Basic Thermodynamics (18ME33) Module 1 (VTU)

Basic Thermodynamics(18ME33)
Module1: Fundamental
Concepts & Definitions
Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

2
What is Thermodynamics?
Thermo Dynamics Thermodynamics

(Heat) (Power) (Heat Power)

WHY IS THERMODYNAMICS IMPORTANT TODAY?
3
Mechanical engineers study the flow of energy in systems such as

automotive engines(IC Engines), turbines, heat exchangers
(Boilers), air conditioners, refrigerators.
Fig:- Refrigerator Fig:- Automotive Engines Fig:- Automotive Engines

4
Fig:- Wind Turbine Fig:- Gas Turbine

Fig:- Boiler
Electrical engineers deal with electronic cooling problems, 5
increasing the energy efficiency of large-scale electrical power

generation, and the development of new electrical energy
conversion technologies such as solar cells.
Fig:- Large Scale Power Fig:- Large Scale Power Generation

Generation Power Plant Using Solar Power Plant
Civil engineers deal with energy utilization in construction methods, 6
solid waste disposal, geothermal power generation and

environmental impact analysis.
Fig:- Geothermal Power Plant

7
Aerospace engineers develop energy management systems for air

and space vehicles, space stations, and planetary habitation.
Fig:- Thermal Analysis of a

Aeroplane Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.
Biomedical engineers develop better energy conversion systems for 8
the health care industry, design new diagnostic and treatment tools,
and study the energy flows in living systems.
Fig:- Thermometers Fig:- Thermal Camera

Definition of Thermodynamics
Definition: Thermodynamics is the branch of science that studies

heat and work interaction of a system and its effects on
surroundings.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science.
Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology

9
Bengaluru.
System & Surroundings
SYSTEM :
Quantity of matter or region in space, chosen for
studying thermodynamic study.
SURROUNDINGS :
Mass or region outside the SYSTEM boundary
BOUNDARY :
Real / Imaginary surface that separates the
SYSTEM from SURROUNDINGS.
Fig:- System, surrounding and
boundary
UNIVERSE:
The combination of System and Surroundings is
called as UNIVERSE. Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology
10
Bengaluru.
Open System or Control Volume
It is the system in which the mass and energy is allowed to cross the
system boundary is called as open system
Mass YES
Energy YES
Fig:- Open System
Fig:- I.C. Engine

Fresh mass air and fuel mixture is added in every intake stroke
and burnt gases are exhausted in every exhaust stroke. Hence Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology 11
IC engine constitutes an open system Bengaluru.
Closed System or Control Mass
It is the system in which the mass is not allowed but energy is allowed
to cross the system boundary is called as open system
Mass NO
m = const.
Energy YES
Fig:- Closed System

Fig:- Refrigeration System
No fresh mass of refrigerant is added or removed from the refrigerator
in complete cycle. Hence refrigeration cycle constitutes a closed cycle. Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology 12
Bengaluru.
Fig:- Nuclear Power Plant
No fresh mass of water is added or removed from the power plant in complete cycle. Hence nuclear power plant
constitutes a closed cycle.
13
Bengaluru.
Isolated System
It is the system in which the neither mass nor energy is allowed to
cross the system boundary is called as closed system
Surroundings
Mass NO
System (Cooker)
m = const.
E = const.
Energy NO
Fig:- Isolated System Fig:- Isolated System

14
Bengaluru.
Comparison of open, closed and isolated system taking cooker as an
example.
Fig:- Open System Fig:- Closed System Fig:- Isolated System
Critical Thinking
If we select your body as a thermodynamic system, is it an open or closed system? What happens to you if we force
you to be a closed system?
15
Bengaluru.
Thermodynamic Property:
Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
Intensive Properties : It is the property of a system that is

Independent on mass of system.
Ex:-Density, Viscosity Pressure, Temperature etc.
Extensive Properties : It is a property of a system that is

Dependent on mass of system.
Ex:- Mass, Moles, Volume, Energy (Enthalpy, Internal
Energy) etc.
16
Bengaluru.
17
Divide the system into two equal

parts with an imaginary partition, as
shown in. Each part will have the
same value of intensive properties
as the original system, but half the
value of the extensive properties.
Fig:- Criterion to differentiate intensive and

extensive properties.
18
 UPPER letters are used to denote extensive properties (with

mass m being a major exception).
Example :-Volume (V),Internal Energy (U) and Enthalpy (H).
 lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with

pressure P and temperature T being the obvious exceptions).
Example :- Density(𝜌),Viscosity (μ).

Specific Properties :Extensive properties per unit mass. 19
It is to convert Extensive property into intensive property.
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
Intensive Property =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑚3
Ex:- Specific Volume(v)= = ………( )
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔
𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑦 𝐻 𝑘𝐽
Specific Enthalpy (h) = = ………( )
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑈 𝑘𝐽
Specific Internal Energy (u) = = ………( )
Critical Thinking
If we chose the color of a system as a thermodynamic property, would it be an extensive or
intensive property?
Macroscopic and Microscopic Point of View: 20
 The macroscopic forms of energy are

those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside system
boundary.
 The microscopic forms of energy are

those related to the molecular structure
(viz. atoms, molecules or ions) of a
system and they are within the system
boundary.
Comparison between Macroscopic and Microscopic Point of View: 21
Sl. No. Macroscopic View Point Microscopic View Point

1 In this approach certain quantity of matter
In this approach certain quantity of matter is
is considered by considering the events
considered without considering the events
occurring at the molecule, atom or ion
occurring at the molecule, atom or ion level.
level.
2 Action of the individual molecules will not be Action of the individual molecules will be
considered. considered.
3 Behavior of the system is described based
Behavior of the system is described based on the
by summing up the behavior of individual
end effect on surroundings
molecules within the system.
4 It is also known as statistical
It is also known as classical thermodynamics
thermodynamics
5 Analysis of the system is easy Analysis of the system is difficult.
6 Simple mathematical formulae are required to More and complex mathematical formulae
solve. are required to solve.
22
Fig:- The macroscopic energy of an object Fig:- At least five different forms of energy are
changes with velocity and elevation encountered in bringing power from a nuclear plant to
your home: Nuclear, Thermal, Mechanical, magnetic,
and electrical.
Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science.

23
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEM
 It is system which consists of single phase

is known as Homogeneous System
 Ex:- Mixture of Air and Water Vapour
Mixture of Ammonia and Water
Homogeneous and
Non Heterogeneous
System: HETEROGENEOUS SYSTEM
 It is system which consists of more than

one phase is known as Heterogeneous
System
 Ex:- Mixture of Water and Steam
Mixture of Ice and Water
Comparison between Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures: 24

Thermodynamic Equilibrium: 25
A system is said to be thermodynamic equilibrium when thermal, mechanical and chemical

equilibrium simultaneously exists.
Thermal Equilibrium
A system is said to be thermal equilibrium if

there is NO temperature difference within
the system.
Fig:-A closed system reaching thermal

equilibrium.

26
Mechanical Equilibrium
A system is said to be Mechanical equilibrium if there is NO pressure difference within

the system.
Chemical Equilibrium
A system is said to be Mechanical equilibrium if there is NO chemical reaction occurs

within the system.

Thermodynamic State, Process and Cycle: 27
State: The condition of physical existence of a system at any instance of

time is called as state. The state of the system is described by certain
macroscopic properties like pressure, temperature, volume etc.
Ex:- Ice state, liquid sate etc.
Process: A thermodynamic process is the

series of thermodynamic states that a
system passes through as it goes from an
initial state to a final state.
Ex:- Isothermal Process, Isobaric process
etc.
Fig:-
Prof. A process
Anand between
Kulkarni, Cambridge states
Institute 1 and
of Technology 2
Bengaluru.
and the process path.
28
Path: -The series of states through which

a system passes during a process is called
the path of the process
Fig:- Three process paths that change

the state of the system from A to B.
Cycle: A system process is said to go

through a thermodynamic cycle when the
final state of the process is the same as
the initial state of the process.
Ex:- Otto Cycle, Diesel Cycle,
Refrigeration Cycle. Fig:- A thermodynamic cycle.
Non – Equilibrium (Fast) Process: 29
Fig:- Transition between two equilibrium Fig:- Plot representing transition between two
states by an unbalanced force. equilibrium states by an unbalanced force.
Quasi-Static Process: 30
Fig:- Infinitesimal slow transition between Fig:- Plotting Infinitesimal slow process (A
two equilibrium states by a balanced force. quasi-static Process).

Features of Quasi-Static Process: 31
 It is a thermodynamic process which occurs infinitesimal

slowly.
 Every state is in equilibrium in quasi static process.
 Thermodynamic properties are almost static with time
during the process.
 Quasi static process is also a reversible process.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: 32
BODY 1
Thermal
BODY 2 BODY 3
STATEMENT :
If two bodies are in Thermal Equilibrium with the third body, then they are
also in Thermal Equilibrium with each other.
Outcome: Gives rise to Concept of temperature measurement.

Concept of Temperature Measurement: 33
BODY 1
(Thermometer)
BODY 2 Thermal BODY 3

(Temperature to be
Measured)
(Mercury)
Thermometric
Property
Fig:- Schematic Representation of concept of temperature Measurement
STATEMENT :
Temperature of the degree of hotness or coldness of the system.
Thermometric Property: 34
STATEMENT :
Thermometric property is a physical property that varies with the temperature.
Thermometric properties are used to measure the temperature in the thermometers
Sl. No Type of Thermometer Thermometric property Symbol

1 Mercury in glass thermometer Thermal Expansion (Length) L
2 Constant volume thermometer Pressure P
3 Constant pressure thermometer Volume V
4 Electric resistance thermometer Resistance (Wheatstone Bridge) R
5 Thermocouple e.m.f. (Voltage) e
6 Radiation Thermometer Radiance Emittance (Infra Red -
Radiations)
International Temperature Scale: 35
What are International Temperature Scales fixed point?
International temperature scales are reproducible states

assigned with fixed values which are usually accepted.
Ex:- Boiling point of water, triple point of water and ice point of water.
Significance: Used for calibrating thermometers in various

ranges.
Some standard fixed point: 36
Sl Primary Standards Significance of the fixed point Temperature in 0C

No
1 Solver point Boiling point of silver 1063 0C
2 Gold point Boiling point of gold 960.8 0C
3 Sulphur point Boiling point of Sulphur 444.6 0C
4 Steam point Boiling point of water 100 0C
5 Ice point Solidification point of water 0 0C
6 Oxygen point Liquidification point of water -182.97 0C

Principle of temperature scales: 37
Consider a thermometric property X such that the temperature t is a linear

function of the property,
T = a + bX
Where, a and b are constant

X is measured at known temperature point

Celsius Scale
38

Fahrenheit Scale
39

Relation between Fahrenheit Scale and Celsius Scale
40

Kelvin Scale
41

Relation between Kelvin Scale and Celcius Scale
42

Relation between standard temperature scales: 43
Relation between Celcius and Fahrenheit temperature scales:
9
𝑇𝐹𝑜 = 32 + 𝑇𝑐𝑜
5
Relation between Celcius and Kelvin temperature scales:
𝑇𝐾 = 273 + 𝑇𝐶𝑜

44
Equivalence between Celcius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales:

Two fixed point temperature sclae: 45
We know that,
T = a + bX
T(X) 𝛼 X
T(X) = ϴ(X),
Where ϴ arbitrary function of thermometric property X
At Boiling point T(𝑋𝑏 ) = 𝑋𝑏
At Ice point, and T(𝑋𝑖 ) = 𝑋𝑖
Measuring point T(X) = X
Procedure:
To measure temperature of body keeping Ice point as fixed point then,
T(𝑋𝑖 ) 𝑋𝑖
=
T(X) 𝑋
To measure temperature of body keeping boiling point as fixed point then,

T(𝑋𝑏) 𝑋
= 𝑏 Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.
T(X) 𝑋
T(𝑋𝑏 ) −T(𝑋𝑖 ) 𝑋𝑏 − 𝑋𝑖 46
=
T(X) 𝑋
T(𝑋𝑏) −T(𝑋𝑖)
T(X) = 𝑋𝑏 −𝑋𝑖
.𝑋
Example: Celsius Scale
𝑋 −𝑋𝑖
T(X) = 100 𝑋𝑏 −𝑋𝑖
Fahrenheit Scale
𝑋 −𝑋𝑖
T(X) = 32+ 180 𝑋𝑏 −𝑋𝑖
Kelvin Scale
𝑋 −𝑋𝑖
T(X) = 273+ 100 𝑋 −𝑋
𝑏 𝑖

Single fixed point temperature scale: 47
We know that,
T = a + bX
T(X) 𝛼 X
T(X) = ϴ(X),
Where ϴ arbitrary function of thermometric property X
Procedure:
To measure temperature of body keeping Triple point of water as fixed point then,
T(𝑋 ) 𝑋
=
T(𝑋𝑡𝑝 ) 𝑋𝑡𝑝
For Triple point of water T(𝑋𝑡𝑝 ) = 273.16 K
Then, 𝑋
T(X) = 𝑋 x 273.16
𝑡𝑝

Advantages of Single fixed point method over Two fixed point method: 48
Advantages of Single fixed point method
Since 1954, only Triple point of water point has been chosen as a fixed point.
1. The temperature of the triple point of water, which is easily reproducible state.
2. Triple point of water is constant at pressure.
Limitations of Two fixed point method
Before 1954, boiling and ice point of water point has been chosen as two fixed
point.
1. The difficulty of achieving equilibrium between ice-water(since when melts,
water is covered by ice).
2. The ice and boiling points are extremely sensitive to the change in pressure.
Mercury in glass Thermometer: 49
Thermometric Property :
Variation of length (Thermal Expansion/contraction)
with Temperature
Capillary Tube
𝐿
T= X 𝑇𝑡𝑝
𝐿𝑡𝑝 Glass Tube
Where, T = Temperature of the body to be

measured
L = Pressure of the body to be
measured (Value Mercury
obtained from thermometer setup )
Ttp and Ltp = Temperature and Length at the
triple point of water
Fig:- Schematic Representation of working of
Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru. Mercury in glass thermometer
Constant Volume Gas Thermometer: 50
Thermometric Property : Pressure variation

with Temperature
Gay – Lussac’s Law:-

At constant volume, the pressure of the gas is
directly proportional to the temperature.

measured
P = Pressure of the body to be
measured (Value
Ttp and Ptp = Temperature and pressure at the
Fig:- Schematic Representation of working of
Constant volume Gas thermometer
Constant Pressure Gas Thermometer: 51
Thermometric Property : Variation of volume

with Temperature
Charle’s Law:-
At constant pressure, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to the temperature.

measured
V = Volume of the body to be
measured (Value
Ttp and Vtp = Temperature and volume at the
triple point of water Fig:- Schematic Representation of working of
Constant pressure Gas thermometer
Thermocouples: 52
Thermometric Property : Variation of voltage

(EMF) with Temperature
Fig:- Principle of thermocouple

measured
E = EMF body to be Value
obtained from thermometer.
Ttp and Etp = Temperature and EMF at the
Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru. Fig:- Thermocouple

Resistance Thermometer: 53
Thermometric Property : Variation resistance

with Temperature
𝑅
T= X 𝑇𝑡𝑝
𝑅𝑡𝑝
Fig:- Principle of resistance thermometer

measured
E = EMF body to be Value
obtained from thermometer.
Ttp and Rtp = Temperature and Resistance at the

Fig:- Resistance thermometer
54
Numerical exercises :
Set 1
Comparing New temperature scale with a standard
Temperature Scale.

Class Work 1: 55
A new scale ‘N’of temperature is divided in such way that the freezing point of ice is 100 oN and
the boiling point is 400 oN. What is the temperature reading on this new scale when the
temperature is 150 oC?
56

Class Work 2: 57
In 1709, Sir Isaac Newton proposed new temperature scale. On this scale temperature was linear
function on Celsius scale. The reading on this at ice point (0 0C) and normal human body
temperature (37 0C) were 00N and 120N respectively. Determine the relation between the Newton
scale and Celsius scale. Find the value of 20 0C in Newton scale.

58

Class Work 3 59
On some temperature scale 0 0C is equivalent to 100 0B and 100 0C
is equivalent to 300 0B.
Determine the temperature in 0C corresponding to 200 0B. Convert the temperature obtained in 0C
to Fahrenheit and Kelvin scale.

60

61
Set 2
Thermocouples

Class Work 5
62
The emf in a thermocouple, with the test junction at t oC on gas thermometer scale and reference
junction at ice point is given by e = 0.2t-5x10-4t2 mV. The millivoltametre is calibrated at ice and
steam points. Determine where the gas thermometer reads 50 oC?

Class Work 6
63
The emf in millivolts in a thermocouple with the test junction at t oC on gas thermometer scale
and reference junction at ice point is given by e=0.0367t+1.33x10-4t2. The millivoltametre is
calibrated at ice and steam points. Determine temperature when the gas thermometer reads 50 oC?

64
Set 3
Resistance Thermometers

65
Class Work 7
The resistance of windings in a certain motor is found to be 80 Ω at room
temperature (25 oC). When operating at full load, under steady state
conditions, the motor is switched off and resistance of winding
immediately measured again, is found to be 90 Ω. The windings are
made of copper whose resistance at temperature at t oCis given by
Rt = Ro[1+0.00393t], when Ro is the at 0 oC. Determine the temperature
attained by the coil during the full load.

66

67
Class Work 8
The equation Rt = Ro[1+αt] is applicable to resistance thermometer. Rt
and Ro are the values of resistance thermometer at temperature t oC and
0 oC respectively. The thermometer is calibrated by immersing in boiling
in water at 100 oC and boiling Sulphur at 446.6 oC. The instrument
indicates the resistance values at therse two points to be 14.7 Ω and 29.2
Ω respectively. Determine the temperature of the fluid for which
corresponding thermometer resistance is 23.5 Ω.

68

69

Class Work 9
70
A platinum wire is used as resistance thermometer. The wire resistance found to be 10 Ω and 16 Ω
at ice point and steam point respectively, and 30 Ω at Sulphur boiling point of 446.6 oC.
Determine the resistance of wire at 500 oC, if the resistance varies with temperature by the
relation, R = Ro (1+αT+βT2).

71

72
Set 4
Variation of Thermometric property given by a
relation.

Class Work 10
73
The temperature scale of certain thermometer is given by the relation t = a ln(x) + b where ‘a’ and
‘b’ are constants and x is thermometric property of the fluid in the thermometer. If at the ice and
steam point the thermometric property are found to be 1.5 and 7.5 respectively, Determine the
temperature corresponding to the thermometric property 3.5?

74
Class Work 11
The temperature ‘t’ on Celsius scale is defined in terms of property ‘P’
by the relations
𝑡−𝐵
P=𝑒 𝐴
Where A and B are constants Experiments gives values of the p of 1.86

and 6.81 at ice and steam point respectively. Obtain relations for t and
also determine the temperature t at p=2.5.

75

Class Work 12
76
The temperature T on a thermometric scale is defined as T = a ln K + b where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are
constants. The value of K found to be 1.83 and 6.78 at 0 oC and 100 oC respectively, Determine
the temperature for the value of K=2.4.

77
Set 5
Calibrating two Celcius scales.

Class Work 13
78
Two Celsius thermometers ‘A’ and ‘B’ agree at ice point and steam point and related equation is
ta= L+Mtb+Ntb2, where L, M and N are constants. When both thermometers are immersed in fluid, ‘A’
registers 26 oC while ‘B’ registers 25 oC. Determine the reading of ‘A’ and ‘B’ reads 37.4 oC.

79

80
Class Work 14
The readings TA and TB of two Celcius thermometer, A and B agree at the
ice point 0 oC and the steam point 100 oC, but elsewhere are related by
the equation
TA = l + mTB + nT2B.
Where l, m and n are constant. When both thermometers are immersed in
a well stirred oil bath A register 51 oC, while B register 50 oC. Determine
the reading on B when A reads 25 oC

81

82

83
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Basic Thermodynamics(18ME33)

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

Thermo Dynamics Thermodynamics

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

Mechanical engineers study the flow of energy in systems such as

Fig:- Refrigerator Fig:- Automotive Engines Fig:- Automotive Engines

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

Fig:- Wind Turbine Fig:- Gas Turbine

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

increasing the energy efficiency of large-scale electrical power

Fig:- Large Scale Power Fig:- Large Scale Power Generation

solid waste disposal, geothermal power generation and

Fig:- Geothermal Power Plant

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

Aerospace engineers develop energy management systems for air

Fig:- Thermal Analysis of a

Fig:- Thermometers Fig:- Thermal Camera

Definition: Thermodynamics is the branch of science that studies

Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science.

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology

Fig:- Open System

Fig:- I.C. Engine

Fig:- Closed System

Fig:- Isolated System Fig:- Isolated System

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology

Fig:- Open System Fig:- Closed System Fig:- Isolated System

Any characteristic of a system is called a property.

Intensive Properties : It is the property of a system that is

Extensive Properties : It is a property of a system that is

Divide the system into two equal

Fig:- Criterion to differentiate intensive and

 UPPER letters are used to denote extensive properties (with

 lowercase letters are used for intensive properties (with

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

It is to convert Extensive property into intensive property.

 The macroscopic forms of energy are

 The microscopic forms of energy are

Sl. No. Macroscopic View Point Microscopic View Point

Thermodynamics is a macroscopic science.

 It is system which consists of single phase

 It is system which consists of more than

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

A system is said to be thermodynamic equilibrium when thermal, mechanical and chemical

A system is said to be thermal equilibrium if

Fig:-A closed system reaching thermal

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

A system is said to be Mechanical equilibrium if there is NO pressure difference within

A system is said to be Mechanical equilibrium if there is NO chemical reaction occurs

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

State: The condition of physical existence of a system at any instance of

Process: A thermodynamic process is the

Path: -The series of states through which

Fig:- Three process paths that change

Cycle: A system process is said to go

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

 It is a thermodynamic process which occurs infinitesimal

Prof. Anand Kulkarni, Cambridge Institute of Technology Bengaluru.

Outcome: Gives rise to Concept of temperature measurement.

BODY 2 Thermal BODY 3

Thermometric properties are used to measure the temperature in the thermometers

Sl. No Type of Thermometer Thermometric property Symbol

What are International Temperature Scales fixed point?

International temperature scales are reproducible states