parallel and the gradient
very comfortable speed with which to strike the ground. of these lines is equal to the acceleration of the ball whilst
it is in contact with the surface. The lines should not be
Exercise 2 on page 39 will help you become familiar with vertical as this would mean that the acceleration would
the idea of terminal velocity. be infinite.
38
100
distance / m
between the ‘buffers’ of a linear air-track.
Neglecting friction, which one of the graphs below 60
CORE
best represents how the
40
(a) velocity,
20
(b) acceleration,
(c) displacement and 0
(d) speed 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 time / s
C. D.
6
time time
5
distance / m
39
vP = Δ s- as Δt → 0 9
-----
Δt 8
velocity / m s–1
7
6
vP is the instantaneous speed at the point P and 5
4
Δ s-
as Δt → 0 is the gradient of the displacement–time
CORE
----- 3
Δt 2
1
graph at the point P. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0. 8 1.0 1.2 1.4 time / s
(Those students who are familiar with calculus will recognise Figure 215 Velocity-time graph for a falling ball
this process as differentiation. The equation for the above graph
2 ds change of velocity
is s = kt such that the derivative ----- = 2kt is the The acceleration is the ____________
time
and in this
dt
case this is equal to the gradient of the straight line
gradient at any time t and hence the instantaneous speed). and is equal to 10 m s -2. This is a situation of constant
acceleration but even when the acceleration is not constant
When sketching or plotting a displacement-time graph we the acceleration at any instant is equal to the gradient of
have to bear in mind that displacement is a vector quantity. the velocity–time graph at that instant.
Consider for example, the situation of an object that leaves
point A, travels with uniform speed in a straight line to In section 2.1.2 we saw that we defined instantaneous
point B, returns to point A at the same constant speed acceleration as
and passes through point A to a point C. If we ignore the
accelerations at A and B and regard the point A as the zero Δv as Δt → 0
a = ___
Δt
reference point, then a sketch of the displacement-time
graph will look like that shown in Figure 214. Students familiar with calculus will recognise that
acceleration is the derivative
dv
a = ___
B dt
which can also be written as:
displacement
2s
d __
a = __
dt dt ( )
ds = d___
dt2
20
The graph in Figure 215 shows how the velocity of the
falling ball varies with time.
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 time / s
40
The distance travelled is just velocity × time. So at a (a) the acceleration of the train in the first 3
constant speed of 20 m s-1 after 10 s the object will have minutes is the gradient of the line AB.
travelled 200 m. This is of course equal to the area under
45
the line between t = 0 and t = 10 s. Therefore, we have, a = = + 0.25 m s-2
180
If the velocity is not constant then the area under a (b) the acceleration of the train after the brakes
velocity–time graph will also be equal to the displacement. are applied is the gradient of the line
CORE
So, for the falling ball, we see from the velocity time graph,
45
Figure 215, that the distance travelled after 1.0 s is equal CD = - = - 0.38 m s-2
to the area of the triangle of base 1.0 s and height 10 m s-1 120
equals = ½ × 1.0 s × 10 m s-1 = 5.0 m (c) the distance travelled by the train is the
total area under the graph.
Total area
Example
= area of triangle ABE + area BCFE + area of triangle CDF
10
speed – time graph
50 8
6
40
4
speed / m s –1
30 2
20 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time / s
10
41
-1
is 5 m s . Clearly the determination of speed (and therefore
Example velocity and acceleration) depends on what it is measured
relative to.
The acceleration of an object increases uniformly at a rate Generally speaking, if the velocity of a particle A relative
of 3.0 m s-2 every second. If the object starts from rest, to an assigned point or reference frame O is VA and the
calculate its speed after 10 s. velocity of a particle B relative to the same point is VB, then
CORE
Example
–2
acceleration / m s
30
The Figure below shows the two banks of a river. A
20
ferryboat operates between the two points P and Q that
10 are directly opposite each other.
time /s Q
2 4 6 8 10 12
42
CORE
2.2.2 Identify the forces acting on an object and We shall see in section 2.2.8 that when we talk about the
draw free-body diagrams representing the weight of a body what we actually mean is the gravitational
forces acting. force that the Earth exerts on the body. So weight is a force
and since the force of gravity varies from place to place
2.2.3 Determine the resultant force in different and also with height above the Earth’s surface, the weight
situations of a body will also vary but it’s inertial and gravitational
© IBO 2007
mass remains constant.
43
The last three of these can be summarised by stating that In Figure 222 the blue arrows show the tension forces set
a force produces an acceleration. up in the spring. There is a force that opposes the pulling
force and a force equal in magnitude to this force is also
So if you were to see an object that is moving along in exerted by the spring on the fixed support.
a straight line with constant speed, suddenly change
orce forc
e
direction you would know immediately that a force had ion f ing
Fixed pole Tens P u l l
acted on it even if you did not see anything tangible
CORE
Since a force can produce an acceleration, it is clearly One thing that you will note as you pull the spring, is
a vector quantity. Hence, if two or more forces act on a that the further you extend the spring, then the greater
particle, to find the resultant acceleration we have to find the force that you have to exert in order to extend it even
the resultant force. We use the word particle here because further. You can investigate how the force required to
if forces act on a body they can produce a deformation as extend the spring varies with the extension e of the spring
well as an acceleration. If they act on a particle that ideally by simply hanging weights of different values on the end
has no physical dimensions then it can only produce an of a vertically suspended spring. (The force of gravity
acceleration. measured in newtons that acts on a mass M can be found
to a very good approximation by multiplying M by 10).
Spring forces The results for a typical spring in which the force F is
plotted against the extension e is shown in Figure 223.
An interesting and very important type of force arises in
connection with springs. A typical spring can be made
F/N
by taking a length of wire and winding it round a pencil
such that each successive turn (coil) is in contact with the
previous turn. However, all school laboratories usually X
posses a variety of commercially available springs. If you
hold one end of a spring in one hand and pull the other
end then clearly to extend the spring you have to exert a
force on the spring. If you don’t hold one end of the spring, e /m
then when you pull, it will accelerate in the direction that
you are pulling it. Holding one end and pulling the other Figure 223 Graph of force against extension of a spring
produces a tension force in the spring. This is illustrated in
Figure 221. Up to the point X the force F is directly proportional to e.
beyond this point the proportionality is lost. If the point X
is passed, the spring can become permanently deformed
in such a way that when the weights are removed the
Pull spring will not go back to its original length. In the region
of proportionality we can write
Fixed pole
F = ke
x
where k is a constant whose value will depend on the
particular spring. For this reason k is called the spring
constant. This spring behaviour is a specific example of a
more general rule known as Hooke’s law of elasticity after
Figure 221 Forces on a spring the 17th century physicist Robert Hooke. For this reason
the region of proportionality is often referred to as the
‘Hookey region’ or ‘elastic region’ and point X is called the
44
CORE
Exercise 2.2 (b) Electromagnetic interaction
10 20 30 length /cm All four of these interactions are discussed in more detail
throughout this book. However, a simple way of looking
i. State the value of the unstretched length of at them is to think of the gravitational force as being
the spring. the force that accounts for planetary motion and the
ii. Use data from the graph to plot another way that galaxies are put together. The electromagnetic
graph of force against extension and from interaction is the force that accounts for the way in which
this graph determine the spring constant. the electrons are arranged in atoms and as such is the force
that accounts for all chemical and biological processes.
Fundamental forces The strong interaction accounts for the nuclear structure
of the atom and the weak interaction accounts for how
A discussion on forces would not be complete without the nucleus comes apart. Physicists would like to unify all
some reference to the so-called fundamental forces or these forces into just one force. That is they would like to
interactions as physicists prefer to call them. find that all the interactions were just special cases of one
fundamental interaction. There has been some success in
Although at first sight there seems to be a bewildering unifying the weak and the electromagnetic interaction but
number of different types of force, pushes, pulls, friction, that is the current situation. (See also Topic J.1)
electrical, magnetic etc. physicists now recognise that
all the different forces arise from just four fundamental Free-Body Diagrams
forces.
We have seen that we can represent the forces acting
Gravitational force on a particle by lines with arrows, the lengths of which
represented the relative magnitude of the forces. Such
The weakest of the four is the gravitational force. As we diagrams are a useful way to represent the forces acting on
have seen, this is the force that gives rise to the weight of a body or particle and are called free-body diagrams.
an object. However, as mentioned, we also understand
this force to act between all particles in the Universe. Figure 225 shows an object of mass M that is suspended
vertically by a thread of negligible mass. It is then pulled to
one side by a force of magnitude F and held in the position
shown.
45
Weight = Mg 4.0 N
6.0 N
30°
Figure 226 The Free-body Force Diagram for Fig. 225
P
The weight of the object is Mg and the magnitude of the
tension in the thread is T. The component of the 4.0 N in the horizontal direction is
4.0 cos 30 = 3.5 N.
The object is in equilibrium (see 2.2.6) and so the net
force acting on it is zero. This means that the vertical Hence the magnitude of the force in the horizontal
components of the forces must be zero as must the direction is 2.5 N.
horizontal components. Therefore, in the diagram the line
A is equal in length to the arrow representing the force F R
and the line B is equal in length to the arrow representing 2.0 N
θ
the weight. The tension T, the “resultant” of A and B, is
found by the using the dotted line constructions. 2.5 N
When producing a free-body diagram, there is no The component of the 4.0 N force in the vertical direction
need to show these constructions. However, as well as is 4.0 sin 30 = 2.0 N and this is the magnitude of the force
being in the appropriate directions, the lengths of the in the vertical direction.
arrows representing the forces should be approximately
proportional to the magnitudes of the forces. The following The Figure above shows the vector addition of the
example is left as an exercise for you. horizontal and vertical components.
46
CORE
with constant velocity until it is acted upon by another
2.2.7 Solve problems involving translational force. This can be demonstrated to a certain degree using
equilibrium. the linear air-track. It is to a limited degree since it is
© IBO 2007
impossible to eliminate friction completely and the air
track is not infinite in length. It is in this sense impossible
2.2.4 STATE NEWTON’S FIRST LAW OF to prove the first law with absolute certainty since sooner
MOTION rather than later all objects will encounter a force of some
kind or another.
At the beginning of this chapter we stated that the general In fact Arthur Eddington (1882- 1944), is reputed to have
mechanics problem is, that given certain initial conditions quoted Newton’s first law thus:
of a system, to predict the future behaviour of the system.
The method that Newton devised to solve this problem is ‘Every object continues in a state of rest or uniform motion
encompassed in his celebrated three laws of motion which in a straight line in so far as it doesn’t.’
he published in his Principia Mathematica circa 1660.
Essentially Newton tells us to find out the forces acting on By this he meant that nothing in the Universe is ever at
the system. If we know these then we should in principle rest and there is no such thing as straight line motion.
able to predict the future behaviour of the system. However, we are inclined to believe that if a body is not
acted upon by a force, then Galileo’s description of its
Newton’s First Law is essentially qualitative and is based motion is correct.
on the work done by Galileo. Prior to Galileo’s work on
mechanics, the Aristotelian understanding of motion It is sometimes difficult to discard the Aristotelian view of
was the accepted view, that a constant force is needed to motion particularly in respect of objects which are subject
produce constant motion. This seems to fit in with every to a momentary force. Consider the example shown in
day experience; if you stop pushing something then it will Figure 229:
stop moving, to keep it moving you have to keep pushing
it. Galileo’s brilliance was to recognise that the opposite 1. forward thrust 2.
ball ball
is actually the case and his idea is summarised in the
statement of Newton’s First Law: every object continues
in a state of rest of uniform motion in a straight line
unless acted upon by an external force. gravity gravity
The Aristotelian view does not take into account that when Figure 229 Aristotelian and Galilean forces on a ball
you push something another force is usually acting on the
body that you are pushing, namely the force of friction. A girl throws a ball towards another girl standing some
In some situations, as we have seen, the frictional force, metres away from her, it is tempting to think that, as
acting on a moving object is a function of the object’s Aristotle did, there must be a forward thrust to keep the
velocity and in fact increases with velocity. Hence a greater ball moving through the air as shown in 1. However, if air
engine power is required to move a car at high speed than resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the ball is
at low speed. We shall return to this idea later. gravity as shown in 2.
47
Consider the simple case of a book resting on a table. Clearly This again demonstrates that in fact we should apply the
gravity acts on the book and without the intervention of Newton laws of motion to particles. Unless the pulling
the table, the book would fall to the ground. The table force acts through what we call the centre of mass of the
therefore exerts an equal and opposite force on the book. object then the pulling force and the frictional force can
This force we call the normal reaction. The force acting on produce rotation. This is quite a subtle point. However, in
the book are shown in Figure 231 many situations in this chapter we will refer to objects and
bodies when strictly speaking we mean particles. There
N normal reaction is in fact a branch of mechanics known as ‘Rigid Body
W=N Mechanics’ which specifically deals with the mechanics of
extended bodies rather than particles. This is not covered
in the IB course. However, we can still get quite a long way
surface of table with mechanics by considering bodies to act as particles.
W weight of the book (due to gravity) 2.2.8 State Newton’s second law of motion.
Figure 231 Static forces on a book 2.2.9 Solve problems involving Newton’s second
law.
Dynamic equilibrium © IBO 2007
Now consider the case where the book, or any other object, 2.2.8 NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF
is pulled along the surface of the table with constant MOTION
velocity. Gravity and the normal reaction are still acting
but there is now a frictional force acting which is equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction to the pulling The vector form of the equations relating to Newton’s
force. The force diagram for this situation is shown in Second Law given in this section, show that the vectors
Figure 232. act in the same straight line (for example, the force and
acceleration in F = ma). In the IB Physics data booklet, all
vector equations are given in scalar form i.e. they relate just
the magnitudes of the quantities.
48
directly proportional to the force acting and is in the same We can use Newton’s Second Law to understand the
direction as the applied force. Furthermore the constant of equivalence between inertial and gravitational mass. A
proportionality that relates the two is the inertial mass of simple argument shows this to be so. If we assume that the
the particle. We can therefore write that gravitational force F that the Earth exerts on an object is
G
proportional to the gravitational mass m of the object.
G
F = ma We can write this as
CORE
This is Newton’s second law in its simplest form. There are F = Km
G G
however, many situations where the mass of the system
does not remain constant e.g. a firework rocket, sand where K is a constant.
falling on to a conveyor belt etc. It is therefore helpful to
express the law in a more general form. The acceleration g of the object is given by Newton’s second
law.
We can express the acceleration a in terms of the rate of
change of velocity i.e. F = Km = m g
G G I
Δv
F = m × ------
Δt where m is the inertial mass of the object.
I
We now define a quantity called the linear momentum p But experiment shows that g is a constant and has the
of the object as same value for all objects. Hence, it follows from the above
equation that m = m with g = K.
G I
p = mv
If we have an independent definition of inertial mass, then
such that we can now write Newton’s second law if the we can use the second law to define a unit of force. The SI
form unit of force is the newton (N) and it is that force which
Δp produces an acceleration of 1 m s-2 in a mass of 1 kg. This
F = -------
Δt is an absolute definition in that it does not depend on the
properties of any material or any outside influence such as
We shall discuss the concept of momentum in more detail pressure and temperature.
in Section 2.2.10
The second law also enables us to quantify the relationship
Although it is possible to verify Newton’s Second Law between mass and weight. As has been previously stated
directly by experiment its real validity is understood the acceleration of free fall is the same for all objects. If its
in terms of the experimentally verifiable results that value is g and an object has a mass m then from the second
it predicts. In a sense this law is the whole of Classical law we see that the gravitational force exerted on it by the
Mechanics and tells us that if we pay attention to the Earth has a value mg. Hence mg is the weight of the object.
forces then we can find the acceleration and if we know If we take g to have a value of 10 m s-2 then a mass of 1 kg
the acceleration then we know the future behaviour of the will have a weight of 10 N close to the surface of the Earth.
particle. On the Moon where the acceleration of gravity is about
1.7 m s-2 a mass of 1 kg will have a weight of about 1.7 N.
Newton in essence says find the force law governing
a system and you will be able to predict its behaviour. In the rest of this section we will look at some examples of
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to know the the application of the second law and give some exercises.
force law. Newton himself gave one, his famous law of Hopefully, this will help you gain familiarity with its use.
gravitation, which we will look at in Topic 6.1. However, Remember that it is a very, very important law.
in such situations such as the collision of two billiard balls
we do not know the force acting nor do we know the force
acting between the millions of molecules of a gas, solid
or liquid. In situations such as these we have to find some
other means of solving the problem and these we look at
some of these methods in Sections 2.2.13 and 2.3.6.
49
1.0 kg pulley
Using Newton’s second law (F = ma) we have that
F = 70 × -2.5 = –175.
Solution
1. A person stands on bathroom scales placed on the
floor of a lift. When the lift is stationary the scales
The force acting on the system is the weight of the hanging record a weight of 600 N. The person now presses
mass which is 0.50 kg = 5 N the button for the 6th floor. During the journey to
the 6th floor the scales read 680 N, then 600 N,
Using Newton’s second law F = m a then 500 N and finally 600 N. Explain these
observations and calculate any accelerations that
we have 5.0 = (1.5) a the lift might have during the journey.
Example
3.00 N
4.00 N
5.00 N
A person of mass 70 kg is strapped into the front seat 143°
of a car, which is travelling at a speed of 30 m s–1. The
car brakes and comes to rest after travelling a distance of
180 m. Estimate the average force exerted on the person
during the braking process.
50
2.2.12 State the law of conservation of linear Here Δp is the change in momentum produced by the
CORE
momentum. force F in time Δt.
Δp
2.2.13 Solve problems involving momentum and From the second law in the form F = we see that
impulse. Δt
F Δt = Δp
(Students should be familiar with elastic and
inelastic collisions and explosions. Knowledge of The term F Δt is called the impulse of the force and it is a
the coefficient of restitution is not required). very useful concept in solving certain types of problem,
© IBO 2007
particularly in situations where the force acts for a short
time such as kicking a football. We also see by expressing
2.2.10 LINEAR MOMENTUM AND the second law in this way that an equivalent unit for
IMPULSE momentum is N s.
Note that momentum is a vector quantity and that the unit Figure 236 Force Time Graph
is kg m s-1.
Since the area under the graph is equal to the impulse we
In his Principia Newton states his Second Law of Motion can calculate the speed with which the football leaves the
as follows: The rate of change of linear momentum of a foot.
particle is directly proportional to the impressed force
acting upon it and takes place in the direction of the The area equals
impressed force.
_1 ( 50 × 0.14 ) + ( 50 × 0.14 ) + _1 ( 50 × 0.08 ) = 13.5 N s
2 2
This is in fact the form in which you should remember the
second law of motion since the law in the form F = ma is Suppose that the mass of the football is 0.40 kg then from
actually, as we have seen, a special case.
13.5 = 34
F Δt = Δp = mΔv , we have that Δv = ____
0.40
51
be computed by measuring its time of flight. that the second and third law (See section 2.2.14) lead
to the idea that in any interaction in a closed (isolated)
Here is another example in which we use the ideas of system, linear momentum is always conserved, that is it
impulse and the rate of change of momentum. stays constant. By a closed system, we mean one in which
no external forces act. We can get an idea of this from the
fact that the second law tells us that the external impressed
Example force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. If there
is no external force then there is no rate of change of
momentum of the system as a whole and therefore the
Water is poured from a height of 0.50 m on to a top pan momentum does not change, that is, it remains constant.
balance at the rate of 30 litres per minute. Estimate the
reading on the scale of the balance. Consider for example, a system that comprises interacting
particles. When two particles A and B collide when they
are in contact, it follows from Newton’s third law that the
Solution force that A exerts on B is equal and opposite to the force
that B exerts on A. This means that the net force that is
exerted on the system comprising A and B is zero. If the
We shall assume here that the water bounces off the top of net force is zero then it follows that there is no change in
the balance horizontally. Again we can calculate the speed momentum of the system. In collision processes we can
with which the water hits the balance. therefore express the law of conservation of momentum as
momentum before collision = momentum after collision.
From the equation v2 = 2as However, the more general statement of the law is:
we have v2 = 2 × 10 × 0.50 = 10. So, v = 3.2 m s-1. If the total external force acting on a system is zero
then the momentum of the system remains constant (is
The mass of water arriving at the balance per second is conserved).
52
-1
v = 6.3 m s
CORE
2.0 m /s 6.3 = 220 N.
F = 70 × ___
2.0
Figure 237 The conveyor belt problem Therefore total force = 220 + 700 = 920 m.
53
speed with which it recoils. (a) the impulse given to the ball
(b) the average force exerted on the ball.
2. Sarah is standing on the horizontal surface of a
frozen pond. She throws a ball of mass 250 g. The
ball leaves her hand with a horizontal speed of
8.0 m s-1. As a result, Sarah moves with an initial
speed of 5.0 cm s-1. Estimate Sarah’s mass.
Case 1: u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v 1 + m2 v 2
Figure 238 Case 1
Case 2:
u1 u2 v1 v2
m1 m2 m1 m2
m1 u1 – m2 u2 = –m1 v 1 + m2 v 2
Figure 239 Case 2
v1 = 0
u1 u2 v2
Case 3: m1 m2 m1 m2
m1 u1 – m2 u2 = m2 v 2
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v
54
X B table
Students should understand that when two bodies A
and B interact, the force that A exerts on B is equal and Y
CORE
opposite to the force that B exerts on A. As was suggested E arth
in the introduction, Newton’s Second Law does not always
work. It does not give the right answers when we apply it
to atoms and molecules nor does it give the right answer Figure 242 The forces acting
when particle are moving with speed close to that of the when a book rests on a table
speed of light. However his third law of motion as far as
we know is valid across the whole of physics. It is really The table is actually incidental to the action of these forces.
quite a remarkable piece of insight and has, as we shall see, The two forces are the equal and opposite pair referred to
far reaching consequences. In fact, Ernst Mach, a famous in the third law such that
turn of the century physicist ,regarded the third law has
Newton’s greatest contribution to Mechanics. X + Y =0
Newton formulated this law based on an idea first put If the table is not there, the book falls towards the Earth
forward by Descartes. The law basically says that forces and the Earth falls towards the book. Both the book and
always appear in equal and opposite pairs. To state the law the Earth will accelerate in accordance with Newton’s
more formally: second law. However, considering that the earth is some
1026 times more massive than the book, we do not observe
When a force acts on a body, an equal and opposite force the acceleration of the Earth.
acts on another body somewhere in the universe.
The force A is the force that the table exerts on the book.
We saw in our discussion on momentum conservation, The force B is the force that the book exerts on the table.
that for momentum to be conserved when two bodies A These two forces are again an equal and opposite pair of
and B collide, then whilst in contact, the force that A exerts forces referred to in the third law such that
on B is equal and opposite to the force that B exerts on A.
Which is of course an example of Newton’s third law. A + B =0
55
The three situations are illustrated in Figure 243. force and mass, can be defined from one equation, F = m a.
The answer is that they are not.
Exercise 2.2 (f )
56
CORE
θ
E ngine
Work = force × distance moved work = magnitude of the component of the force in the
direction moved × the distance moved
However, we have to be careful in using this definition.
Consider the situation below in which the engine lifts the The SI unit of work is the newton metre and is called
weight up a slope to height h. the joule named after the 19th Century physicist James
Prescott Joule.
57
Graph 1 Graph 2
F orc e F orce Calculate the work done by the force
x x
d s
Solution
Figure 246 (a) and (b) Force vs displacement graphs
The area under each of the graphs is clearly equal to the (a) The component of the force along the
work done. In Figure 256 (a) when the force F undergoes a direction of motion, i.e., the horizontal
displacement d the work done is Fd. In Figure 246 (b) when component, Fh, can be determined by using
the force F produces an extension s then the work done is the fact that
100 N
1 Fh
___
--- Fs . But in this case F = ks, hence the work done is cos 45˚ =
2 100 45°
1 1 2 ⇔ Fh = 100 cos45˚
--- × ( ks ) × s = ---ks
2 2
The work that has been done is stored in the spring as = 71 N
elastic potential energy Eelas . The adjective potential in this That is, the component of the force along
context essentially means “hidden”. Clearly the direction of motion is 71N. Therefore
the work done (F × s) = 71 × 25 = 1780
1ks2
Eelas = __ That is, the work done is 1780 J.
2
(b) There is no displacement by the force in the
We can extend this idea to find the work done by any direction of gravity. Hence the work done
non-constant force. If we know how the force depends by the force against gravity is zero.
on displacement then to find the work done by the force
we just compute the area under the force-displacement
graph. Suppose that a constant frictional force of 50 N acts on
the box. How much work is done against friction? Again,
using the fact that W = force × distance, we have that the
work done is simply 50 × 25 = 1250 N.
58
the weight is allowed to fall, the work is done by gravity. So how do we find out just how much work a moving
Strictly speaking we have a sign convention for work. The object is capable of doing?
convention is that
In the diagram below, a force F moves an object of mass m
Work done on a system is negative. a distance d along a horizontal surface. There is no friction
between the object and the surface.
Work done by a system is positive.
CORE
F
In the example above, the box can be identified as the system. m
F
F = ma, from which we obtain a = __
m.
A man drags a sack of flour of mass 50 kg at constant
speed up an inclined plane to a height of 5.0 m. The plane We can use the equation v2 = u2 + 2as to find an expression
makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal and a constant for the speed of the object after it has moved a distance
frictional force of 200 N acts on the sack down the plane. d (= s).
F Fd
Calculate the work that the man does against: ( )
That is, v2 = 02 + 2 __ ___
m d ⇒ v =2 m
2
2.3.5 Outline what is meant by change in 1mv2 is called the kinetic energy (KE) of the
The quantity __
2
gravitational potential energy. body.
2.3.6 State the principle of conservation of This is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of its
energy. motion. The kinetic energy of a body essentially tells us
how much work the body is capable of doing.
2.3.7 List different forms of energy and describe
examples of the transformation of energy 1 mv2
We denote the kinetic energy by EK, so that EK = __
2
from one form to another.
A very useful relationship exists between kinetic energy
2.3.8 Distinguish between elastic and inelastic and momentum.
collisions.
© IBO 2007
We have that p = mv such that p2 = m2v2
59
In general if an object of mass m is lifted to a height h above An object of mass 4.0 kg slides from rest without friction
the surface of the earth then the work done is mgh and the down an inclined plane. The plane makes an angle of 30°
object has a potential energy also equal to mgh (force = mg, with the horizontal and the object starts from a vertical
displacement = h). However, we have to be careful when height of 0.50 m. Determine the speed of the object when
using this equation since if h is too large then we can no it reaches the bottom of the plane.
longer regard g as being constant. Also, we must note that
there is no zero of potential energy in this situation. (In
chapter 9 we will see how we define the zero of potential Solution
energy). If the object rests upon the ground and we dig a
hole, then the object has potential to do work when it falls
down the hole. The object in fact has gravitational potential The set-up is shown in this diagram:
energy by virtue of its position in the Earth’s gravitational
field. No matter where an object is placed in the Universe
it will be attracted by the gravitational force of the Earth. Reaction force
v=0
We say that the Earth has an associated gravitational field.
A h = 0.50
(Indeed all objects will have an associated gravitational
field as we will discuss in the chapters 6 and 9). At this 0.50 m
stage you should appreciate that when an object is moved mg
v= V
a distance Δh in the Earth’s gravitational field and in the B 30°
direction of the field, its change in potential energy ΔEP h= 0
is:
We set ‘zero–level’ at point B, the base of the incline, so
ΔEP = mgΔh that h = 0 and so that at point A, h = 0.50. At A, the object
has no kinetic energy (v = 0) and at point B, the object has
(provided that g is constant over the distance moved.) gained kinetic energy (v = V).
ΔEP = mgΔh Using Newton’s 2nd law (F = ma) gives the acceleration
and
20 = 5.0 m s–2
a = ___
1 ks2 4.0
Eelas = __
2
(Note that we could have determined the acceleration by
writing down the component of g down the plane)
2.3.6 THE PRINCIPLE OF ENERGY
CONSERVATION Using V2 = u2 + 2as with u = 0, and s (the distance down
the plane)
(In Topic 7.3 we shall see that this should actually be the
principle of mass-energy conservation) s = ____ 0.50 = 1.0
0.50 = ______
sin θ sin 30˚
___
We have, V2 = 02 + 2 × 5 × 1 ⇒ V = √ 10 = 3.2 m s-1
60
Method 2: Energy Principle It was the great triumph of some late eighteenth and early
nineteenth physicists and engineers to recognise that this
As the object slides down the plane its potential energy ‘lost energy’ is transformed into thermal energy. If you rub
becomes transformed into kinetic energy. If we assume your finger along the top of a table you will definitely feel
that no energy is ‘lost’ we can write it getting warm. This is where the “lost” energy has gone.
It has in fact been used to make the molecules of the table
change in PE = mgh = gain in KE = _12 mv2 and the molecules of your finger vibrate more vigorously.
CORE
So that _12 mv2 = mgh ⇒ V2 = 2gh Another thing to notice is that this energy is “lost” in the
____ sense that we can’t get it back to do useful work. If there
⇒ V = √2gh were no friction between the object and the surface of the
plane then, when it reached the bottom of the plane, work
Using the values of g and h, we have that V = 3.2 m s-1. could be done to take it up to the top of the plane and this
cycle could go on indefinitely. (We could actually set up
That is, the object reaches a speed of 3.2 m s-1. the arrangement such that the objects KE at the bottom of
the plane could be used to get it back to the same height
Note that the mass of the object does not come into the again). It is what we call a reversible process. The presence
question, nor does the distance travelled down the plane. of friction stops this. If the object is dragged back up the
When using the energy principle we are only concerned with plane you won’t get the energy back that has been “lost”
the initial and final conditions and not with what happens due to friction, you will just “lose” more energy. This is an
in between. If you go on to study physics in more depth you irreversible process. We can now start to glimpse why, even
will find that this fact is of enormous importance. though it is impossible to destroy energy, it is possible to
“run out” of “useful energy”. Energy becomes as we say,
The second solution involves making the assumption degraded.
that potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy
and that no energy is lost. This is the so–called ‘energy The general principle of energy conservation finds its
principle’, this means the energy is conserved. formulation in the ‘First Law of Thermodynamics’ and
the consequences of this law and the idea of energy
Clearly in this example it is much quicker to use the energy degradation and its implication on World energy sources
principle. This is often the case with many problems and in is discussed in much more detail in Chapter 8.
fact with some problems the solution can only be achieved
using energy considerations.
2.3.7 TYPES OF ENERGY AND ENERGY
What happens if friction acts in the above example? TRANSFORMATIONS
Suppose a constant force of 16 N acts on the object as
it slides down the plane. Now, even using the energy
principle, we need the distance down the plane so we can (This links with Topic 8)
calculate the work done against friction
There are many different forms of energy and their
This is 16 × 1.0 = 16 J. The work done by gravity i.e. the transformations of which some examples are given here.
change in PE = 20 J
Thermal energy
The total work done on the object is therefore
This is essentially the kinetic energy of atoms and
20 – 16 = 4.0 J. molecules. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to as
‘heat’. The term heat actually refers to a transfer of energy
Hence the speed is now given by _12 mv2 = 4.0. between systems.
So in this problem, not all the work done has gone into
accelerating the object. We say that the frictional force has
dissipated energy. If we are to retain to the idea of energy
conservation then we must “account” for this “lost” energy.
61
m m m m
Nuclear energy
This is the energy that is associated with the nuclear Before After
structure of atoms and is therefore associated with the
strong nuclear force. Figure 251 Rolling balls
An example of this is the splitting of nuclei of uranium by Suppose that the speed of the moving ball is u and that
neutrons to produce energy. the respective speeds of the balls after collision are v and
V. If we now apply the laws of momentum and energy
Electrical energy conservation we have conservation of momentum:
Collisions in which mechanical energy is not lost Suppose that we have two machines A and B that are used
are called elastic collisions whereas collision in which in lifting objects. Machine A lifts an object of weight 100
mechanical energy is lost are called inelastic collisions. N to a height of 5.0 m in a time of 10 s. When machine B
In the real (macroscopic) world mechanical energy is is used to perform the same task it takes 0.1 s. Our instinct
always lost during a collision. However, some collisions
62
CORE
The unit that is used to measure power is the joule per 60
second which is called the watt, (W) after the 19th Century
Scottish engineer James Watt.
Our answer is at best an approximation since the situation
In the example above, of our two machines, A will have a is in fact much more complicated than at first glance.
power output of 50 W and machine B a power output of The train reaches a maximum speed because as its
5000 W. speed increases the frictional force due to air resistance
also increases. Hence, at its maximum speed all the
In the following example some sort of engine is used to energy produced by the motors is used to overcome air
pull an object at a constant speed along the horizontal. resistance, energy lost by friction between wheels and
track and friction between moving parts of the motors
and connected parts.
v
Engine
Again, we shall see that the concept of power and its
F application is discussed in much more detail in Chapter 8
object
and elsewhere in the syllabus.
Friction
P = Δ W- = F ⋅ Δ
-------
s-
----- To understand the idea of efficiency, we will look at the
Δt Δt
following example.
Δs
But, v = ------ hence, we have that
Δt
P = Fv Example
63
Examples
CORE
R Engine
P
1000 × sin30° = 500 N 1. Calculate the momentum of a particle of mass
8.0 m h = 8.0 × sin30° = 4.0 m 0.06 kg that has a kinetic energy of 3.2 J.
300 N 1000 N
2. Estimate the minimum take-off power of a
grasshopper (cicada).
The component of the object’s weight down the plane is 3. An elastic band of length 2d is attached to a
1000 × sin30° = 500 N. horizontal board as shown in the diagram below.
The total force against which the machine does work is original position of elastic band
therefore 500 + 300 = 800 N.
l
Using P = Fv, we have 1200 = 800 × v θ
2d
direction of
M
θ travel of tub
64
__
k ____1
Solutions
So that the speed is given by √ (
v = 2 __
m d sinθ – 1 )
The above example can form the basis for a useful experiment
in which you can investigate the factors that effect the
distance that the margarine tub will travel.
p2
1. Use EK = ___ we have that
2m
4 It helps to start by drawing a diagram:
CORE
_____ ____________
p = √ 2mEK = √ 2 × 0.06 × 3.2
Before collision After collision
= 0.62 N s V
A B A B
2. Estimates
u1 = 5.0 u2 = 0
mass of grasshopper = 2.0 × 10-3 kg
As the trucks couple after the collision, the conservation of
height to which it jumps 0.50 m momentum law states that:
2d – 2d = 2d ____
1 –1
e = 2l – 2d = ____
sinθ sinθ ( ) By lost energy we mean that the energy has been dissipated
to the surroundings. Some of it will be converted into sound
The stored elastic energy is therefore and most will heat up the coupling between the trucks.
2
( ( 1 –1
Eelas = _12 ke2 = _12 k 2d ____
sinθ ))
1 –1 2
= 2kd2 ____(sinθ )
If we assume that all the energy is transferred to the tub
when the tub is released we have that the kinetic energy of
the tub, Ek , is such that Ek = Eelas so that
2 2
1 –1 4k d2 ____
1 –1
_1 mv2 = 2kd2 ____
2 ( sinθ ) v2 = ___
m (
sinθ )
65
in the same direction as prior to the collision. (This topic links with Topics 6.3 and 9.4)
Determine
2.4.1 Draw a vector diagram to illustrate that
(i) the speed of truck B after collision the acceleration of a particle moving
(ii) the kinetic energy lost on collision with constant speed in a circle is directed
toward the centre of the circle
2. A man drags a sack of flour of mass 100 kg at
constant speed up an inclined plane to a height of 2.4.2 Apply the expression for centripetal
6.0 m. The plane makes an angle of 30° with the acceleration.
horizontal and a constant frictional force of 250 N
acts on the sack down the plane. 2.4.3 Identify the force producing circular
motion in various situations.
Determine the efficiency of the inclined plane? Examples include gravitational force
acting on the Moon and friction acting
3. A car of mass 1000 kg is parked on a level road sideways on the tyres of a car turning a
with its handbrake on. Another car of mass corner.
1500 kg travelling at 10 m s–1 collides into the back
of the stationary car. The two cars move together 2.4.4 Solve problems involving circular motion.
© IBO 2007
after collision in the same straight line. They travel
25m before finally coming to rest.
Problems on banked motion (aircraft and vehicles going
Determine the average frictional force exerted on round banked tracks) will not be included.
the cars as they come to rest.
66
Let us think of the example where you whirl an object tied Centripetal (angular) acceleration
to a string about your head with constant speed. Clearly
the force that produces the circular motion in this case in In this section we shall derive an expression of the
a horizontal plane is the tension in the string. If the string centripetal acceleration of a particle moving with uniform
were to snap then the object would fly off at a tangent to speed v in a circle of radius. You will not be expected to
the circle. This is the direction of the velocity vector of derive this relation in an IB examination; it is given here
the object. The tension in the string acts at right angles for completeness.
CORE
to this vector and this is the prerequisite for an object to
move in a circle with constant speed. If a force acts at right v P v
P X
angles to the direction of motion of an object then there Q h
Q
is no component of force in the direction of motion and d
r
therefore no acceleration in the direction of motion. If the r
force is constant then the direction of the path that the
object follows will change by equal amounts in equal time
intervals hence the overall path of motion must be a circle.
Figure 256 shows the relation between the direction of the
velocity vector and the force acting on a particle P moving
with constant speed in a circular path. Figure 257 Centripetal Acceleration
The force causing the circular motion is called the centripetal Now suppose that we consider a very small time interval
force and this force causes the particle to accelerate then h2 will be very small compared to 2rh. Hence we can
towards the centre of the circle and this acceleration is write
called the centripetal acceleration. However, be careful to
realise that the centripetal acceleration is always at right 2rh = d 2
angles to the velocity of the particle. If the speed of the
particle is reduced then it will spiral towards the centre However d is the horizontal distance travelled in time Δt
of the circle, accelerating rapidly as it does so. This is in such that d = vΔt. Hence
effect what happens as an orbiting satellite encounters the
d2 ( v Δt ) 2
Earth’s atmosphere. h = ----- = ---------------
2r 2r
People sometimes talk of a centrifugal force in connection However h is the distance “fallen” in time Δt
with circular motion. They say something along the
1 2 1 2
lines that when a car goes round a bend in the road you So using s = --- at h = ---a ( Δt )
2 2
feel a force throwing you outwards and this force is the
centrifugal force. But there is no such force. All that is From which we have
happening is that you are moving in accordance with
( v Δt ) 2 1--- v 2 ( Δt ) 2 1---
Newton’s laws. Before the car entered the bend you were --------------- a ( Δt ) 2 ⇒ ------------------ a ( Δt ) 2
2r 2 2r 2
moving in a straight line and you still want to keep moving
in a straight line. Fortunately the force exerted on you by a So that,
side of the car as you push up against it stops you moving
v2
in a straight line. Take the side away and you will continue a = -----
r
moving in a straight line as the car turns the bend.
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direction of the acceleration. (24 hours = 8.64 × 104 s) and the ground.
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Lowest point:
Example
CORE
T complete the loop.
mg Solution
However, the bike must always make contact with the track,
mg that is, we must have that R ≥ 0.
T
Now, re-arranging the expression we have that
mv2
R = ---------
- – mg , however, as R ≥ 0, we have that
r
mv 2 mv2-
- – mg ≥ 0 ⇒ ---------
--------- ≥ mg . So, the minimum speed will
Figure 259 Highest Point r r
be given by g = ---- v 2- since at any lower speed mg will be
Again, we have that the resultant force on mass, m / kg, r
mv2
throughout its motion in a circle (as long as the speed is greater than ---------
- and the motor bike will leave the track.
r
mv2
constant) is always --------- So in this case the speed will be 14 m s-1.
-.
r
Taking the positive direction to be towards the centre of the It is also worthwhile noting that in circular motion with
circle, at its highest point, the resultant force is provided by constant speed, there is no change in kinetic energy. This is
the expression T + mg, so that because the speed, v, is constant and so the expression for
the kinetic energy, -21 mv2, is also always constant (anywhere
mv2- = T + mg , i.e., T = ---------
--------- mv2- – mg along its motion). Another way to look at this is that since
r r the force acts at right angles to the particle then no work is
done on the particle by the force.
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4. A car rounds a curve of radius 70 m at a speed of 9. A mass, m kg, is released from point A, down a
12 m s-1 on a level road. Calculate its centripetal smooth inclined plane and once it reaches point B,
acceleration? it completes the circular motion, via the smooth
circular track B to C to D and then back through
5. A 500 g sphere is hung from an inextensible string B, which is connected to the end of the incline and
1.25 m long and swung around to form a ‘conical has a radius a / m.
pendulum’. The sphere moves in a circular
horizontal path of radius 0.75 m. Determine the A
tension in the string.
D
4a
a
C
1.25 m B
70
CORE
parachutist from the time that she leaves the acting on the ball whilst it is in flight.
aeroplane to the time that she lands on the
ground. (Remember that she does not open a 2. An object of weight 50 N is suspended vertically
parachute until some time after jumping from the by two strings as shown
aeroplane).
25
20
The strings are of the same length and the angle between
–1
speed / m s
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Which forces form a pair of forces as described by it falls through a height of 2.5 m before striking
Newton’s Third Law? the top of the pile. It stays in contact with the pile
and drives it a distance of 0.40 m into the ground.
6. When a golfer strikes a golf-ball it is in contact Calculate the average force exerted by the ground
with the club head for about 1 ms and the ball on the pile by using
leaves the club head with a speed of about
70 m s-1. If the mass of the ball is 50 g estimate the i. energy considerations
CORE
maximum accelerating force exerted on the golf ii. the equations of uniform motion and
ball, stating any assumptions that you make. Newton’s Second Law. (assume that the
mass of the pile driver is much greater than
7 A ball of mass 0.1 kg is dropped from a height of the mass of the pile.)
2.0 m onto a hard surface. It rebounds to a height
of 1.5 m and it is in contact with the surface for 2. A man slides a box of mass 50 kg at constant speed
0.05 s. Calculate the up an inclined slope to a height of 2.0 m. The slope
makes an angle of 30° with the horizontal and
i. speed with which it strikes the surface. it takes him 4 s to reach the height of 2.0 m and
ii. speed with which it leaves the surface. a constant frictional force of 250 N acts on the
iii. change in momentum of the ball. block.
iv. impulse given to the ball on contact with
the surface. Calculate
v. average force that the surface exerts on the
ball. i. the work the man does against friction
ii. the work the man does against gravity
8 A bullet of mass 0.02 kg is fired into a block of iii. the efficiency of the “man-slope machine”
wood of mass 1.5 kg resting on a horizontal table. iv. the power the man develops to push the
The block moves off with an initial speed of block up the slope
8.0 m s-1. Estimate the speed with which the bullet
strikes the block. 3. This question is about calculating the power output
of a car engine. Here is some data about a car that
9 The bullet in question 8 is fired from a rifle of mass travels along a level road at a speed of 25 m s-1.
2.5 kg. Assuming that the bullet leaves the barrel
of the rifle with the speed calculated above, find Fuel consumption = 0.20 litre km-1
the recoil speed of the rifle if it is free to move. In
reality the rifle is held and for a certain person the Calorific value of the fuel = 5.0 × 106 J litre-1
rifle recoils a distance of 0.12 m. Determine the
average force that the person exerts on the rifle? Engine efficiency 50%
1. The diagram shows a pile driver that is used to i. the rate at which the engine consumes fuel
ii. the rate at which the fuel supplies energy
iii. the power output of the engine
pile driver
iv. the power used to overcome the frictional
forces acting on the car
v. the average frictional force acting on the
car.
pile
Explain why:
ground
(i) the power supplied by the engine is not all
used to overcome friction
(ii) the fuel consumption increases as the speed
drive a metal bar (the pile) into the ground.A of the car increases
particular pile driver has a mass of 500 kg and
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