MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Mechanics:
Mechanics is the branch of physics that deals with the conditions of rest or motion of the material objects around
us.

Sub-branches of mechanics:
(i) Statics: It is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of objects at rest or in equilibrium, even
when they are under the action of forces. The measurement of time is not essential in statics.
(ii) Kinematics: The branch of physics that deals with the study of motion of objects without considering the
causes of motion. Hence measurement of time is essential.
(iii) Dynamics: it is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion of the objects considering the
cause of motion. Dynamics is concerned with the forces which cause motion.
Rest: An object is said to be at rest if it does not change its position with respect to its surroundings with the
passage of time.
Ex: A book lying on a table
Motion: An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to its surroundings with the
passage of time.
Ex: A train moving on rails.
• Rest and motion are relative terms.
POINT MASS OBJECT:
A particle is an isolated point mass having no size and incapable of rotation. A real object can be treated as a
particle or point mass provided the distance travelled by it is much greater than its size.

FRAME OF REFERENCE
A frame of reference is a set of coordinate axis attached to an observer from where he makes all him
observations. To measure time, a clock is used.

MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION:

A particle moving along a straight line is said to have one dimensional motion. The position of the particle can be
described by knowing its distance from the starting point of the motion or the reference point. Therefore, only one
position co-ordinate (say x ) is sufficient to describe the position of the particle.
Ex: Motion of a train on a straight track, motion of a ball dropped from a height etc.,

MOTION IN TWO DIMENSION:

A particle moving in a plane is said to have two dimensional motion. The position of the particle can be described
by knowing its distance from the two mutually perpendicular co-ordinate axes (say X and Y ). Therefore, two
position co-ordinate (say x and y ) are required to describe the position of the particle.
Ex: Motion of an ant on a wall, motion of a boat on a river, etc.

MOTION IN THREE DIMENSION:

A particle moving in space is said to have three dimensional motion. Three position coordinates ( x, y and z ) are
required to describe the position of the particle.
Ex: Motion of a bird in sky, a gas molecule in a vessel etc.

PATH LENGTH (DISTANCE)

The actual path traced by a particle irrespective of its direction of motion.
SI unit of distance is meter ( m) .
• Distance is a scalar quantity.
• Distance travelled by a particle is always positive.
• During motion, distance can neither be zero nor negative.
• Dimensional formula: [L]
DISPLACEMENT:
Displacement is the change in position of a particle in a particular direction in a given time interval.
It is the shortest distance from the final position to the initial position.
Let x1 and x2 be the positions of an object at time t1 and t2. Then, its displacement (x) in time t = (t2 - t1) is
given by difference between the final and initial position.
i.e., ∆x = x2 – x1
SI unit of displacement is meter ( m) .
Note:
• Displacement is a vector quantity.
• Displacement can be positive or negative or zero.
• Displacement is positive if x2 > x1, Displacement is negative if x2 < x1 and Displacement is zero if
x2=x1
• Displacement is always equal to or less than the distance travelled, Displacement  distance
• Displacement is path independent
Differences between distance and displacement
DISTANCE DISPLACEMENT
1 Distance is the length of the actual path travelled It is shortest distance between the initial and final
by a particle between initial and final positions. positions of a particle.

2 It is always positive It is positive or negative or zero

3 It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity.

4 Distance travelled is always greater than or equal Displacement is always less than or equal to the
to the magnitude of displacement. distance travelled.

SPEED:
The distance travelled by a body per unit time is known as speed of the body.
Distance travelled by a particle
i.e., Speed=
Time taken

• Speed is a scalar quantity as it has only magnitude (size) and no direction.

• Speed of a body is always positive. It can never be negative.
• SI unit of speed is m s −1 .
• Dimensional formula: [LT −1 ]

TYPES OF SPEED:
Uniform speed :
A particle is said to be moving with uniform speed, if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of time however
small these time intervals may be.
Variable speed: An object is said to be moving with variable speed if it covers unequal distances in equal
intervals of time or equal distances in unequal intervals of time, however small these intervals maybe.
Average speed: For an object moving with variable speed, the average speed is the total distance travelled by the
object divided by the total time taken to cover that distance and is denoted by Vav.
total disctance travelled ∆x
Average speed = Vav = total time taken
= ∆t

Average speed in different situations:

i) A body covering different distances with different speeds: Suppose a body covers distances x1 , x2, x3
…… with speeds v1, v2, v3…… respectively, then its average speed is given by
 total distance travelled x1 + x 2 + x 3 + .......
v av = =
total time taken t1 + t 2 + t 3 + .........

x1 + x 2 + x 3 + .......
v av =
 x1 x 2 x 3 
 + + + ......
 v1 v 2 v 3 
If x1 = x2 = x, ie., the body covers equal distance with different speeds.
2x 2 v1v 2
Vav = =
1 1  v1 + v 2
x + 
 v1 v 2 
ie., the average speed is the harmonic mean of the individual speeds

ii) A body moving with different speeds in different intervals of time: suppose a body travels with speeds
v1, v2, v3 …… in time intervals t1, t2 , t3….. respectively, then
Total distance travelled = v1t1+v2t2+v3t3+…….
Total time taken = t1+t2+t3+……
v1t1 + v 2 t 2 + v 3 t 3 + ......
Vav =
t1 + t 2 + t 3 + .......

If t1 = t2 = t3 …… = tn = t, then

( v1 + v 2 + v 3 + ......) t v1 + v 2 + .... + v n
Vav = =
n t n

ie., the average speed is the arithmetic mean of the individual speeds.

Instantaneous speed: The speed of an object at any instant of time or at a particular point of its path is called
instantaneous speed of the object.
Suppose an object covers distance x in a small time interval t around the instant t, then its average speed is
x
. The limiting value of this average speed when the time interval t approaches zero, gives the instantaneous
t
speed at the instant t. Thus, the instantaneous speed is given by

x dx
v = lim =
t →O t dt
dx
Where is the first derivative of distance x, with respect to time‘t’.
dt
Ex: The speedometer of an automobile indicate its instantaneous speed at any instant.

VELOCITY:
The rate of change of displacement with respect to time is called velocity.
It can also be defined as the speed of an object in a given direction. It is equal to the displacement covered per
unit time.
displacement
Velocity = time
• Velocity is a vector quantity
• It can be positive, zero or negative depending on the displacement is positive, zero or negative.
• The SI unit is ms-1
• The dimensional formula is [MoL'T-1].

TYPES OF VELOCITY:
Uniform velocity: A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it covers equal displacements in equal
intervals of time, however small these time intervals may be.
Variable velocity: A body is said to be moving with variable velocity if either its speed changes or direction of
motion changes or both change with time.
Average Velocity: For an object moving with variable velocity, average velocity is defined as the ratio of its total
displacement to the total time interval in which that displacement occurs.
total displacement
Average velocity=
total time
If x1 and x2 are the positions of air object at times t1 and t2, then the average velocity from t1 and t2 is given by

x 2 − x1 x
Vav = v = =
t 2 − t1 t
Instantaneous velocity: The velocity of an object at a particular instant of time is called instantaneous velocity. It
is equal to the limiting value of the average velocity of the object, when the time interval approaches to zero.
→ →
x dx
Average velocity = Vav = lim =
t →0 t dt
Thus the instantaneous velocity of an object is equal to the first order derivative of its displacement with respect
to time.

Differences between speed and velocity:

Speed Velocity
1. It is defined as the rate of change of It is defined as the rate of change of distance in a
distance travelled in any direction particular direction, ie., displacement.

2. It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

3. It is always positive It can be positive or zero or negative.

4. Speed is always greater or equal to velocity Velocity is always lesser then equal to the speed in that
in a time interval. direction in a time interval.

ACCELERATION:
The rate of change of velocity of an object with time is called acceleration.
It indicates how fast the velocity of an object changes with time.
change in velocity v − vo
Acceleration, a = time taken = t
• It is a vector quantity and has the same direction as that of change in velocity.
• The SI unit is ms-2
• The dimensional formula is [Mo L' T-2]
• If v > v0 then acceleration is positive, if v < v0, then acceleration is negative and when v=v0 acceleration
is zero.

TYPES OF ACCELERATION:
Uniform acceleration: The acceleration of an object is said to be uniform if its velocity changes by equal
amounts in equal intervals of time, however small these time intervals may be.
Variable acceleration: The acceleration of an object is said to be variable if its velocity changes by unequal
amounts in equal intervals of time.
Average acceleration: For an object moving with variable velocity, the average acceleration is defined as the
ratio of the total change in velocity of the object to the total time interval.
Suppose v1 and v2 are the velocities of an object at times t1 and t2 respectively, then its average acceleration is
given by,
⃗
∆v v2 − v1
aav =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∆t
= t2 − t1
Instantaneous acceleration: The acceleration of an object at a given instant of time is called instantaneous
acceleration. It is equal to the limiting value of the average acceleration as the time interval approaches to zero.

Thus,
NOTE: Positive acceleration: If the velocity if an object increases with time, its acceleration is positive.
Negative acceleration / retardation / deceleration:
If the velocity of an object decreases with time the acceleration is negative.
Displacement- time /position -time (x-t) graph.
The graph in which time is represented along x-axis and the corresponding position or distance is
represented along y-axis is called x-t graph.

1 When the object is at rest x(m)

X0

t(s)
0

2 When the object moves with constant x(m)

positive velocity.
Here, acceleration is zero

t(s)

3 Object having different starting position x(m)

but moving with constant positive velocity

x0

0 t(s)
4 When the object moves with constant x(m)
negative velocity

t(s)

5 Body moving with positive acceleration x(m)

t(s)
6 Body moving with negative acceleration x(m)

t(s)
APPLICATION:
Slope of position-time graph gives the velocity of the particle.
Consider two points A and B on the x-t graph. Let t1 be the time and x1 be the
displacement corresponding to A and t2 and x2 be the time and displacement
corresponding to B.
AB x −x
tanθ = BC = t2−t 1 = v
2 1
Hence, velocity of a body having uniform motion is equal to slope of x-t graph.
 VELOCITY – TIME GRAPH:
The graph obtained by taking velocity along y-axis and time along x-axis is known as velocity-time (v-t) graph

1 A body moving with Uniform motion

2 A body moving with Uniformly accelerated

motion

3 A body moving with Uniformly accelerated

motion with initial velocity vo

4 A body moving with Uniform retardation

(negative acceleration)

5 A body moving with increasing acceleration

6 For a body thrown vertically upwards moves

under gravity

NOTE: 1. The slope of the v-t graph gives acceleration:

Consider a body moving with uniform positive
acceleration. Let A and B be two points on v-t graph.
Let V1 and V2 be the velocity of the particle at instant t1
(A) and t2 (B) respectively. Change in velocity when
body moves from A to B is V2 – V1
The time taken for the change in velocity = t2 – t1
V −V 𝐵𝐶
Acceleration , a = 𝑡2 −𝑡 1 = 𝐴𝐶 = slope of the line
2 1
Thus, acceleration of a uniformly accelerated motion of
the particle is equal to slope of v- t graph.
 2. The area under the curve represents the displacement:

Consider a body moving with constant velocity v between the time

interval t = 0 and t. AB represents the v-t graph as shown.
Area under the curve AB} = area of rectangle OABC
= length x breadth
= OA x OC
=vxt
 x
= x  v = 
 t

KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION USING V-T GRAPH:

Consider a body which is moving with constant acceleration
‘a’ along a straight line. Let the body has certain initial
velocity vo at t = 0 and increases constantly to v at t.
The corresponding v-t graph is shown in figure. Let ‘x’ be the
displacement of the body during this time.

(i) To show that v= vo+at:

The slope of v-t graph represents acceleration.
 acceleration = slope of AB between A and B
v − v0
=
t
v-vo= at

v = v0 + at --------------------→ (1)
1 2
(ii) To show that x = v0t + at :
2
The area under v-t graph represents the displacement during that time interval .
Area under AB(between instants 0 and t} = area of trapezium OABD
1  sum of parallel  dis tan ce between 
  
2  sides
Displacement =
 parallel sides 
x = (OA + BD )(OD)
1
2
1 
x =  (v 0 + v ) t
2 
Substituting, v= v0 + at in the above equation,
x =
1
(v 0 + v o + at )
2
x =
1
2
( )
2 v o t + at 2

1
x = v 0 t + at 2
2

(iii) To show that v2 = v 02 + 2ax :

The slope of v-t graph represents acceleration.
v − v0 v − v0
From figure, a = =
t−0 t
v − v0
t=
a
The area enclosed by v-t graph with time axis gives the displacement.
Displacement = area enclosed by AB with x-axis
 x = area of trapezium OABD
1  sum of  dis tan ce between 
  
2  parallel sides  parallel sides
=

= (OA + BD )(OD)
1
2
= (v 0 + v )t
1
2
 v − v0 
= (v 0 + v )
1
Substituting for t in the above equation, x 
2  a 
v 2 − v 02
=
2a

2ax = v 2 − v 02

v2 = v 02 + 2ax --------------→(5)

NOTE: Distance travelled by a particle in n th second

Consider velocity-time graph of a uniformly accelerated particle as shown in figure. Select two points A and
B on the velocity-time graph corresponding to time ( n − 1) and n second respectively. Let vn −1 and vn be the
velocities of the particle at A and B respectively. Now, distance travelled by particle in n th second is given
by velocities of the particle at A and B respectively. Now, distance travelled by particle in n th second is
given by
snth = Area of trapezium ABCD
1 B
= (Sum of parallel sides)  perpendicular distance between parallel n
2
sides n −1
A
1 E
= ( AD + BD )  AE Velocity
2 u D C
1 1
= ( vn−1 + vn )   n − ( n − 1) = ( nn−1 + vn ) …(i) O t ( n − 1) t=n
2 2
We know, v = u + at Time
When t = ( n − 1)
 vn−1 = u + a ( n − 1) …(ii)
When t = n, ` vn = v + an …(iii)
Using eqns. (ii) and (iii) in eqn. (i), we get
1 1
snth = u + a ( n − 1) + v + an  =  2u + a ( 2n − 1)
2 2
a
Or snth = u + ( 2n − 1)
2
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY:

The motion of a body falling under the effect of gravity alone with a constant acceleration is known as free fall.
When two bodies of different masses, say a feather and an iron ball are dropped simultaneously in vacuum (i.e. no
air resistance), then they fall under the effect of gravity alone with the same constant acceleration.
The free-fall acceleration near the surface of the earth is equal to the acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms−2
Equations for accelerated motion apply to freely falling bodies. Therefore, equations of motion of a freely falling
body can be obtained by substituting ' g ' in place of ' a ' in equations for accelerated motion.
Since acceleration due to gravity acts in the downward direction, it is taken as negative.
The variations of acceleration, velocity and distance with time of a freely falling body are,

RELATIVE VELOCITY:
When two objects A and B are in motion, the relative velocity of A with respect to B is defined as the
time rate of change of position of A with respect to that of B and is denoted as VAB.
When A and B are travelling along a straight line

VAB = VA − VB
VBA = VB − VA
Expression for relative velocity:

Consider two objects A and B moving along the same direction with constant velocities VA and VB
(relative to earth) respectively.
Let the position coordinates of the two objects are xA(0) and xB(0) initially (t = 0). At time t = t, their
position coordinates will be
x A (t ) = x A (0) + VA t----------------------------------------→(1)
x B (t) = x B (0) + VB t ----------------------------------------→(2)
Subtracting (1) from (2),
x B (t ) − x A (t ) = x B (0) − x A (0) + VB − VA t ------------→(3)
x B (t) − x B (0)− x A (t ) − x A (0) = VB − VA t ------------ →(4)
relative displaceme nt of B w.r.t A = VB − VA t
VB − VA  = relative displaceme nt of ' B' w.r.t ' A' ------------ →(5)
time ' t '
From the above equation, it is clear that the term on left side indicates relative velocity of B w.r.t A (VBA).
 VBA = VB − VA
Similarly, VAB = VA − VB
 VBA = −VAB
POSITION- TIME GRAPH FOR RELATIVE VELOCITY:
We have, VBA = VB - VA
1. If two bodies A & B move with same velocity
Here, VA = VB and VBA = VB – VA = 0.
Then from equation (3), xB(t) – xA(t) = xB(0) – xA(0).
Thus the two objects remain a constant distance apart
throughout their motion. Their position-time graphs
are parallel straight lines as shown in fig.

2. When VB > VA or relative velocity VBA (VB – VA) is positive:

3. When VB < VA or relative velocity VBA(VB – VA) is negative

Initially, the object B is ahead of object A and the
relative displacement of B with respect to A ( x BA )
is positive. The relative separation first decreases
till the two objects meet at the position x1(t) = x2(t).
Then the separation becomes negative. The object
A overtakes the object B and the relative
separation between them again begins to increase
as shown in figure.

Note:
(i) When the objects A and B move in the same direction,
VAB = VA – VB
(ii) When the object B moves in the opposite direction of A
VAB = VA– (–VB) = VA + VB.