Chapter 25

Application of complex
numbers to parallel a.c.
networks
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• determine admittance, conductance and susceptance in a.c. circuits
• perform calculations on parallel a.c. circuits using complex numbers

The unit of admittance is the Siemen, S.

25.1 Introduction An impedance may be resolved into a real part R and
an imaginary part X , giving Z = R ± jX. Similarly, an
As with series circuits, parallel networks may be anal- admittance may be resolved into two parts — the real
ysed by using phasor diagrams. However, with parallel part being called the conductance G, and the imaginary
networks containing more than two branches this can part being called the susceptance B — and expressed
become very complicated. It is with parallel a.c. network in complex form. Thus admittance
analysis in particular that the full benefit of using com-
plex numbers may be appreciated. The theory for parallel Y = G ± jB
a.c. networks introduced in Chapter 16 is relevant; more
advanced networks will be analysed in this chapter using When an a.c. circuit contains:
j notation. Before analysing such networks admittance,
(a) pure resistance, then
conductance and susceptance are defined.
1 1
Z = R and Y = = =G
Z R
25.2 Admittance, conductance and
(b) pure inductance, then
susceptance
1 1 −j
Admittance is defined as the current I flowing in an Z = jX L and Y = = =
Z jX L ( jX L )(−j )
a.c. circuit divided by the supply voltage V (i.e. it is the
−j
reciprocal of impedance Z ). The symbol for admittance = = −jBL
is Y . Thus XL
I 1 thus a negative sign is associated with inductive
Y= =
V Z susceptance, B L
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00025-2
 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c. networks 357

(c) pure capacitance, then Thus conductance, G = 1/R and inductive suscep-
1 1 j tance, BL = −1/X L .
Z = −jX C and Y = = =
Z −jX C (−jX C )( j ) (g) resistance and capacitance in parallel, then
j
= = + jBC  
XC (R)(−jX C ) product
Z= i.e.
thus a positive sign is associated with capacitive R − jX C sum
susceptance, BC
1 R − jX C R jX C
(d) resistance and inductance in series, then and Y= = = −
Z −jRX C −jRX C −jRX C
1 1
Z = R + jX L and Y = = 1 1 (j) 1
Z R + jX L i.e. Y= + = +
−jX C R (−jX C )( j ) R
(R − jX L )
= 1 j
R 2 + X 2L or Y = + (1)
R XC
R XL R XL
i.e. Y = −j 2 or Y = −j
R 2 + X 2L R + X 2L |Z| 2 |Z|2 Thus conductance, G = 1/R and capacitive suscep-
tance, BC = l/X C
Thus conductance, G = R/|Z |2 and inductive sus- The conclusions that may be drawn from Sections
ceptance, B L = −X L/|Z |2 (d) to (g) above are:
(Note that in an inductive circuit, the imaginary
(i) that a series circuit is more easily represented
term of the impedance, X L , is positive, whereas the
by an impedance,
imaginary term of the admittance, B L , is negative.)
(ii) that a parallel circuit is often more eas-
(e) resistance and capacitance in series, then ily represented by an admittance especially
1 1 R + jX C when more than two parallel impedances are
Z = R − jX C and Y = = = 2 involved.
Z R − jX C R + X C2
R XC Problem 1. Determine the admittance,
i.e. Y= +j or
R 2 + X C2 R + X C2
2
conductance and susceptance of the following
R XC impedances: (a) − j 5  (b) (25 + j 40) 
Y= +j (c) (3 − j 2)  (d) 50∠40◦ 
|Z|2|Z|2
Thus conductance, G = R/|Z |2 and capacitive sus-
If impedance Z = − j 5 , then

Part 3
(a)
ceptance, BC = X C/|Z |2
(Note that in a capacitive circuit, the imaginary 1 1 j j
term of the impedance, X C , is negative, whereas admittance Y = = = =
Z − j 5 (− j 5)( j ) 5
the imaginary term of the admittance, BC , is
positive.) ∠90◦ S
= j 0.2 S or 0.2∠
(f) resistance and inductance in parallel, then Since there is no real part, conductance, G = 0,
1 1 1 jX L + R and capacitive susceptance, BC = 0.2 S
= + =
Z R jX L (R)( jX L ) (b) If impedance Z = (25 + j 40) then
 
(R)( jX L ) product
from which, Z = i.e. 1 1 25 − j 40
R + jX L sum admittance Y = = = 2
Z (25 + j 40) 25 + 402
1 R + jX L R jX L
and Y= = = + 25 j 40
Z jRX L jRX L jRX L = −
1 1 (− j ) 1 2225 2225
i.e. Y= + = +
jX L R ( jX L )(− j ) R = (0.0112 − j0.0180) S
1 j Thus conductance, G = 0.0112 S and inductive
or Y= −
R XL susceptance, BL = 0.0180 S
 358 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(c) If impedance Z = (3 − j 2), then

Problem 3. The admittance of a circuit is
1 1 3+ j2 (0.040 + j 0.025) S. Determine the values of the
admittance Y = = = 2 resistance and the capacitive reactance of the circuit
Z (3 − j 2) 3 + 22
  if they are connected (a) in parallel, (b) in series.
3 2 Draw the phasor diagram for each of the circuits.
= +j S or
13 13
(0.231 + j0.154) S
(a) Parallel connection
Thus conductance, G = 0.231 S and capacitive
Admittance Y = (0.040 + j 0.025) S, therefore conduc-
susceptance, BC = 0.154 S
tance, G = 0.040 S and capacitive susceptance, BC =
(d) If impedance Z = 50∠40◦ , then 0.025 S. From equation (1) when a circuit consists of
resistance R and capacitive reactance in parallel, then
1 1 1∠0◦
admittance Y = = = Y = (1/R) + ( j/X C ).
Z 50∠40◦ 50∠40◦
1 1
1 Hence resistance R = = = 25 
= ∠−40◦ = 0.02∠
∠ −40◦ S or G 0.040
50
(0.0153− j0.0129) S 1 1
and capacitive reactance X C = = = 40 
BC 0.025
Thus conductance, G = 0.0153 S and inductive
susceptance, BL = 0.0129 S The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in
Figure 25.1.
Problem 2. Determine expressions for
the impedance of the following admittances:
(a) 0.004∠30◦ S (b) (0.001 − j 0.002) S
(c) (0.05 + j 0.08) S

(a) Since admittance Y = 1/Z , impedance Z = 1/Y .

1 1∠0◦
Hence impedance Z = =
0.004∠30◦ 0.004∠30◦
= 250 ∠−30◦  or
(216.5 − j125) 
Part 3

1
(b) Impedance Z =
(0.001 − j 0.002)
0.001 + j 0.002
=
(0.001)2 + (0.002)2 Figure 25.1 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram
0.001 + j 0.002
=
0.000 005 (b) Series connection
∠63.43  ◦ Admittance Y = (0.040 + j 0.025) S, therefore
= (200 + j400)  or 447.2∠
1 1
(c) Admittance Y = (0.05 + j 0.08) S impedance Z = =
Y 0.040 + j 0.025
= 0.094∠57.99◦ S
0.040 − j 0.025
1 =
Hence impedance Z = (0.040)2 + (0.025)2
0.0094∠57.99◦
∠ −57.99◦  or
= 10.64∠ = (17.98 − j 11.24) 
(5.64 − j9.02)  Thus the resistance, R = 17.98  and capacitive
reactance, X C = 11.24 .
 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c. networks 359

the circuit components if the frequency is

50 Hz. [R = 86.21 , L =109.8 mH]
4. The admittance of a network is
(0.05− j 0.08) S. Determine the values of
resistance and reactance in the circuit if they
are connected (a) in series, (b) in parallel.
[(a) R = 5.62 , X L = 8.99 
(b) R = 20 , X L = 12.5 ]
5. The admittance of a two-branch parallel net-
work is (0.02 + j 0.05) S. Determine the circuit
components if the frequency is 1 kHz.
[R = 50 , C = 7.958 µF]
6. Determine the total admittance, in rectangular
and polar forms, of each of the networks shown
in Figure 25.3.
Figure 25.2 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram

The circuit and phasor diagrams are shown in

Figure 25.2.
The circuits shown in Figures 25.1(a) and 25.2(a) are
equivalent in that they take the same supply current I
for a given supply voltage V ; the phase angle φ between
the current and voltage is the same in each of the phasor
diagrams shown in Figures 25.1(b) and 25.2(b).

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 99 Further problems on

admittance, conductance and
susceptance

Part 3
1. Determine the admittance (in polar form),
conductance and susceptance of the follow-
ing impedances: (a) j10  (b) −j 40 
(c) 32 ∠−30◦  (d) (5 + j 9) (e) (16 − j 10)
[(a) 0.1∠−90◦ S, 0, 0.1 S
(b) 0.025∠90◦ S, 0, 0.025 S
(c) 0.03125∠30◦ S, 0.0271 S, 0.0156 S
(d) 0.0971∠−60.93◦ S, 0.0472 S, 0.0849 S
(e) 0.0530∠32.04◦ S, 0.0449 S, 0.0281 S]
2. Derive expressions, in polar form, for the
impedances of the following admittances:
(a) 0.05∠40◦ S (b) 0.0016∠−25◦ S
(c) (0.1 + j 0.4) S (d) (0.025 − j 0.040) S
[(a) 20∠−40◦ (b) 625∠25◦
(c) 2.425∠−75.96◦ (d) 21.20∠57.99◦]
3. The admittance of a series circuit is
(0.010 − j 0.004) S. Determine the values of
Figure 25.3
 360 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

[(a) (0.0154 − j 0.0231) S or

0.0278∠−56.31◦ S
(b) (0.132 − j 0.024) S or 0.134∠−10.30◦ S
(c) (0.08 + j 0.01) S or 0.0806∠7.125◦ S
(d) (0.0596 − j 0.0310) S or
0.0672∠−27.48◦ S]

25.3 Parallel a.c. networks Figure 25.5

From Figure 25.5,

Figure 25.4 shows a circuit diagram containing three  
impedances, Z 1, Z 2 and Z 3 connected in parallel. Z1 Z2
supply voltage, V = IZT = I
The potential difference across each impedance is the Z1 + Z2
same, i.e. the supply voltage V . Current I1 = V/Z 1 ,
I2 = V/Z 2 and I3 = V/Z 3 . If Z T is the total equivalent Also, V = I1 Z 1 (and V = I2 Z 2 )
impedance of the circuit then I = V/Z T . The supply  
current, I = I1 + I2 + I3 (phasorially). Z1 Z2
Thus, I1 Z 1 = I
Z1 + Z2
 
Z2
i.e. current I 1 = I
Z1 + Z2
 
Z1
Similarly, current I 2 = I
Z1 + Z2
Note that all of the above circuit symbols infer complex
Figure 25.4
quantities either in Cartesian or polar form.
The following problems show how complex numbers
are used to analyse parallel a.c. networks.
V V V V
Thus = + + and
ZT Z1 Z2 Z3 Problem 4. Determine the values of currents I , I1
Part 3

1 1 1 1 and I2 shown in the network of Figure 25.6.

= + +
ZT Z1 Z2 Z3
or total admittance, Y T =Y 1 +Y 2 +Y 3
In general, for n impedances connected in parallel,
Y T = Y 1 +Y 2 +Y 3 + · · · +Y n (phasorially)
It is in parallel circuit analysis that the use of admittance
has its greatest advantage.

Current division in a.c. circuits

Figure 25.6
For the special case of two impedances, Z 1 and Z 2 ,
connected in parallel (see Figure 25.5), Total circuit impedance,
1 1 1 Z2 + Z1 (8)( j 6) ( j 48)(8 − j 6)
= + = ZT = 5 + = 5+
ZT Z1 Z2 Z1 Z2 8 + j6 82 + 62
The total impedance, ZT = Z1 Z2 /(Z1 + Z2 ) (i.e. prod- j384 + 288
= 5+
uct/sum). 100
 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c. networks 361

= (7.88 + j 3.84)  or 8.77∠25.98◦  5 − j 12 3 + j4 1

= + 2 +
V 50∠0◦ 5 + 12
2 2 3 + 42 8
Current I = = ∠ − 25.98◦ A
= 5.70∠
ZT 8.77∠25.98◦ = (0.0296 − j 0.0710) + (0.1200 + j 0.1600)
  + (0.1250)
j6
Current I1 = I i.e. YT = (0.2746 + j 0.0890) S or 0.2887∠17.96◦ S
8 + j6
 
◦ 6∠90◦
= (5.70∠−25.98 )
10∠36.87◦ Current I = VY T = (40∠0◦)(0.2887∠17.96◦)
◦
= 3.42∠∠27.15 A
= 11.55∠17.96◦ A
 
8 Hence the current I is 11.55 A and is leading the 40 V
Current I2 = I
8 + j6 supply by 17.96◦
 
◦ 8∠0◦
= (5.70∠−25.98 ) Alternatively, current I = I1 + I2 + I3
10∠36.87◦
∠ − 62.85◦ A
= 4.56∠ 40∠0◦ 40∠0◦
Current I1 = =
5 + j 12 13∠67.38◦
[Note: I = I1 + I2 = 3.42∠27.15◦ + 4.56∠−62.85◦ = 3.077∠−67.38◦ A or (1.183 − j 2.840) A
= (3.043 + j 1.561) + (2.081 − j 4.058)
40∠0◦ 40∠0◦
Current I2 = = = 8∠53.13◦A or
= (5.124 − j 2.497)A 3 − j 4 5∠−53.13◦
(4.80 + j 6.40) A
= 5.70∠−25.98◦ A] ◦
40∠0
Current I3 = = 5∠0◦ A or (5 + j 0) A
8∠0◦
Problem 5. For the parallel network shown in
Figure 25.7, determine the value of supply current I Thus current I = I1 + I2 + I3
and its phase relative to the 40 V supply.
= (1.183 − j 2.840) + (4.80 + j 6.40)
+ (5 + j 0)
= 10.983 + j 3.560 = 11.55∠∠17.96◦ A,

Part 3
as previously obtained.

Problem 6. An a.c. network consists of a coil, of

inductance 79.58 mH and resistance 18 , in
parallel with a capacitor of capacitance 64.96 µF. If
the supply voltage is 250∠0◦ V at 50 Hz, determine
(a) the total equivalent circuit impedance, (b) the
Figure 25.7 supply current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the
current in the coil, and (e) the current in the
Impedance Z 1 = (5 + j 12) , Z 2 = (3 − j 4)  and capacitor.
Z3 = 8 
V
Supply current I = = V YT where Z T = total circuit The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 25.8.
ZT
impedance, and YT = total circuit admittance. Inductive reactance, X L = 2π f L
YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 = 2π(50)(79.58×10−3 ) = 25

1 1 1 1 1 1 Hence the impedance of the coil,

= + + = + +
Z 1 Z 2 Z 3 (5 + j 12) (3 − j 4) 8 Z COIL = (R + jX L ) = (18 + j 25)  or 30.81∠54.25◦ 
 362 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 100 Further problems on parallel

a.c. networks
1. Determine the equivalent circuit impedances
of the parallel networks shown in Figure 25.9.

Figure 25.8

1
Capacitive reactance, X C =
2πfC
1
=
2π(50)(64.96 × 10−6)
= 49 

In complex form, the impedance presented by the

capacitor, Z C is −jX C , i.e. − j 49  or 49∠−90◦
(a) Total equivalent circuit impedance,
 
Z COIL X C product
ZT = i.e.
Z COIL + Z C sum

(30.81∠54.25◦)(49∠−90◦ )
=
(18 + j 25) + (− j 49)
Figure 25.9
(30.81∠54.25◦)(49∠−90◦ )
=
18 − j 24
[(a) (4 − j 8)  or 8.94∠−63.43◦
(30.81∠54.25◦)(49∠−90◦ ) (b) (7.56 + j 1.95)  or 7.81∠14.46◦
=
30∠−53.13◦ (c) (14.04 − j 0.74)  or 14.06∠−3.02◦]
= 50.32∠(54.25◦− 90◦ − (−53.13◦ )) 2. Determine the value and phase of currents I1
∠17.38◦ or (48.02 + j15.03)
= 50.32∠ and I2 in the network shown in Figure 25.10.
Part 3

V 250∠0◦
(b) Supply current I = =
Z T 50.32∠17.38◦
∠ − 17.38◦ A
= 4.97∠

(c) Circuit phase angle = 17.38◦ lagging, i.e. the cur-

rent I lags the voltage V by 17.38◦
V
(d) Current in the coil, I COIL =
Z COIL Figure 25.10

250∠0◦
=
30.81∠54.25◦ [I1 = 8.94∠−10.30◦ A, I2 = 17.89∠79.70◦ A]
∠ −54.25◦ A
= 8.11∠ 3. For the series-parallel network shown in
V 250∠0◦ Figure 25.11, determine (a) the total network
(e) Current in the capacitor, IC = = impedance across AB, and (b) the supply cur-
Z C 49∠−90◦
rent flowing if a supply of alternating voltage
∠90◦ A
= 5.10∠ 30∠20◦ V is connected across AB.
 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c. networks 363

6. Determine, for the network shown in

Figure 25.14, (a) the total network admittance,
(b) the total network impedance, (c) the sup-
ply current I , (d) the network phase angle, and
(e) currents I1 , I2 , I3 and I4 .

Figure 25.11
[(a) 10∠36.87◦  (b) 3∠−16.87◦ A]
4. For the parallel network shown in Figure
25.12, determine (a) the equivalent circuit
impedance, (b) the supply current I , (c) the
circuit phase angle, and (d) currents I1 and I2 . Figure 25.14

[(a) 0.0733∠43.39◦ S (b) 13.64∠−43.39◦ 

(c) 1.833∠43.39◦ A (d) 43.39◦ leading
(e) I1 = 0.455∠−43.30◦ A,
I2 = 1.863∠57.50◦ A,
I3 = 1∠0 A, I4 = 1.570∠90◦ A]
◦

7. Four impedances of (10 − j 20) , (30 + j 0),

(2 − j 15)  and (25 + j 12) are connected in
parallel across a 250 V a.c. supply. Find the
supply current and its phase angle.
Figure 25.12
[32.62∠43.55◦ A]
[(a) 10.33∠−6.31◦  (b) 4.84∠6.31◦ A
8. In the network shown in Figure 25.15, the volt-
(c) 6.31◦ leading (d) I1 = 0.953∠−73.38◦ A,
meter indicates 24 V. Determine the reading on
I2 = 4.765∠17.66◦ A]
the ammeter. [7.53A]
5. For the network shown in Figure 25.13, deter-

Part 3
mine (a) current I1 , (b) current I2 , (c) current
I , (d) the equivalent input impedance, and
(e) the supply phase angle.

Figure 25.15

25.4 Further worked problems on

Figure 25.13 parallel a.c. networks
[(a) 15.08∠90◦ A (b) 3.39∠−45.15◦ A
(c) 12.90∠79.33◦ A (d) 9.30∠−79.33◦  Problem 7. (a) For the network diagram of
(e) 79.33◦ leading] Figure 25.16, determine the value of impedance Z 1
 364 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(b) If the supply frequency is 5 kHz, determine the
value of the components comprising impedance Z 1
Problem 8. For the series-parallel arrangement
shown in Figure 25.17, determine (a) the equivalent
series circuit impedance, (b) the supply current I ,
(c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the values of voltages
V1 and V2 , and (e) the values of currents I A and I B

Figure 25.16

(a) Total circuit admittance,

I 31.4∠52.48◦
YT = =
V 50∠30◦
∠25.48◦ S or
= 0.628∠
(0.58 + j0.24) S Figure 25.17
YT = Y1 + Y2 + Y3
(a) The impedance, Z , of the two branches connected
1 1
Thus (0.58 + j0.24) = Y1 + + in parallel is given by:
(8 + j6) 10
8 − j6 (5 + j 7)(4 − j15)
= Y1 + + 0.1 Z=
82 + 62 (5 + j 7) + (4 − j15)
i.e. 0.58 + j0.24 = Y1 + 0.08 − j0.06 + 0.1 20 − j 75 + j 28 − j 2105
=
Hence Y1 = (0.58 − 0.08 − 0.1) 9 − j8
+ j(0.24 + j 0.06) 125 − j 47 133.54∠−20.61◦
= =
Part 3

= (0.4 + j0.3)S or 0.5∠36.87◦S 9 − j8 12.04∠−41.63◦

1 1 = 11.09∠−21.02◦  or (10.35 + j 3.98)
Thus impedance, Z 1 = =
Y1 0.5∠36.87◦
∠−36.87◦ 
= 2∠ Equivalent series circuit impedance,
or (1.6 − j1.2)
ZT = (1.65 + j 1.02) +(10.35 + j 3.98)
(b) Since Z 1 = (1.6 − j 1.2) , resistance = 1.6  and ∠22.62◦ 
= (12 +j5)  or 13∠
capacitive reactance, X C = 1.2 .
V 91∠0◦
1 (b) Supply current, I = =
Since X C = Z 13∠22.62◦
2πf C
∠ −22.62◦ A
= 7∠
1
capacitance C =
2πf X C (c) Circuit phase angle = 22.62◦ lagging
1 (d) Voltage V1 = IZ1 , where Z 1 = (1.65 + j 1.02) 
= F
2π(5000)(1.2) ∠31.72◦ .
or 1.94∠

i.e. capacitance = 26.53 µF Hence V 1 = (7∠−22.62◦ )(1.94∠31.72◦)

∠9.10◦ V
= 13.58∠
 Application of complex numbers to parallel a.c. networks 365

Voltage V2 = IZ , where Z is the equivalent

impedance of the two branches connected in (20 + j 8) . Determine the third impedance if
parallel. the total current is 20∠−25◦ A.
[(9.74 + j 1.82)  or 9.91∠10.56◦ ]
Hence V 2 = (7∠−22.62◦) (11.09∠21.02◦)
2. For each of the network diagrams shown in
∠−1.60◦ V
= 77.63∠
Figure 25.18, determine the supply current I
(e) Current I A = V2/Z A , where Z A = (5 + j 7)  or and their phase relative to the applied voltages.
8.60∠54.46◦ .
77.63∠−1.60◦
Thus IA = ∠−56.06◦A
= 9.03∠
8.60∠54.46◦
Current IB = V2/Z B ,

where Z B = (4 − j 15) or 15.524∠−75.07◦ 

77.63∠−1.60◦
Thus IB = ∠73.47◦ A
= 5.00∠
15.524 ∠−75.07◦

[Alternatively, by current division,

 
ZB
IA = I
Z A + ZB
 
◦ 15.524∠−75.07◦
= 7∠−22.62
(5 + j 7) + (4 − j 15)
 
15.524∠−75.07◦
= 7∠−22.62◦
9 − j8
 
◦ 15.524∠−75.07◦
= 7∠−22.62 Figure 25.18
12.04∠−41.63◦

Part 3
[(a) 1.632∠−17.10◦ A (b) 5.412∠−8.46◦ A]
∠−56.06◦A
= 9.03∠
  3. Determine the value of current flowing in the
ZA (12 + j 9)  impedance in the network shown
IB = I
ZA + ZB in Figure 25.19.
 
◦ 8.60∠54.46◦
= 7∠−22.62
12.04∠−41.63◦
∠73.47◦A]
= 5.00∠

Now try the following exercise

Exercise 101 Further problems on parallel

a.c. networks
1. Three impedances are connected in parallel to
Figure 25.19
a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. The first impedance is
[7.66∠33.63◦ A]
(10 + j 12.5)  and the second impedance is
 366 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

4. In the series-parallel network shown in 6. Coils of impedance (5 + j 8)  and

Figure 25.20 the p.d. between points A and
B is 50∠−68.13◦ V. Determine (a) the supply
current I , (b) the equivalent input impedance,
(c) the supply voltage V , (d) the supply phase
angle, (e) the p.d. across points B and C, and
(f ) the value of currents I1 and I2 .
7. For the circuit shown in Figure 25.22, deter-
Figure 25.20
[(a) 11.99∠−31.81◦ A (b) 8.54∠20.56◦ 
(c) 102.4∠−11.25◦ V (d) 20.56◦ lagging
(e) 86.0∠17.91◦ V (f ) I1 = 7.37∠−13.05◦ A
I2 = 5.54∠−57.16◦ A]
(12 + j 16)  are connected in parallel. In
series with this combination is an impedance
of (15 − j 40) . If the alternating supply p.d.
is 150∠0◦ V, determine (a) the equivalent
network impedance, (b) the supply current,
(c) the supply phase angle, (d) the current in
the (5 + j 8)  impedance, and (e) the current
in the (12 + j16)  impedance.
[(a) 39.31∠−61.84◦ (b) 3.816∠61.84◦ A
(c) 61.84◦ leading (d) 2.595∠60.28◦ A
(e) 1.224∠65.15◦ A]
mine (a) the input impedance, (b) the source
voltage V , (c) the p.d. between points A and
B, and (d) the current in the 10  resistor.
5V j8V
l 515 308 A
10 V
2.43 V j 3.76 V

20 V
5. For the network shown in Figure 25.21, deter- A B
2j 10 V
mine (a) the value of impedance Z 2 , (b) the
current flowing in Z 2, and (c) the compo- V
nents comprising Z 2 if the supply frequency
is 2 kHz. 15 V 2j 5 V

Figure 25.22
[(a) 10.0∠36.87◦ 
(b) 150∠66.87◦ V
(c) 90∠51.92◦ V
(d) 2.50∠18.23◦ A]
Part 3

Figure 25.21

[(a) 6.25∠52.34◦  (b) 16.0∠7.66◦ A

(c) R = 3.819 , L = 0.394 mH]
 Chapter 26
Power in a.c. circuits
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
• determine active, apparent and reactive power in a.c. series/parallel networks
• appreciate the need for power factor improvement
• perform calculations involving power factor improvement

The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in Figure 26.1.

26.1 Introduction The waveform of power repeats itself after π/ω seconds
and hence the power has a frequency twice that of volt-
Alternating currents and voltages change their polar- age and current. The power is always positive, having
ity during each cycle. It is not surprising therefore to a maximum value of Vm Im . The average or mean value
find that power also pulsates with time. The product of of the power is 12 Vm Im .
voltage v and current i at any instant of time is called The r.m.s. value of voltage V = 0.707Vm , i.e.
√ √
instantaneous power p, and is given by: V = Vm / 2, from which, Vm = 2 V . Similarly, the
√
r.m.s. value of current, I = Im / 2, from which,
p = vi √
Im = 2 I . Hence the average power, P, developed in a
purely resistive a.c. circuit is given by
√ √
26.2 Determination of power in a.c. P = 12 Vm Im = 12 ( 2 V )( 2 I ) =VI watts
circuits
Also, power P = I 2 R or V 2/R as for a d.c. circuit, since
V = IR.
(a) Purely resistive a.c. circuits
Let a voltage v = Vm sin ωt be applied to a circuit
comprising resistance only. The resulting current is
i = Im sin ωt , and the corresponding instantaneous
power, p, is given by:
p = vi = (Vm sin ωt )(Im sin ωt )
i.e. p = Vm Im sin2 ωt
From trigonometrical double angle formulae,
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A, from which,
sin2 A = 12 (1 − cos 2A)
Thus sin2ωt = 12 (1 − cos 2ωt)
 
Then power p = Vm Im 12 (1 − cos 2ωt )
i.e. p = 12 Vm Im (1 − cos 2ωt) Figure 26.1 The waveforms of v,i and p

DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-85617-770-2.00026-4
 368 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Summarizing, the average power P in a purely is positive and energy is delivered from the source to the
resistive a.c. circuit is given by inductance; when v and i have opposite signs, power p
is negative and energy is returned from the inductance
V2 to the source.
P =VI = I 2 R = watts
R In general, when the current through an inductance
is increasing, energy is transferred from the circuit to
where V and I are r.m.s. values.
the magnetic field, but this energy is returned when the
current is decreasing.
(b) Purely inductive a.c. circuits
Summarizing, the average power P in a purely
Let a voltage v = Vm sin ωt be applied to a circuit con- inductive a.c. circuit is zero.
taining pure inductance (theoretical case). The result-
ing current is i = Im sin(ωt − (π/2)) since current lags (c) Purely capacitive a.c. circuits
voltage by 90◦ in a purely inductive circuit, and the
corresponding instantaneous power, p, is given by: Let a voltage v = Vm sin ωt be applied to a circuit
containing pure capacitance. The resulting current is
p = vi = (Vm sin ωt )Im sin(ωt − (π/2)) i = Im sin(ωt + (π/2)), since current leads voltage by
90◦ in a purely capacitive circuit, and the corresponding
i.e. p = Vm Im sin ωt sin(ωt − (π/2))
instantaneous power, p, is given by:
However, sin(ωt − (π/2)) = − cos ωt
p = vi = (Vm sin ωt )Im sin(ωt + (π/2))
Thus p = −Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt
i.e. p = Vm Im sin ωt sin(ωt + (π/2))
1
Rearranging gives: p = − Vm Im (2 sin ωt cos ωt ).
2 However, sin(ωt + (π/2)) = cos ωt .
However, from the double-angle formulae,
2 sin ωt cos ωt = sin 2ωt . Thus P = Vm Im sin ωt cos ωt
1 1
Thus power, p =− V m I m sin 2ωt Rearranging gives p = Vm Im (2 sin ωt cos ωt ).
2 2
The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in Figure 26.2. 1
Thus power, p = V m I m sin 2ωt
The frequency of power is twice that of voltage and 2
current. For the power curve shown in Figure 26.2, the The waveforms of v, i and p are shown in Figure 26.3.
area above the horizontal axis is equal to the area below, Over a complete cycle the average power P is zero.
thus over a complete cycle the average power P is zero. When the voltage across a capacitor is increasing,
It is noted that when v and i are both positive, power p
Part 3

energy is transferred from the circuit to the electric

Figure 26.2 Power in a purely inductive a.c. circuit Figure 26.3 Power in a purely capacitive a.c. circuit
 Power in a.c. circuits 369

field, but this energy is returned when the voltage is

decreasing.
Summarizing, the average power P in a purely
capacitive a.c. circuit is zero.

(d) R–L or R–C a.c. circuits

Let a voltage v = Vm sin ωt be applied to a cir-
cuit containing resistance and inductance or resis-
tance and capacitance. Let the resulting current be
i = Im sin(ωt + φ), where phase angle φ will be posi-
tive for an R–C circuit and negative for an R–L circuit.
The corresponding instantaneous power, p, is given by:
p = vi = (Vm sinωt )(Im sin(ωt + φ)) Figure 26.4 Power in a.c. circuit containing resistance and
inductive reactance
i.e. p = Vm Im sin ωt sin(ωt + φ)
Products of sine functions may be changed into differ- A similar shape of power curve is obtained for an
ences of cosine functions by using: R–C circuit, the small areas below the horizontal axis
representing power being returned to the supply from
sin A sin B = − 12 [cos(A + B) − cos(A − B)]
the charged capacitor. The difference between the areas
Substituting ωt = A and (ωt + φ) = B gives: above and below the horizontal axis represents the heat
 loss due to the circuit resistance. Since power is dissi-
power, p = Vm Im − 12 [cos(ωt + ωt + φ)
 pated only in a pure resistance, the alternative equations
− cos(ωt − (ωt + φ))] for power, P = I R2 R, may be used, where IR is the r.m.s.
current flowing through the resistance.
i.e. p = 12 Vm Im [cos(−φ) − cos(2ωt + φ)]
Summarizing, the average power P in a circuit con-
However, cos(−φ) = cos φ. taining resistance and inductance and/or capaci-
Thus p = 12 V m I m [cos φ − cos(2ωt +φ)] tance, whether in series or in parallel, is given by
P =VI cos φ or P = I2R R (V, I and I R being r.m.s.
The instantaneous power p thus consists of values).
(i) a sinusoidal term, − 12 Vm Im cos(2ωt + φ), which

has a mean value over a cycle of zero, and
(ii) a constant term, 12 Vm Im cos φ (since φ is constant
for a particular circuit).
Thus the average value of power, P = 1
cos φ.
2 Vm Im
√ √
Since Vm = 2 V and Im = 2 I ,
√ √
average power, P = 12 ( 2 V )( 2 I ) cos φ
i.e. P =VI cos φ watts
The waveforms of v, i and p, are shown in Figure 26.4
for an R–L circuit. The waveform of power is seen to
pulsate at twice the supply frequency. The areas of the
power curve (shown shaded) above the horizontal time
axis represent power supplied to the load; the small
areas below the axis represent power being returned to
the supply from the inductance as the magnetic field
collapses.
Part 3
26.3 Power triangle and power factor
A phasor diagram in which the current I lags the applied
voltage V by angle φ (i.e. an inductive circuit) is shown
in Figure 26.5(a). The horizontal component of V is
V cos φ, and the vertical component of V is V sin φ. If
each of the voltage phasors of triangle 0ab is multiplied
by I , Figure 26.5(b) is produced and is known as the
‘power triangle’. Each side of the triangle represents a
particular type of power:
True or active power P = VI cos φ watts (W)
Apparent power S = VI voltamperes (VA)
Reactive power Q = VI sin φ vars (var)
The power triangle is not a phasor diagram since quan-
tities P, Q and S are mean values and not r.m.s. values
of sinusoidally varying quantities.
 370 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Figure 26.6 Power triangle for capacitive circuit

Power factor is defined as:

active power P
power factor =
apparent power S

For sinusoidal voltages and currents,

Figure 26.5 (a) Phasor diagram, (b) Power triangle for P VI cos φ
inductive circuit power factor = =
S VI
R
Superimposing the power triangle on an Argand dia- = cos φ = (from the impedance triangle)
Z
gram produces a relationship between P, S and Q in
A circuit in which current lags voltage (i.e. an induc-
complex form, i.e.
tive circuit) is said to have a lagging power factor, and
S= P + jQ indicates a lagging reactive power Q.
A circuit in which current leads voltage (i.e. a capaci-
Apparent power, S, is an important quantity since tive circuit) is said to have a leading power factor, and
a.c. apparatus, such as generators, transformers and indicates a leading reactive power Q.
cables, is usually rated in voltamperes rather than in
watts. The allowable output of such apparatus is usually
limited not by mechanical stress but by temperature rise, 26.4 Use of complex numbers for
and hence by the losses in the device. The losses are
determination of power
determined by the voltage and current and are almost
independent of the power factor. Thus the amount of Let a circuit be supplied by an alternating voltage V ∠ α,
Part 3

electrical equipment installed to supply a certain load where

is essentially determined by the voltamperes of the load
rather than by the power alone.
The rating of a machine is defined as the maximum
apparent power that it is designed to carry continuously
without overheating.
The reactive power, Q, contributes nothing to the net
energy transfer and yet it causes just as much loading
of the equipment as if it did so. Reactive power is a
term much used in power generation, distribution and
utilization of electrical energy.
Inductive reactive power, by convention, is defined as
positive reactive power; capacitive reactive power, by
convention, is defined as negative reactive power. The
above relationships derived from the phasor diagram
of an inductive circuit may be shown to be true for a
capacitive circuit, the power triangle being as shown in
Figure 26.6.
V ∠α = V (cos α + j sin α) = V cos α + jV sin α
= a + jb (1)
Let the current flowing in the circuit be I ∠β, where
I ∠β = I (cos β + j sin β) = I cos β + j I sin β
= c + jd (2)
From Sections 26.2 and 26.3, power P = VI cos φ, where
φ is the angle between the voltage V and current I . If
the voltage is V ∠α ◦ and the current is I ∠β ◦ , then the
angle between voltage and current is (α − β)◦
Thus power, P = VI cos(α − β)
From compound angle formulae,
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β.
 Power in a.c. circuits 371

Hence power, P = VI[cos α cos β + sin α sin β] a positive value of Q indicates an inductive circuit, i.e.
Rearranging gives a circuit having a lagging power factor, whereas a nega-
tive value of Q indicates a capacitive circuit, i.e. a circuit
P = (V cos α)(I cos β) + (V sin α)(I sin β), i.e. having a leading power factor.
P = (a)(c) +(b)(d) from equations (1) and (2)
Problem 1. A coil of resistance 5  and inductive
Summarizing, if V = (a + jb) and I = (c + jd), then
reactance 12  is connected across a supply voltage
of 52∠30◦ volts. Determine the active power in the
power, P = ac + bd (3)
circuit.
Thus power may be calculated from the sum of the prod-
ucts of the real components and imaginary components The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 26.7.
of voltage and current.
Reactive power, Q =VI sin(α − β)
From compound angle formulae,
sin(α −β) = sin α cos β − cos α sin β.
Thus Q = VI[sin α cos β − cos α sin β]
Rearranging gives
Q = (V sin α)(I cos β) − (V cos α)(I sin β) i.e.
Q = (b)(c) − (a)(d) from equations (1) and (2).
Summarizing, if V =(a + jb) and I = (c + jd), then Figure 26.7

reactive power, Q = bc − ad (4)

Impedance Z = (5 + j 12) or 13∠67.38◦ 
Expressions (3) and (4) provide an alternative method Voltage V = 52∠30◦ V or (45.03 + j 26.0) V
of determining true power P and reactive power Q
when the voltage and current are complex quantities. V 52∠30◦
Current I = =
From Section 26.3, apparent power S = P + jQ. How- Z 13∠67.38◦
ever, merely multiplying V by I in complex form will
= 4∠−37.38◦ A or (3.18 − j 2.43) A
not give this result, i.e. (from above)

Part 3
There are three methods of calculating power.
S = VI = (a + j b)(c + j d) = (ac − bd) + j (bc + ad)
Method 1. Active power, P = VI cos φ, where φ
Here the real part is not the expression for power as is the angle between voltage V and cur-
given in equation (3) and the imaginary part is not the rent I . Hence
expression of reactive power given in equation (4). P = (52)(4) cos[30◦ − (−37.38◦ )]
The correct expression may be derived by multiply-
ing the voltage V by the conjugate of the current, i.e. = (52)(4) cos 67.38◦ = 80 W
(c − j d), denoted by I ∗ . Thus Method 2. Active power, P = I R2 R = (4)2 (5)= 80 W
apparent power S =VI ∗ = (a + jb)(c − jd) Method 3. Since V = (45.03 + j 26.0) V and
= (ac + bd) + j (bc −ad) I = (3.18 − j 2.43) A, then active
power,
i.e. S = P + jQ from equations (3) and (4).
P = (45.03)(3.18) + (26.0)(−2.43)
Thus the active and reactive powers may be deter- from equation (3)
mined if, and only if, the voltage V is multiplied by i.e. P = 143.2 −63.2 = 80 W
the conjugate of current I . As stated in Section 26.3,
 372 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(a) Since v = 141.4 sin(104 t + (π/9)) volts, then

Problem 2. A current of (15 + j 8) A flows in a
141.4 V represents the maximum value, from
circuit whose supply voltage is (120 + j 200) V. √
which the r.m.s. voltage, V = 141.4/ 2 = 100 V,
Determine (a) the active power, and (b) the reactive
and the phase angle of the voltage =+π/9 rad or
power.
20◦ leading. Hence as a phasor the voltage V is
∠20◦ V.
written as 100∠
(a) Method 1. Active power P = (120)(15)+(200)(8), Power factor = 0.866 = cos φ, from which
from equation (3), i.e. φ = cos−1 0.866 =30◦ .
P = 1800 +1600 =3400 W or 3.4 kW Hence the angle between voltage and current
is 30◦ .
Method 2. Current I = (15+ j 8)A =17∠28.07◦ A
Power P = VI cos φ.
and
Hence 1732 = (100)I cos 30◦ from which,
Voltage V = (120 + j 200) V =233.24∠59.04◦ V
1732
Angle between voltage and current current, |I | = = 20 A
(100)(0.866)
= 59.04◦ − 28.07◦
Since the power factor is leading, the current pha-
= 30.97◦ sor leads the voltage — in this case by 30◦ . Since
Hence power, P = VI cos φ the voltage has a phase angle of 20◦ ,
= (233.24)(17) cos 30.97◦ current, I = 20∠(20◦ + 30◦ ) A = 20∠
∠50◦ A
= 3.4 kW
(b) Impedance
(b) Method 1. Reactive power,
V 100∠20◦
Q = (200)(15) −(120)(8) Z= =
I 20∠50◦
from equation (4), i.e.
= 5∠−30◦  or (4.33 − j 2.5) 
Q = 3000 −960 =2040 var or 2.04 kvar
Hence the resistance, R =4.33  and the capac-
Method 2. Reactive power,
itive reactance, X C = 2.5 .
Q = VI sin φ = (233.24)(17) sin 30.97◦
Alternatively, the resistance may be deter-
= 2.04 kvar mined from active power, P = I 2 R. Hence
1732 =(20)2 R, from which,
Alternatively, parts (a) and (b) could have been obtained
Part 3

directly, using 1732

resistance R = = 4.33 
(20)2
Apparent power, S = VI ∗
= (120 + j 200)(15 − j 8) (c) Since v = 141.4 sin(104t + (π/9)) volts, angular
velocity ω = 104 rad/s.
= (1800+1600)+ j (3000 −960) Capacitive reactance, X C = 2.5 , thus
= 3400 + j 2040 = P + j Q 1 1
2.5 = =
from which, power P = 3400 W and reactive power, 2π f C ωC
1
Q =2040 var from which, capacitance, C =
2.5ω
1
Problem 3. A series circuit possesses resistance = F
(2.5)(104)
R and capacitance C. The circuit dissipates a power
of 1.732 kW and has a power factor of 0.866 = 40 µF
leading. If the applied voltage is given by
v = 141.4 sin (104 t + (π/9)) volts, determine (a) the Problem 4. For the circuit shown in Figure 26.8,
current flowing and its phase, (b) the value of determine the active power developed between
resistance R, and (c) the value of capacitance C. points (a) A and B, (b) C and D, (c) E and F.
 Power in a.c. circuits 373

Problem 5. The circuit shown in Figure 26.9

dissipates an active power of 400 W and has a
power factor of 0.766 lagging. Determine (a) the
apparent power, (b) the reactive power, (c) the value
and phase of current I , and (d) the value of
impedance Z .

Figure 26.8

Circuit impedance,
(3 + j 4)(− j 10) (40 − j 30)
Z =5+ =5+
(3 + j 4 − j 10) (3 − j 6)
50∠−36.87◦ Figure 26.9
=5+ = 5 + 7.45∠26.56◦
6.71∠−63.43◦
Since power factor = 0.766 lagging, the circuit phase
= 5 +6.66 + j 3.33 =(11.66 + j 3.33)  or angle φ = cos−10.766, i.e. φ = 40◦ lagging which means
12.13∠15.94◦  that the current I lags voltage V by 40◦ .
V 100∠0◦
Current I = = = 8.24∠−15.94◦ A (a) Since power, P = VI cos φ, the magnitude of
Z 12.13 ∠ 15.94◦
apparent power,
(a) Active power developed between points A and
P 400
B = I 2 R = (8.24)2 (5) = 339.5 W S = VI = = = 522.2 VA
cos φ 0.766
(b) Active power developed between points C and
D is zero, since no power is developed in a pure (b) Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ =(522.2)(sin 40◦) =
capacitor. 335.7 var lagging. (The reactive power is lag-
  ging since the circuit is inductive, which is
Z CD
(c) Current, I1 = I indicated by the lagging power factor.) The
Z CD + Z EF power triangle is shown in Figure 26.10.

Part 3
 
◦ − j10
= 8.24∠−15.94
3− j6
 
10∠−90◦
= 8.24∠ −15.94◦
6.71∠−63.43◦
= 12.28∠−42.51◦ A
Hence the active power developed between points
E and F = I12 R = (12.28)2 (3) = 452.4 W Figure 26.10
[Check: Total active power developed = 339.5 + (c) Since VI = 522.2 VA,
452.4 = 791.9 W or 792 W, correct to three sig- 522.2 522.2
magnitude of current |I | = =
nificant figures V 100
Total active power, P = I 2RT = (8.24)2 (11.66) = = 5.222 A
792 W (since 1l.66  is the total circuit equivalent Since the voltage is at a phase angle of 30◦ (see
resistance) Figure 26.9) and current lags voltage by 40◦,
or P = VI cos φ =(100)(8.24) cos 15.94◦ = 792 W] the phase angle of current is 30◦ − 40◦ = −10◦ .
Hence current I = 5.222∠ ∠−10◦ A.
 374 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

(d) Total circuit impedance

5. A series circuit possesses inductance L and
V 100∠30◦
ZT = = resistance R. The circuit dissipates a power
I 5.222∠−10◦ of 2.898 kW and has a power factor of 0.966
= 19.15 ∠ 40◦  or (14.67 + j 12.31)  lagging. If the applied voltage is given by
Hence impedance v = 169.7 sin(100t − (π/4)) volts, determine
(a) the current flowing and its phase, (b) the
Z = Z T − 4 = (14.67 + j 12.31) −4 value of resistance R, and (c) the value of
inductance L.
= (10.67 + j12.31) or
[(a) 25∠−60◦ A (b) 4.64  (c) 12.4 mH]
∠49.08◦ 
16.29∠
6. The p.d. across and the current in a certain
circuit are represented by (190 + j 40) V and
Now try the following exercise (9 − j 4) A respectively. Determine the active
power and the reactive power, stating whether
the latter is leading or lagging.
Exercise 102 Further problems on power in
[1550 W; 1120 var lagging]
a.c. circuits
7. Two impedances, Z 1 = 6∠40◦  and Z 2 =
1. When the voltage applied to a circuit is given
10∠30◦  are connected in series and have
by (2 + j 5)V, the current flowing is given by
a total reactive power of 1650 var lagging.
(8 + j 4) A. Determine the power dissipated in
Determine (a) the average power, (b) the
the circuit. [36 W]
apparent power, and (c) the power factor.
2. A current of (12 + j 5)A flows in a circuit when [(a) 2469 W (b) 2970 VA (c) 0.83 lagging]
the supply voltage is (150 + j 220)V. Deter-
8. A current i = 7.5 sin(ωt − (π/4)) A flows in a
mine (a) the active power, (b) the reactive
circuit which has an applied voltage v =
power, and (c) the apparent power. Draw the
180 sin (ωt + (π/12))V. Determine (a) the cir-
power triangle.
cuit impedance, (b) the active power, (c) the
[(a) 2.90 kW (b) 1.89 kvar lagging
reactive power, and (d) the apparent power.
(c) 3.46 kVA]
Draw the power triangle.
3. A capacitor of capacitive reactance 40  and [(a) 24∠60◦  (b) 337.5 W
a resistance of 30  are connected in series to (c) 584.6 var lagging (d) 675 VA]
a supply voltage of 200∠60◦ V. Determine the
9. The circuit shown in Figure 26.12 has a
active power in the circuit. [480 W]
Part 3

power of 480 W and a power factor of 0.8

4. The circuit shown in Figure 26.11 takes 81 VA
at a power factor of 0.8 lagging. Determine the
value of impedance Z .
[(4 + j 3)]  or 5∠36.87◦ ]
leading. Determine (a) the apparent power,
(b) the reactive power, and (c) the value of
impedance Z .
[(a) 600 VA (b) 360 var leading
(c) (3 − j 3.6)  or 4.69∠−50.19◦ ]

Figure 26.12
10. For the network shown in Figure 26.13, deter-
Figure 26.11 mine (a) the values of currents I1 and I2 ,

(b) the total active power, (c) the reactive
power, and (d) the apparent power.
[(a) I1 = 6.20∠29.74◦ A,
I2 = 19.86∠−8.92◦ A (b) 981 W
(c) 153.9 var leading (d) 992.8 VA]
Figure 26.13
11. A circuit consists of an impedance 5∠−45◦ 
in parallel with a resistance of 10 . The sup-
ply current is 4 A. Determine for the circuit
(a) the active power, (b) the reactive power,
and (c) the power factor.
[(a) 49.34 W (b) 28.90 var leading
(c) 0.863 leading]
12. For the network shown in Figure 26.14, deter-
mine the active power developed between
points (a) A and B, (b) C and D, (c) E and F.
[(a) 254.1 W (b) 0 (c) 65.92 W]
Figure 26.14
26.5 Power factor improvement
For a particular power supplied, a high power factor
reduces the current flowing in a supply system, which
consequently lowers losses (i.e. I 2 R losses) and hence
Power in a.c. circuits 375
results in cheaper running costs (as stated in Section
16.7, page 223). Supply authorities use tariffs which
encourage consumers to operate at a reasonably high
power factor. One method of improving the power factor
of an inductive load is to connect a bank of capacitors
in parallel with the load. Capacitors are rated in reactive
voltamperes and the effect of the capacitors is to reduce
the reactive power of the system without changing the
active power. Most residential and industrial loads on a
power system are inductive, i.e. they operate at a lagging
power factor.
A simplified circuit diagram is shown in
Figure 26.15(a) where a capacitor C is connected
across an inductive load. Before the capacitor is
connected the circuit current is ILR and is shown
lagging voltage V by angle φ1 in the phasor diagram
of Figure 26.15(b). When the capacitor C is connected
it takes a current IC which is shown in the phasor
diagram leading voltage V by 90◦ . The supply current
I in Figure 26.15(a) is now the phasor sum of currents
I LR and IC as shown in Figure 26.15(b). The circuit
phase angle, i.e. the angle between V and I , has been
reduced from φ1 to φ2 and the power factor has been
improved from cos φ1 to cos φ2 .
Figure 26.16(a) shows the power triangle for an
inductive circuit with a lagging power factor of cos φ1 .
In Figure 26.16(b), the angle φ1 has been reduced to
φ2 , i.e. the power factor has been improved from cos φ1
to cos φ2 by introducing leading reactive voltamperes
Part 3
Figure 26.15 (a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram
 376 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

Figure 26.17

phase angle φ = cos−1 0.90 =25.84◦. The capacitor rat-

ing needed to improve the power factor to 0.90 is given
by length bd in Figure 26.17.
Tan 25.84◦ = ad/210, from which, ad = 210 tan 25.84◦
= 101.7 kvar. Hence the capacitor rating, i.e.
bd =ab −ad = 214.2 −101.7 =112.5 kvar leading.

Problem 7. A circuit has an impedance

Figure 26.16 Effect of connecting capacitance in parallel with Z = (3 + j 4)  and a source p.d. of 50 ∠ 30◦V at a
the inductive load frequency of 1.5 kHz. Determine (a) the supply
current, (b) the active, apparent and reactive power,
(shown as length ab) which is achieved by connect- (c) the rating of a capacitor to be connected in
ing capacitance in parallel with the inductive load. The parallel with impedance Z to improve the power
power factor has been improved by reducing the reac- factor of the circuit to 0.966 lagging, and (d) the
tive voltamperes; the active power P has remained value of capacitance needed to improve the power
unaffected. factor to 0.966 lagging.
Power factor correction results in the apparent power
S decreasing (from 0a to 0b in Figure 26.16(b)) and thus V 50∠30◦ 50∠30◦
(a) Supply current, I = = =
the current decreasing, so that the power distribution Z (3 + j 4) 5∠53.13◦
system is used more efficiently. ∠−23.13◦ A
= 10∠
Another method of power factor improvement,
(b) Apparent power, S = VI∗ = (50∠30◦)(10∠23.13◦ )
Part 3

besides the use of static capacitors, is by using syn-

chronous motors; such machines can be made to operate = 500∠53.13◦ VA
at leading power factors.
= (300 + j 400) VA= P + jQ
Problem 6. A 300 kVA transformer is at full load Hence active power, P = 300 W
with an overall power factor of 0.70 lagging. The apparent power, S =500 VA and
power factor is improved by adding capacitors in reactive power, Q =400 var lagging.
parallel with the transformer until the overall power
factor becomes 0.90 lagging. Determine the rating The power triangle is shown in Figure 26.18.
(in kilovars) of the capacitors required.

At full load, active power, P = VI cos φ = (300)(0.70)

= 210 kW.
Circuit phase angle φ =cos−1 0.70 =45.57◦
Reactive power, Q = VI sin φ =(300)(sin 45.57◦)
= 214.2 kvar lagging.
The power triangle is shown as triangle 0ab in
Figure 26.17. When the power factor is 0.90, the circuit Figure 26.18
 Power in a.c. circuits 377

(c) A power factor of 0.966 means that cos φ = 0.966. (a) Inductive reactance,
Hence angle φ = cos−1 0.966 =15◦ X L = 2πf L= 2π(50)(100 × 10−3) = 31.42 
To improve the power factor from cos 53.13◦, (b) Impedance, Z = R + j X L = (30 + j 31.42)
i.e. 0.60, to 0.966, the power triangle will need
∠46.32◦ 
= 43.44∠
to change from 0cb (see Figure 26.19) to 0ab,
the length ca representing the rating of a capaci- V 300
(c) Current, I = =
tor connected in parallel with the circuit. From Z 43.44∠46.32◦
Figure 26.19, tan 15◦ = ab/300, from which, ∠−46.32◦ A
= 6.906∠
ab = 300 tan 15◦ = 80.38 var.
(d) Power factor = cos φ = cos 46.32◦ = 0.691
(e) Power, P = I 2R = (6.906)2 (30) = 1431 W
or P = VIcos φ = (300)(6.906) cos 46.32◦
= 1431 W
(f) To improve the power factor, a capacitor C is
connected in parallel with the R−L circuit as
shown in Figure 26.20. In the phasor diagram of
Figure 26.21, current ILR is shown as 6.906 A at
46.32◦ lagging.

Figure 26.19 ILR 30 V 100 mH

Hence the rating of the capacitor, IC C

ca = cb − ab
I
= 400 − 80.38
= 319.6 var leading. 300 V, 50 Hz

Q 319.6 Figure 26.20

(d) Current in capacitor, IC = = = 6.39 A
V 50
V 50 IC
Capacitive reactance, X C = = = 7.82 

Part 3
IC 6.39
Thus 7.82 =1/(2π fC), from which,
0 a
1
required capacitance C = F 31.798
2π(1500)(7.82) 46.328
≡ 13.57 µF I
b
I LR

Problem 8. A 30  non-reactive resistor is

5
6.

connected in series with a coil of inductance

90

c
6

100 mH and negligible resistance. The combined

A

circuit is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz supply.

Figure 26.21
Calculate (a) the reactance of the coil, (b) the
impedance of the circuit, (c) the current in the
If power factor is to be improved to 0.85, then
circuit, (d) the power factor of the circuit, (e) the
cos φ = 0.85 and φ = cos−10.85 = 31.79◦
power absorbed by the circuit, and (f) the value of 0a
the power factor correction capacitor to produce a cos 46.32◦ = from which,
6.906
power factor of 0.85
0a = 6.906 cos 46.32◦ = 4.769 A
 378 Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology

To improve the power factor to 0.85, a capacitor

is connected in parallel with the R–L circuit such power factor becomes 0.95 lagging. Determine
that the capacitor takes a current of IC which is the rating (in kvars) of the capacitors needed.
given by the length bc in the phasor diagram. [334.8 kvar leading]
Length bc = ac − ab
2. A source p.d. of 130∠40◦ V at 2 kHz is
ab
tan 31.79◦ = from which, applied to a circuit having an impedance of
4.769 (5 + j 12) . Determine (a) the supply current,
ab = 4.769 tan 31.79◦ = 2.956 A (b) the active, apparent and reactive powers,
ac (c) the rating of the capacitor to be connected
tan 46.32◦ = from which,
4.769 in parallel with the impedance to improve the
ac = 4.769 tan 46.32◦ = 4.994 A power factor of the circuit to 0.940 lagging, and
(d) the value of the capacitance of the capacitor
Hence, length bc = ac − ab = 4.994 −2.956 required.
= 2.038 A [(a) 10∠−27.38◦ A (b) 500 W, 1300 VA,
1200 var lagging (c) 1018.5 var leading
Thus, capacitor current, IC = 2.038A
(d) 4.797 µF]
V V
Now IC = = = 2πf CV 3. The network shown in Figure 26.22 has a
XC 1
2πf C total active power of 2253 W. Determine (a)
the total impedance, (b) the supply current,
from which, capacitance, (c) the apparent power, (d) the reactive power,
IC 2.038 (e) the circuit power factor, (f) the capacitance
C= = = 21.62 µF of the capacitor to be connected in parallel with
2πf V 2π(50)(300)
the network to improve the power factor to 0.90
[In the phasor diagram, current I is the phasor lagging, if the supply frequency is 50 Hz.
sum of ILR and IC . Thus, an alternative method [(a) 3.51 ∠ 58.40◦  (b) 35.0 A (c) 4300 VA
of determining IC is as follows: (d) 3662 var lagging (e) 0.524 lagging
0a 4.769 (f) 542.3 µF]
cos 31.79◦ = = from which,
0b 0b
4.769
0b = = 5.611 A,
cos 31.79◦
i.e. I = 5.611∠−31.79◦ A
Part 3

Now I = I LR + IC i.e. IC = I − I LR and in com-

plex number form:
IC = 5.611∠−31.79◦ − 6.906∠−46.32◦
∠90◦ A,
= (0 + j 2.038) A or 2.038∠
the magnitude of which is the same as that
obtained above] Figure 26.22

Now try the following exercise
Exercise 103 Further problems on power
factor improvement
1. A 600 kVA transformer is at full load with
an overall power factor of 0.64 lagging. The
power factor is improved by adding capacitors
in parallel with the transformer until the overall
4. The power factor of a certain load is improved
to 0.92 lagging with the addition of a 30 kvar
bank of capacitors. If the resulting supply
apparent power is 200 kVA, determine (a) the
active power, (b) the reactive power before
power factor correction, and (c) the power
factor before correction.
[(a) 184 kW (b) 108.4 kvar lagging
(c) 0.862 lagging]
 Power in a.c. circuits 379

5. A 15  non-reactive resistor is connected in
series with a coil of inductance 75 mH and
negligible resistance. The combined circuit is
connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance
of the circuit, (c) the current in the circuit,
(d) the power factor of the circuit, (e) the power
absorbed by the circuit, and (f) the value of the
power factor correction capacitor to produce a
power factor of 0.92
[(a) 23.56  (b) 27.93∠57.52◦ 
(c) 7.16∠−57.52◦ A (d) 0.537
(e) 769 W (f) 70 µF]

Part 3
 Revision Test 8

This revision test covers the material contained in Chapters 23 to 26. The marks for each question are shown in
brackets at the end of each question.

1. The total impedance Z T of an electrical circuit is I

given by: A
I2 I1
Z2 × Z3
Z T = Z1 +
Z2 + Z3 8
Determine Z T in polar form, correct to 3 significant j 10  j6
figures, when
170⬔0 V B
Z 1 = 5.5∠−21◦ , Z 2 = 2.6∠30◦  and
5
Z 3 = 4.8∠71◦  (8)
j 3 
2. For the network shown in Figure RT8.1, deter-
mine C
(a) the equivalent impedance of the parallel
Figure RT8.1
branches
(b) the total circuit equivalent impedance
(c) current I (l) the total apparent power developed in the
(d) the circuit phase angle network
(e) currents I1 and I2 (m) the total reactive power developed in the
(f) the p.d. across points A and B network (27)
(g) the p.d. across points B and C
(h) the active power developed in the inductive 3. An inductive load takes a current of 60 A at a power
branch factor of 0.643 lagging when connected to a 240 V,
(i) the active power developed across the −j 10  50 Hz supply. It is required to improve the power
capacitor factor to 0.80 lagging by connecting a capacitor in
( j) the active power developed between points B parallel with the load. Calculate (a) the new supply
and C current, (b) the capacitor current, and (c) the value
Part 3

(k) the total active power developed in the net- of the power factor correction capacitor. Draw the
work circuit phasor diagram. (15)