CRITICAL THINKING

COURSE CODE DRRR INNOVATIVE THINKING

EMPATHY
RESILIENCE
COURSE TITLE Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction
TEAMWORK
SEMESTER First SCHOOL YEAR 2021-22 COMMUNICATION

PERIOD WEEK 3: Earthquake Hazards; MODULE NO. 5-6

Earthquake Hazard Identification, Assessment,
and Mapping

INTRODUCTION

You’ve learned from the last lesson that impacts are associated to various hazards, affecting different
exposed elements such as persons and properties. Knowing that hazards can cause danger to you and
your family, it is important to know how the hazards work and how you can possibly prepare for them,
to prevent or at least minimize the impact.

This lesson will introduce you to the first geological hazard you will be examining: The earthquake
hazard. Scientists have for so long studied earthquake occurrences by looking at impacts from major
earthquakes. Some regions around the world are more prone to earthquakes than others. While we
can identify areas of the world where earthquakes are more likely to occur (using maps), it’s not
currently possible to predict exactly when or where an earthquake is going to happen. To understand
why, we need to know exactly what an earthquake is and its related hazards (ground rupture, ground
shaking, liquefaction, earthquake-induced landslides, and tsunami). Our understanding of the inner
workings of our planet is constantly improving, so let’s have a look at what we do know about
earthquakes, and the techniques used to mitigate the devastation they can cause to human,
properties, and environment.

Intended Learning Outcomes (Learning Competencies)

➢ Identify various potential earthquake hazards;
➢ Know the effects and mitigating measures of earthquake-related hazards;
➢ Interpret different earthquake hazard maps, and
➢ Apply precautionary and safety measures before, during, and after an earthquake.

TOPIC 1: Earthquake Hazards

Earthquake is defined by PHIVOLCS as a weak to

What causes an
earthquake?
An earthquake is the shaking of
the ground due to sudden
movement along faults or large
sections of the earth’s crust.
violent shaking of the ground produced by the
sudden movement of rocks or rock materials
below the earth’s surface.
It could either be TECTONIC (generated by the
sudden displacement along faults and plate
boundaries) or VOLCANIC (induced by rising
lava or magma beneath active volcanoes).
The level of ground shaking at a site is influenced by:
a. Earthquake magnitude
b. Distance from the source
c. Site effect

Regardless of the type, an earthquake is inevitably associated with hazards that could potentially
cause damage to vulnerable and exposed elements. These are termed earthquake hazards.

Earthquake hazards, just like any other hazards, could possibly cause health impacts,
physical and property destruction, social and economic disruption, and environmental damage. The
most common earthquake hazards are: (a) ground shaking, (b) ground rupture, (c) liquefaction, (d)
earthquake-induced landslides, and (e) tsunami.

TOPIC 2: Ground Shaking

Ground shaking is a disruptive up-down and sideways movement or motion experienced during an
earthquake.

How Earthquake Vibrations are Generated?

Elastic Rebound Theory suggests that elastic strain energy builds up in the deforming rocks on either
side of the fault until it overcomes the resistance posed by any irregularity on the fault plane. When the
slippage does occur, energy is released. The elastic energy released is transported by seismic waves that
travel throughout the earth. We feel these seismic waves as vibrations.

Photo Source:https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/7/2019/06/image-3-3-1.jpg
 How do Seismic Waves Shake the Ground?

There are three main types of seismic waves;

each of which shakes the ground differently.
P (Primary) and S (Secondary) waves are called
body waves as these travel in the rocks below the
surface of the earth. P and S waves radiate out
from the rupturing fault. Upon reaching the
Earth's surface, these convert to surface waves
that travel outward from the epicenter. Surface
waves travel slower than the other two seismic Photo Source: https://image.slidesharecdn.com/seismicwavesfinal2
wave types. -150226104326-conversion-gate02/95/seismic-waves-4-638.jpg?
cb=1424952325

How is Ground Shaking Measured?

The strength of ground shaking (or of seismic

Photo Source: https://advances.sciencemag.org/content
/2/2/e1501055
waves) is measured in terms of velocity,
acceleration, frequency content of the shaking, and
how long (duration) the shaking continues. How
intense the ground shaking that a site may
experience will depend on earthquake magnitude
(which to a large degree is related to fault length),
depth of focus, distance from the epicenter and
the duration of shaking.

Vibration Hazard Zoning

The intensity of shaking depends not only on the earthquake source characteristics but also on the
characteristics of the materials the ground is made of. The shear wave velocity of different rocks is a good
measure of ground shaking potential. The use of velocity in estimating ground shaking potential is based on
the principle that when dealing with a strong material, an earthquake wave would have low amplitude and
high frequency. When a weaker material is involved, an earthquake wave would have higher amplitude and
low frequency. Susceptibility to ground shaking can then be assessed in terms of properties of rocks as velocity
proxies. For loose sediments, these are grain size, sorting, consistency, relative density, age, and thickness.
For hard rocks, characteristics such as lithology, induration or rock hardness, and fracture spacing are used.

Effects of Ground Shaking

Strong ground shaking can cause objects to fall, break windows
among others.

Strong ground shaking can also result to minor damages to

buildings and worse, cause collapse of a structure. (e.g.,
collapse of Hyatt Hotel, Baguio City after the 16 July 1990 Luzon
Earthquake). Failure of a building due to inferior design, poor
construction, or weak foundation that cause people harm or
death.

Most part of the Philippines will experience shaking at different

Photo Source: https://www.rappler.com/
newsbreak/iq/things-to-know-about-luzon-
earthquake-1990
degrees depending on various factors, such as the magnitude
of the earthquake, distance of one’s location from the fault
that moved, orientation of fault rupture, bedrock type, and
topography.
 TOPIC 3: Ground Rupture

Ground rupture - displacement on the ground due to

movement of faults. This will be experienced by areas
where fault passes through (note not all cracks on the
ground that people see after a strong earthquake are
faults, some may just be surficial cracks because of ground
failure)

The lithosphere breaks when its strength is overcome by

the large amount of stress applied. Rock failure that
involves the slipping of lithosphere blocks past each other
is called faulting. When a fault’s frictional resistance could
not match the large amount of accumulated stress related
to plate motion, it gives way by slipping and in the process, Photo source: https://phys.org/news/2013-10-
earthquakes are generated. philippine-earthquake-miles-long-rocky-wall.html

Active faults are those which move under the current stress field and have caused earthquakes
during historical times and in the recent geologic past. Those which are healed and so are no longer
capable of moving to generate earthquakes are called inactive.

There are various factors which control the general nature and character of faulting. These factors
include the type of fault movement (reverse, normal, or strike-slip) and the inclination of the fault
plane.

Normal faults: the hanging wall moves down the dip of the fault relatively to the footwall
=> Tectonic regime in extension (the largest stress axis is vertical).

Reverse faults: the hanging wall moves up the dip of the fault relatively to the footwall
=> Tectonic regime in compression (the smallest stress axis is vertical).

Strike-slip faults: the blocks move horizontally past one another

=> Transcurrent Tectonic regime (the intermediate stress axis is vertical)

Photo Source: http://www.geosci.usyd.edu.au/users/prey/Teaching/Geos-2123/Faults/Sld9.html

The ground rupture length depends on the magnitude of the earthquake. Earthquakes of magnitude
6.5 or greater are generally strong enough to produce large-scale ground ruptures. The width of the
deformation along the length of the ground rupture also largely depends on the type of faulting,
Strike-slip faults have steeper fault planes than normal and thrust faults. The steepness of the fault
plane and the nature of movement for each fault type determine how wide the zone of deformation
is.
 Measures to minimize the effects of Ground Ruptures.
Sound engineering and construction practice may be adopted to prevent total destruction.
The best measure, however, is avoidance of active fault traces and deformation zones when
planning any construction. It is very important to find out which active faults are located near
your community. Local government units, other government agencies, business entities,
NGOS, and homeowners may access available detailed maps of local active faults from
PHIVOLCS (Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology).

Some critical parameters such as steepness of the fault plane and amount of fault
displacement during an earthquake are used in estimating setback and in determining hazard
Zones. Setback refers to the distance from the fault trace that is considered safe from the
effects of ground rupture.

TOPIC 4: Liquefaction

Liquefaction is a process that transforms the

behavior of a body of sediments from that of a solid
to that of a liquid when subjected to extremely
intense shaking.

When the ground shakes, some areas especially

those made of wet fine sand are subjected to
liquefaction. The shaking caused by the passing of
seismic waves, mainly shear or S-Waves rearrange
sand particles from a loose arrangement of grains
into more compact state. This results in increased
pore pressure between the grains. Once pressure
exceeds the weight of overlying material, water is
released and causes the sediments to become
more mobile and attain a jelly-like consistency.
From a solid state, the sediments are transformed
into a liquefied state due to increase in pore-water Photo source: https://www.geographyandyou.com/wp-
content/uploads/2018/05/Effects-of-earthquake.jpg
pressure.

Effects of liquefaction on Buildings and other structures.

Damage to the ground and man-made structures during

liquefaction results from the
settlement of structures into the soil, flow landslides,
laterally spreading landslides, and the ejection of water
and sediment at the surface in the form of sandblows or
sandboils, fountains, or even seepage of water that leads
to flooding.

Photo source: https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1307403/ As a result, any heavy load on top of the sediment body
lessons-from-1990-luzon-quake
will either sink or tilt as the sediment could no longer hold
the load, such as what happened in Dagupan City during
the 16 July 1990 earthquake.
Mitigating Liquefaction Hazard

Liquefaction hazard zone maps are prepared to

identify areas potentially subject to liquefaction.
These are very useful tools for planning by local
government units and national government
agencies. Property owners can use these maps to
identify what structures are most vulnerable.

When avoidance seems unrealistic especially where

real estate is precious, building liquefaction-
resistant structures, and improving the existing soil
are the other options one can take. Constructing a
liquefaction-resistant structure requires that a
building has ductility, the ability to accommodate
large deformations, and adjustable supports to
correct against differential settlements of the soil.

Several options can be considered to improve sites

TOPIC 5: Earthquake-induced Landslide

Earthquake-induced landslide is the failure in steep or hilly slopes triggered by an earthquake.

Loose thin soil covering on the slopes of steep mountains are prone to mass movement, especially
when shaken during an earthquake.

Types of Landslides
• Topples occur suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes break loose and rotate
forward.
• Rock falls involve chunks of detached rock that fall freely for some distance or bounce and roll
down the steep slope.
• Slides involve large blocks of bedrock that break free and slide down along a planar or curved
surface.
• Lateral spreads are triggered by earthquakes and affect gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees
inclination. Slope material loses cohesion through liquefaction caused by the shaking during
earthquakes.
• Flows involve downslope motion of fine-grained clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water
saturation. These flows include mudflows and earthflows and are common during the rainy
season.
• Complex slides are combinations of two or more types of movement.
 Photo source: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/courses-images/wp content/uploads/sites/115/2016/06/07162859/
Fig3grouping-2LG.jpg

The most abundant types of historical earthquake-induced landslides from steep slopes are rock
falls, rockslides, and soil slides involving shallow or thin slope failures. On gentler slopes, earth
spreads, earth slumps, earth block slides, and earth avalanches are the most abundant.

Landslide Hazard Zoning

Earthquake-induced landslides commonly take place on longer and steeper slopes, and at a higher
part of the slope closer to the ridge. Rain-induced landslides occur mostly at the lower part of the
slope and closer to the river. At higher topographic relief, seismic waves are amplified. It has also
been observed that landslides tend to cluster on slopes facing away from the source of the
earthquake and on vertically convex slopes (rather than on concave slopes).

. Effects of Earthquake Induced-Landslide

• A substantial part of the total loss of lives, injuries, and damage to structures due to
earthquakes may be attributed to burial and debris impact caused by earthquake-induced
landslides.

• Slides that dam streams can cause disastrous flooding. Sedimentation due to landslides also
changes river morphology.

• Other environmental effects caused by landslides include the alteration of agriculture and
changes to natural ecosystems.

• One of the major impacts to both the natural and built environment is the complete relocation
of some human populations and infrastructure to new areas, resulting in the abandonment of
towns and other areas that were damaged by the earthquake and landslides.
 Measures to Mitigate Effects of Landslides
• Recognizing and reporting any sign of slope instability to local authorities and neighbors in your
community is an important preparedness step.

• Biological measures such as planting of deeply rooting trees holds slope material together and
reduces the slope's water load. Though more costly, engineering remedial measures such as
landslide barriers and drainage structures are effective in preventing landslides.

• Establishing hazard maps or identifying areas that are considered vulnerable to landslides should
be part of a research effort. The development and enforcement of ordinances prohibiting
construction in landslide-prone sites is a must for LGUS.

• Information and education campaign can teach people living in communities prone to landslides
what to do and what not to do in before, during, and after a landslide.

TOPIC 6: Tsunami
When geological processes occur, like strong under-the-sea earthquakes, it often results to the
production a series of giant waves greater than 5 meters, called TSUNAMI. This could result to coastal
erosion, flooding, damage to properties, and drowning of people. It is important to NOTE that a tsunami
differ from a storm surge in terms of what is causing the waves. While a storm surge is caused by strong
winds blowing the water on the surface of the sea, a tsunami is generated by disturbances in the seabed
due to under-the-sea earthquakes and geological processes.

Photo source: http://www.abc.net.au/news/linkableblob/5979690/data/anatomy-of-a-tsunami-data.jpg

Monitoring and Warning of Tsunamis

One way of avoiding a tsunami's wrath is to anticipate its coming through a good warning system. This
system must include a monitoring system. The Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre (PTWC) based in
Hawaii detects and monitors the ocean surface using satellites, tad and buoys in the water that
measure current speed and waves. The PTWC relays information and warning about an oncoming
tsunami to PHIVOLCS who in turn relays the same to the public.

Effects of Tsunami

Large tsunamis have devastating effects to life, property, and the environment. Our main concern is
the large-scale loss of lives due to drowning, building collapse, impact of various kinds of debris, and
sometimes by electrocution. Tsunami may also destroy buildings, trees, power lines, bridges, cars,
boats and other objects in their path. Aside from the direct impact of the tsunami, its aftermath may
cause more casualties and diseases. Radiation leak from the meltdown of fuel rods in nuclear power
plants may leave long-lasting and irreversible impact to people and the environment, especially those
close to the power plants.

Measures to Prepare for and Mitigate the Effects of Tsunami

• LGUS and government agencies need to conduct information and education campaigns about the
dangers involved so they can adopt personal preparedness measures. Personal preparedness
measures can save lives during a tsunami.
• Where the tsunami hazard prone areas had been identified, building restrictions can be imposed
such that construction of new buildings are banned. Majority of the land can be turned into a park.
• Seawalls not only serve to intercept onrushing tsunami waves but also storm surges. Walls along
the shore can prevent waves from flowing right straight into populated areas.

TOPIC 7: Earthquake Hazard Maps

An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by the sudden movement of rock
materials below the earth’s surface (PHILVOCS).

The earthquakes originate in tectonic plate boundary. The focus is point inside the earth where the
earthquake started, sometimes called the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth
directly above the focus is called the epicenter.
There are two ways by which we can measure
the strength of an earthquake: magnitude and
intensity.

Magnitude of an earthquake refers to the

amount of energy released, measured by the
amount of ground displacement or shaking. It is
calculated from earthquakes recorded by an
instrument called seismograph. It is represented
by Arabic numbers (ex. 4.8, 9.0)

Intensity is the strength of an earthquake as

perceived and felt by people in a certain locality.
It is a numerical rating based on relative effects
to people, objects, environment and structures
in the surroundings. The intensity is generally
higher near the epicenter. It is represented by
Roman Numerals (ex. II, IV, IX) . Photo source: https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/

PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)

Photo source: https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/

Hazard Maps - are maps that show different hazards that may affect a certain area. For earthquakes,
a ground shaking hazard map shows the distribution of earthquake shaking levels that have a certain
probability of occurring. A ground rupture hazard map shows areas wherein faults cut across. There
are hazard maps for liquefaction, earthquake induced landslide and tsunami.

These maps were generated to provide the most accurate and detailed information possible to assist
engineers in designing buildings, bridges, highways, and utilities that will withstand shaking from
earthquakes in an area. These maps are used by local governments to help establish zoning,
construction requirements necessary to preserve public safety and for purposes of general planning
for disaster risk reduction and mitigation.

Before using the map, be sure that you understand the basic parts:

A. Map Title (tells you what the map is all about);

B. Legend (details of what each symbols mean)
C. Scale (refer to the bar scale as this helps determine distances, etc)

Map Title

Legend

Scale

Photo source: https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/gisweb-hazard-maps

EARTHQUAKE HAZARD MAP OF REGION X
 TOPIC 8: Precautionary Measures for Earthquakes

Can we Predict when an earthquake will occur?

Predicting earthquakes is a much more difficult task than predicting volcanic eruptions. While it is true
that some earthquakes have been successfully predicted in countries like China, it is also true that far
more numerous false alarms have been issued. Also, major earthquakes have occurred for which no
specific predictions have made. Countries like the Soviet Union, US, China, and Japan are continuously
improving and finding new methods for predicting earthquakes.

Since no one can predict with certainty when an earthquake will happen, it is important to get prepared
in advance. One of the most important ways to be prepared is to know what to do during and after an
earthquake.

1. What to do BEFORE an earthquake

I. The key to effective disaster prevention is planning.

A. Know the earthquake hazards in your area

B. Follow structural design and engineering practices when constructing a house or a
building
C. Evaluate structural soundness of the buildings and houses; strengthen or retrofit if
Necessary

II. Prepare your homes, workplace, or schools:

A. Strap or bolt heavy furniture, cabinets to the walls

B. Check the stability of hanging objects like ceiling fans and chandeliers
C. Breakable items, harmful chemicals and flammable materials should be stored properly
in the lowermost secured shelves

III. Familiarize yourself with the exit routes.

IV. Know where fire extinguishers, first aid kits, alarms and communication facilities are located.
Learn how to use them beforehand.

A. Prepare a handy emergency supply kit with first aid kit, canned food and can opener,
water, clothing, blanket, battery-operated radio, flashlights and extra batteries

V. Conduct and participate in regular earthquake drills

2. What to do DURING an earthquake.

I. When you are INSIDE a structurally sound building or home…STAY there! Do the “Duck, Cover
and Hold on”

A. If possible, quickly open the door for exit.

B. Duck under a sturdy desk or table, and hold on to it, or protect your head with your
arms
C. Stay away from glass windows, shelves, and other heavy objects
D. Beware of falling objects. Be alert and keep your eyes open.

II. If you’re OUTSIDE, move to an open area!

A. Stay away from trees, power lines, posts, and concrete structures
B. Move away from steep slopes which may be affected by landslides
C. If you’re near the shore and feel an earthquake especially if it’s too strong, MOVE
QUICKLY TO HIGHER GROUNDS. Tsunamis might follow.

III. If you’re in a moving vehicle, STOP and get out! Do not attempt to cross bridges, overpasses
or flyovers which may have been damaged.

3. What to do AFTER an earthquake.

I. Be prepared for aftershocks. Once the shaking stops, take the fastest and safest way out of
the building.
II. DON’T…
A. …use elevators
B. …enter damaged buildings
C. …use telephone unless necessary
D. …PANIC
III. CHECK…
A. …yourself and others for injuries
B. ..water and electrical lines for damages
C. …for spills of chemical, toxic and flammable materials
D. …and control fires which may spread
IV. If you need to evacuate your residence, leave a message stating where you are going and
bring your emergency supply kit V. Keep updated on disaster prevention instructions form
battery-operated radios.
 Activity 1: My Earthquake Hazards Brochure

Instructions:

• Based on your pre-assigned group, create your own Earthquake Hazards tri-fold brochure that
contains information about what the earthquake hazards are and their impacts. Include a segment
that informs about the warning signs of an impending tsunami. Be sure that your brochure contains
accurate information, creativity, and simple terms. Let the rubrics provided be your guide.

Content --------------- 30%

Accuracy -------------- 20%
Clarity ----------------- 20%
Creativity ------------- 30%
TOTAL ---------------- 100%

• Submit your output in a PDF file with filename: Group#_Module4-5_Section

(Deadline: November 26, 2021 at 11:59PM)

• The leader/representative of the group will upload your output in USTeP>Disaster Readiness and
Risk Reduction>under Week 3 Activities> Activity 1 (My Earthquake Hazards Brochure)

Brochure sample:

Source: venngage.com/blog/trifold-brochure-templates/
 PIT 1: CONDUCT AN EARTHQUAKE DRILL
This activity will let you distinguish between the good and
Family Emergency Plan is half the formula for disaster
bad safety.inThe
practices theother
eventis making sure your family
of a tsunami.
knows the drill. By planning and practicing what to do if an earthquake strikes, you and your loved
ones can learn to react correctly and automatically when the shaking begins.

In this activity, you need to conduct an earthquake drill in your home with your family.
Participating in an earthquake drill will help you and your loved ones understand what to do
BEFORE, DURING and AFTER an earthquake. To make the drill more realistic, consider
downloading realistic earthquake sound effects and play them during your drill. In case your
parents will not be able to participate, your siblings and other family members may join you.
Record this activity in VIDEO FORM and upload it in our USTeP>Disaster Readiness and Risk
Reduction>under Week 3 Activities> PIT1 (Conduct an Earthquake Drill) with a File Name:
Surname_PIT1_Section

Deadline: DECEMBER 3, 2021 @ 11:59 PM

REFERENCES

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. “Hazards Maps.”. Accessed October 4, 2020.
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/gisweb-hazard-maps

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. “Earthquake Preparedness.” Accessed October 4, 2020.
https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/earthquake/earthquake-preparedness

Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology. “Introduction to Earthquake.” 2011. Accessed October 4,
2020. https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/earthquake/introduction-to earthquake

Rimando, Rolly E, and Belen, Josefena, G. “Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction-First Edition”. Sampaloc,
Mamila. Rex Book Store, Inc. 2016.

Rimando, Rolly E, and Belen, Josefena, G. “Disaster Readiness and Risk Reduction-First Edition (Teacher’s
Resource Manual)”. Sampaloc, Manila. Rex Book Store, Inc. 2016.

Prepared by:

Florianne T Consolacion
Nicole Adelle G Tacandong

Department of Environmental Science and Technology