Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is a Back-calculation program?

In pavement back-calculation, pavement layer properties like moduli are

calculated using the deflection values of the FWD test. The general pavement back-
calculation composed of two parts. The first is an advanced response model for
pavements that calculate surface deflection using simple or complex equations.
In the backward response, we try to compare the measured deflection with the
calculated deflection of the pavement obtained using the assumed layer moduli. The
proposed layer modulus is adjusted until the pavement deflection matches to the
calculated deflection. This layer modulus is considered to be close to the in-situ
modulus of various pavement layers. Back calculation is a repetitive process and is
performed using various computer software.

Figu
re 1- A typical Back-calculation flow chart

1.2 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)

Falling weight deflectometer is a method used for evaluating the physical

properties of pavement. A FWD device contains of two components, loading which
includes the falling weight, loading plate, controlling apparatus and measurement
mechanisms includes data acquisition systems like geophones.
In FWD, a weight is dropped from a fixed height and the corresponding
deflections are measured using the geophones located at fixed distances.

1
 Figure 2: FWD Setup and Deflection Basin

1.3 Multi-layered Elastic Theory

In the theory of Multi-layered Elastic, the flexible pavement consists of a multi-

layered structure having solid materials on top and layers of relatively weak material are
placed under them.

Figure 3: Multi-layered Pavement Structure on subjected to Loading

The following assumptions are considered in calculating the stress, strain and
displacement responses in a multi-layered system:

- Pavement structure is made up of different layers which are homogenous, isotropic

and linearly elastic.
- Layers are defined with two mechanical properties, elastic modulus, and Poisson’s
ratio.
- Every layer is infinite in lateral directions and all the layers except the bottom most
have a finite thickness.
- Full friction exists between the layers.
- Circular load with uniform pressure is imposed to the pavement surface.
- There is no shearing force on the surface.

2
 Chapter 2
CROSS PAVE PROGRAM

2.1 CrossPave Program

CrossPave is a MLET based program developed by Mr. Brundaban Beriha and

Dr. Umesh Chandra Sahoo, used for forward analysis of FWD. It is able to analyze
stress-dependent and cross-anisotropic behavior of unbound pavement layers including
the subgrade. The CrossPave can be used for both linear and non-linear pavement
analysis.

CrossPave incorporates five different non-linear stress-dependent resilient

modulus models developed for unbound materials; they are “K-θ Model, Uzan Model,
Modified Uzan Model, MEPDG Model and Bi-Linear Model”. Normal stress, strains,
displacement at a specific point in a pavement can be evaluated using Crosspave, based
on the Loadings and material properties of the pavement.

Table 1- Nonlinear Stress-Dependent Models Incorporated into CrossPave

Systems based on Multi-Layered Elastic Theory (MLET) are often used to

analyze pavement as they are simple, and do not make extensive use of resources.

3
 However, the main limitation associated with MLET-based systems is that all
pavement layers are considered isotropic, and are represented by a single elastic
modulus value.

2.2 Inputs of CrossPave :No. of Layers

Layer Properties (material type, Modulus, Poisson’s ratio,
Density)
Thickness of layer
Load details (total load, tyre pressure, spacing)
Evaluation points location

Figure 4: ‘Structure’ tab of CrossPave program

Figure 5: ‘Loads’ tab of CrossPave program

4
Figure 6: ‘Evaluation’ tab of CrossPave program

Figure 7: ‘Result’ tab of CrossPave program

5
Figure 8: Pavement responses example

6
 Chapter 3
LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 “Artificial neural networks—genetic algorithm based model for back-

calculation of pavement layer moduli” - by N. R, A. Jain, M. A. Reddy and K. S.
Reddy

In the above-mentioned research paper, models of the artificial neural network

(ANN) were developed to calculate spatial deviation. ANN models used in BACKGA
to pre-calculate the deviation in order to integrate the computer efficiency of the ANNs
and GAs.

In BACKGA, a GA-based system, the deviation of the paved surface is measured at

various radiation distances using FWD. The expandable moduli for the different coating
layers is then calculated backwards using BACKGA. A layer moduli set is selected, so
that the rated deviation is closely related to the chosen moduli of the layer. Genetic
algorithm method, used in BACKGA for selecting the pavement layer modulus.

Figure 9: GA-based back-calculation framework

The major drawback in GA-based calculation methods is the longer calculation

time requirement in comparison of non-GA based methods, as they require 100 times
more calculation. In the analysis of 10–20 areas with each of the 3-4 repetition measures
of deviation, GA-based methods may take several hours to test.
This makes the GA models less attractive.

The main objective of this research paper is to develop an effective forward-

forward calculation model for use in BACKGA, and ultimately reduce the total back-
count calculation time.
In this case, ANN-based model was developed for calculating the deviation
using extractive structures, road density and load details as input. ANN models replaced
the ELAYER used to calculate the deviation in BACKGA.

7
3.1.1 Development of ANN models for calculating deflections

Figure 10: ANN for a 3-layer pavement system

With a standard 3-level paved road, the proposed inputs are a layer moduli (E1,
E2, ...), a Poisson scale (m1, m2, ...), a layer thickness (h1, h2, ...) and a range -radial (r)
where deviation is calculated. Thus, in a standard 3-layer system, there are nine inputs
(E1, E2, E3, m1, m2, m3, h1, h2, r). In four and five rows, the input numbers are 12-15.
The network was trained using the training data generated by the system, ELAYER, in
the standard range of layer strength, elastic modulus, Poisson ratio values. Face
deviations are calculated in radial range within a range of 0 to 2000 mm.

Table 2: Moduli and thicknesses range for generating data base

8
 The final ANN model was tested with 500 input data points selected randomly
in the 4000 data sets generated. Following are the GA parameters that were selected for
BACK-ANN:
Max. no. of generations = 60
Crossover-probability = 0.9
Chance of conversion = 0.02

Model performance with test data can be seen in the following graphs

Figure 11: ANN model performance for 3-layer system

Figure 12: ANN model performance for 4-layer system

Figure 13: Moduli Comparison of 3-layer system

9
 Figure 14: Moduli Comparison of 4-layer system

Table 3: Back-calculation results of 3-layer pavement system

Table 4: Back-calculation results for four layer pavement system

It can be noted that the network performs satisfactorily in predicting

the deviation of the range of the different types of thought systems under consideration.
Only, for a few cases error was more than 10%.

3.1.2 Conclusion

GA-based back-counting models like BACKGA are very robust in-

compared to other back-counting systems. The major drawback of GA-based model is
its long computational time required to calculate spatial deviations. BACKGA-ANN

10
was developed by integrating ANN model and BACKGA system that is satisfactorily
developed when tested with phased consideration for a multi-layered configuration. The
calculation time required is reduced by about 96% to 97% as compared to that required
by BACKGA.

3.2 “Selection of Genetic Algorithm Parameters for Back-calculation of Pavement

Moduli” - by M. A Reddy, K. S Reddy & B.B. P

This paper presents the research conducted to select the best GA parameters that
will be accepted for calculation behind the polished layer moduli. The parameters are
chosen based on the desired accuracy and calculation time.

GA-based model performance depends on many factors like crossover user type,
crossover rate, conversion rate, demographic size and coding used. Incorrect selection
of the parameter set could lead towards the poor performance of the model. The GA
function is assessed by systematically changing the parameters.
Most commonly considered parameters are – size of population, no. of generations,
transformation and crossover probability. 0.6 crossover probes have been identified as
valid. The range of parameters identified to produce the best results is — population 50
to 100, 0.61 intervals and 0.001 conversions.

For maximum efficiency of each GA-based algorithm, necessary parameter has

to be considered. The parameters have to be chosen in order to produce accurate more
results; the computational effort associated with the numerous combinations of GA
parameters, also needs to be considered before they are finally selected.

Following method is used for the selecting the GA parameters in the back-
calculation of the moduli for a standard three-step footing system. The hypothetical
walking phase shown in the image below is considered to select the parameter set.

Figure 15: Typical three-layer pavement system considered

Various combinations of GA parameters were used. About 1200 parameter sets

were chosen from the ranges given below.

11
 Figure 16: GA parameters considered

For every combination of GA parameters, corresponding optimum solution was

obtained. Solution fitness was calculated. Fitness values are shown below.

Figure 17: Fitness values obtained with different GA parameter sets.

3.2.1 Result: following parameters have been found to give optimum result with
satisfactory performance:
Population size: 60
Number of generations: 60
Probability of mutation: 0.1
Probability of crossover: 0.74

12
 Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY

3.1 Methodology

Upon reading the various study materials and the different methods used for
making the back-calculation program, I’ve come across to a conclusion of using
neural networks for developing the back-calculation program.
Neural network is one of the most popular soft computing techniques inspired
by the behaviour of neurons in the nervous system of a live being. A number of
interconnected artificial neurons form a neural network which refers to
computational model of a certain problem. Each connection between the neurons
has different weights that inputs are multiplied by these weights and signals to be
transmitted are determined through mathematical functions. Feed-forward neural
network is a simple NN used worldwide. The network is consisted of a number of
processing units namely perceptron in a layered architecture. A typical multi-layered
feed- 56 forward network includes input, hidden and output layers of each one has
different number of interconnected neurons.

4.2 Work plan for the next semester:

1. Generating data points using Cross-Pave software.

2. Sorting and filtering these data points.
3. Creating networks between the input properties and the output results of the data
points.
4. Training of the network
5. Verifying the neural network using fresh data points.
6. Validating the resulted deflection/moduli using different back-calculation
program (eg. BACKGA)

13
14
 REFERENCES

1. Full article: Artificial neural networks—genetic algorithm based model for

backcalculation of pavement layer moduli (tandfonline.com)

2. Full article: Selection of Genetic Algorithm Parameters for Backcalculation of

Pavement Moduli (tandfonline.com)

3. https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/design/structural-
design/backcalculation/

4. Chapter 3. General Backcalculation Guidelines - Using Falling Weight

Deflectometer Data With Mechanistic-Empirical Design and Analysis, Volume
III: Guidelines for Deflection Testing, Analysis, and Interpretation , December
2017 - FHWA-HRT-16-011

5. Pavement Analysis and Design by Yang H . Huang

6. BACKCALCULATION OF PAVEMENT LAYER PROPERTIES USING

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK BASED GRAVITATIONAL SEARCH
ALGORITHM by ARDA ÖCAL, MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY

7. Accuracy and consistency of backcalculated pavement layer moduli.

Transportation Research Record 1293, pp. 72–85, 1991 by Chou, Y.J. and
Lytton, R.L

15