MRK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Subject Title : Fluid Mechanics & Machinery Title : Solved

Subject Code : CE8394 Unit : I
Year/ Sem : II/III Type : 100% Numerical
FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Units and dimensions- Properties of fluids- mass density, specific weight, specific volume, specific
gravity, viscosity, compressibility, vapor pressure, surface tension and capillarity. Flow
characteristics – concept of control volume - application of continuity equation, energy equation and
momentum equation.
PART – A – (2 MARKS)

Units & Dimensions. Properties of fluids – mass density, specific weight, specific volume,
Specific gravity, viscosity
1. State the conditions under which uniform and non-uniform flows are produced.
[May/June-2016]
Uniform flow: when velocity remains constant at all points in the moving fluid.


=0


Non-Uniform flow: when velocity of fluid changes from point to point at any time.


≠0


2. Give five examples of fluid flow phenomena encountered in everyday life.
The study and understand the basic principles of fluid mechanics, The constant pumping of a
heart in a body and supplying the blood to all parts of the body is the practical application of
fluid mechanics. Nowadays, all artificial hearts, dialysis systems, blood transfusion systems,
ventilators (breathing machines) are designed using fluid mechanics. Many devices and machines
are designed based on fluid mechanics.
3. Mention application of fluid mechanics in engineering practice.
• Many devices and machines are designed based on fluid mechanics. For example,
refrigerator or air conditioner contains tubes in which a working fluid flows, extracts heat
from the space, and rejects heat through the heat exchanger.
• Most of the systems of a vehicle such as the brake system, carburetor, and air filter and
cooling of an engine are designed and analyzed using fluid mechanics.
• The study of the aerodynamics on vehicles and airplanes involve fluid mechanics in
selecting and designing the shape by reducing the drag coefficient.
• All natural systems such as evaporation of water and returning back to earth as rain,
winds, ocean waves, suction of water from the ground / soil by the roots of the trees
involves fluid mechanics. Similarly, turbines (steam turbines, wind turbines, hydraulic
turbines), compressors, blowers, chillers work on the principle of fluid mechanics.
4. Define fluids.
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing. It has no definite shape of its
own, but confirms to the shape of the containing vessel.
A fluid is a substance is a substance which deforms continuously under the action of shear stress.
In addition, it has the following properties:
• It is unable to retain any unsupported shape.
• It flows under its own weight and takes the shape of any solid body with which it
contained.
• A fluid in equilibrium cannot sustain any shear.
• It cannot regain its original shape on the removal of the shear force.

5. Define Fluid mechanics and Fluid statics and dynamics.

Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behavior of the fluids (liquid or
gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics
and dynamics aspect of fluids.The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics.The study of fluids

1
 in motion, where pressure forces are not considered is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure
forces are also considered for the fluids in motion is called fluid dynamics.
6. Classify the different types of fluid.
Fluids are classified as follows.
• Ideal and real fluids.
• Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.
Ideal fluids: Fluids which don’t have viscosity and are incompressible are termed as ideal fluid
such fluid do not offer shear resistance.
Real fluids:Fluids which do posses viscosity are termed as real fluids. These fluids always offer
shear resistance.
Newtonian fluids:The fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are called as Newtonian
fluids.E.g. - water, air etc.
Non-Newtonian fluids:Fluids which do not follow the linear relation between shear stress and
rate of angular deformation are termed as Non Newtonian fluids.
7. What is ideal plastic fluid?
The fluid, which act like solids by with standing a definite shear without strain change and later
rate of shear strain increases with shear stress after yielding. Example – oil, paints, jellies,
drilling sand etc.,
A fluid with no viscosity is called ideal fluid. Practically, no fluid is ideal since all fluids have
some viscosity.
8. What is the difference between an ideal and a real fluid?
S. no Ideal fluids Real fluids
1 It is incompressible It is compressible
2 It has zero viscosity. They are viscous in nature.
3 Shear force is zero when the fluid is Shear stress always exists in
in motion. such fluids.
4 No resistance is offered to the Some resistance is always
motion of any fluid particles. offered by the fluid when it is
in motion.
9. What are the properties of ideal fluids?
Ideal fluids have following properties
• It is incompressible.
• It has zero viscosity
• Shear force is zero, when it is motion.
10. Why are some fluids classified as Newtonian fluids? Give example to Newtonian fluids.
A real fluid, in which the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain, is known
as Newtonian fluids.In Newtonian fluids, a linear relationship exists between the magnitude of
shear stress and the resulting rate of deformation. The constant of proportionality does not
change with the rate of deformation.
Example: Water, Kerosene.

11. What are Non-Newtonian fluids?

In Non-Newtonian fluids, there is a non-linear relationship between the magnitudes of shear
stress and the rate of deformation.A real fluid, in which the shear stress is not proportional to the
rate of shear strain, is known as Non-Newtonian fluid. They do not obey Newton’s law of
viscosity.The Non-Newtonian fluids can be further classified into five groups. They are simple
Non-Newtonian, ideal plastic, shear thickening and real plastic fluids.
12. Define – Incompressible fluid. [ Nov/Dec – 2014]
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of fluid remains constant. Liquids
are generally incompressible while gases are compressible. Mathematically, for incompressible
flow. ρ = constant. Though liquids are slightly compressible, it is assumed to be incompressible.
13. Define the term density.
Density or specific mass is defined as the mass per unit volume of the fluid. Mass of the fluid
contained in 1 m3 volume. It is denoted by a Greek symbol (rho)
Mass M
ρ= =
Volume V

2
 Unit: kg/m3
With the increase in temperature volume of fluid increases and hence mass density decreases.In
case of fluids as the pressure increases volume decreases and hence mass density increases.
14. Define the term specific volume.
Specific volume is defined as the volume of the fluid occupied by unit mass. The unit used is
m3/kg.


Specific volume = 
= V/m
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density.
15. Define the specific gravity.
It is the ratio of specific weight of fluid to specific weight of standard fluid. It can also be defined
as the ratio of mass density of fluid to the mass density of standard fluid.

   

Specific gravity, S=     ! 


S for Gas = Weight density of gas/Weight density of air

Density of liquid = S X 1000 X 9.81 N/m3
16. State newton law of viscosity. [May/June-2014]
According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear force F acting between two layers of fluid is
proportional to the difference in their velocities and area of the plate and inversely proportional
to the distance between them.
It states that the shear stress " on fluid element layer is directly proportional to the rate of shear
strain. The constant of proportionality is called coefficient of viscosity.
$%
" = # $&
17. The converging pipe with inlet and outlet diameters of 200 mm and 150 mm carries the oil
whose specific gravity is 0.8. The velocity of oil at the entry is 2.5 m/s, find the velocity at
the exit of the pipe and oil flow rate in kg/sec. [Ap/May 2010]
Given :
D1 = 200 mm = 0.2 m
D2 = 150 mm = 0.5 m
S = 0.8
V1 = 2.5 m/s
To find:
(i) Velocity at the exit (V2), (ii) Rate of flow (Q)
Solution:
(i) By using continuity equation
A1V1 = A2V2
' '
× 0.2, × 2.5 = × 0.15, × ,
4 4
0.07854 = 0.01767 ,
, = 4.44 2/
3
(ii) Rate of flow (Q) A1V1 =A2V2 = 4 × 0.2, × 2.5
Q = 0.0785 m3/s
18. Define viscosity and what is the effect due to temperature on liquid and gases. [Ap/May
2017]
Viscosity is the property of a liquid which determines the amount of resistance to a shearing
stress. It can also be defined as the property of a fluid due to which it offers resistance to the
movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer. Viscosity increases with increase in
temperature in the case of gases whereas it increases in the case of liquid.
NS
Its unit is
m2
19. Write down the effect of temperature on viscosity of liquids and gases. [Nov/Dec -2016]

• The gas viscosity will increase with temperature. According to the kinetic theory of
gases, viscosity should be proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature, in
practice, it increases more rapidly.

3
 • In a liquid there will be molecular interchange similar to those developed in a gas, but
there are additional substantial attractive, cohesive forces between the molecules of a
liquid (which are much closer together than those of a gas). Both cohesion and molecular
interchange contribute to liquid viscosity.
20. Calculate the specific weight and specific gravity of 1 litre of a liquid with a density of 713.5
kg/m3and which weighs 7N. [N/D -2015]
Given:
Volume (v) = 1 litre = 1/1000 = 1×10-3 m3
Density (ρ) = 713.5 kg/m3
Weights (w) = 7N
To find:
(i) Specific weight (w), (ii) Specific gravity (S)
Solution:
(i) Specific weight (w) = w/v = 7/ (1×10-3)
w = 7000 N/m3
(ii) Specific gravity (S) = density of the given liquid/ density of the water
S = 713.5/ 1000 = 0.7135
21. Calculate the mass density and specific volume of 1 litre of a liquid which weighs 7N.[A/M -
2015]
Given:
Volume (v) = 1 litre = 1/1000 = 1×10-3 m3
Weights (w) = 7N
To find:
Mass density (ρ)
Solution:
(iii) Specific weight (w) = w/v = 7/ (1×10-3)
w = 7000 N/m3
(iv) Specific weight (w) = density (ρ) × Acceleration due to the gravity (g)
ρ = 7000/ 9.81 = 713.56 kg/m3
22. What is the importance of kinematic viscosity? [N/D-2014]
Kinematic viscosity represents the momentum diffusivity. Kinematic viscosity increase with
increase in temperature in case of gases whereas it decreases in case of liquid. For liquids and
gases absolute (dynamic) viscosity is not influenced significantly pressure due to change in
density. In gas flow, it is better to use absolute viscosity and density, rather than tabulated values
of kinematic viscosity, which is usually for 1 atm.
23. Suppose the small air bubbles in a glass of tap water may be on the order of 50µm in
diameter. What is the pressure inside these bubbles? [ Nov/Dec -2010]
Given:
Diameter = 50 µm = 50 ×10-6 m
For liquid droplet
46 4×6
5= = = 80000 6
7 50 × 1089
The pressure will be 80,000 times that the surface tension.
Suppose σ = 0.1 N/m, then pressure
= 0.1 × 80000 = 8000 N/m2
24. What is the variation of viscosity with temperature for fluids? [N/D-2009]
• In case of liquids, when the temperature increases the distance between molecules will
increase and the cohesive force will decrease. So, viscosity of liquids decreases when the
temperature increases.
• In case of gases, the contribution to viscosity is more due to momentum transfer. When
temperature increases, more molecules cross over with higher momentum differences.
Hence, viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
25. If liquid has a viscosity of 0.051 poise and kinematic viscosity of 0.14 stokes, calculate its
specific gravity.
Given:
Viscosity, µ = 0.051 poise= 0.051/10 Ns/m2
Kinematic viscosity, v= 0.14 stokes = 0.14 x 10-4 m2/s
Solution:

4
 ;
Using the relation :=<

0.051 1
0.14 × 1084 = ×
10 =

0.051 1
== × = 0.0051 × 71428.57
10 0.14 × 1084

= = 364.28 ?@/2A

Specific gravity of liquid = Density of liquid / Density of water

= 364.28/1000 = 0.364 = 0.4

26. What is cavitation? What causes it? [ Nov/Dec- 2013]
Due to reduction is area the velocity of fluids is increase and pressure decreases. When pressure
comes below that of vapour pressure of the flowing fluid then the liquid will be vapourized. This
phenomenon is called cavitation.
Causes of cavitation:
• Sudden drop in head, efficiency and the power delivered to the fluid.
• Noise and vibrations produced by the collapse of vapour bubbles.
27. Find the height of a mountain where the atmospheric pressure is 730 mm of Hg at Normal
conditions. [Nov/Dec -2009]
The density of mercury is 13,600 kg/m3
Atmospheric pressure at the top of the mountain is:
Ptop = ρgh = 13600 × 9.81 × 0.730 = 97.39 kPa.
Taking an air column between the top and the bottom of the mountain, we write a force balance
per unit base are,
Wair/ A = Pbottom – ptop
(ρgh)air = Pbottom – ptop
Assume an average air density of 1.18 kg/m3
1.18 × 9.81 × h = (101.325 – 97.39) × 103
Which yields h = 339.9 m, which is also the height of the mountain.

28. Define dynamic viscosity and kinematic viscosity of fluid.

Dynamic viscosity:
The dynamic viscosity is defined as the shear stress (τ) required producing unit rate of shear
deformation or rate of shear strain (du/dy). It is also called co-efficient of viscosity or absolute
viscosity and denoted by Greek letter (μ) and its unit is Ns/m2.
" = # (7C/7D)
# = "/ (7C/7D)

Kinematic viscosity: It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of the fluid to its mass density. It is
noted by the letter (υ) and its unit in m2/s.
GDHI2JK LJKMJND (#)
F=
7OHJND MP QJRCJ7 (=)

29. What is kinematics viscosity? State its units. [May/june-2014]

The kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.
#
F=
=
In SI unit, it is m2/sec. it is often measured in stokes
K2, 1084 2,
1 NM?O = =
 OK
1
1 KOHNJNM?O = NM?O
100

5
30. Define Relative or Specific viscosity. [ May/June- 2013]
It is the ratio of dynamic viscosity of any fluid to the dynamic viscosity of water at 200C.
Relative (or) specific viscosity = dynamic viscosity of given fluid/ dynamic viscosity of water.
31. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is
increased from 70 N/cm2 to 130 N/cm2. The volume of the liquid decreased by 0.15 percent.
[May/June-2014]
Given :
Initial pressure (P1) = 70 N/cm2 = 70 × 10-4 N/m2
Finial pressure (P2) = 130 N/cm2 = 130 × 10-4 N/m2
Volumetric strain (dU/U) = 0.15/100 = 0.15
To find:
Bulk modulus (k)
Solution:
7T T, − TW
SCQ? 2M7CQC (?) = $V = $V
− −
V V
(130 × 1084 ) − (70 × 1084 ) 60 × 1084
? = =
0.15 0.15

32. Differentiate between kinematic viscosity of liquids and gases with respect to pressure.
[Nov/Dec- 2013].
High pressure can change the viscosity of a liquid. As pressure increases the relative movement
of molecules of a liquid requires more energy hence viscosity increases. In case of gases, change
in viscosity due to change in pressure is negligible.
Viscosity of gases depends on the molecular momentum transfer. Higher the temperature, more
energy possessed by the molecules and thus greater the momentum of colliding gas molecules.
Thus viscosity increases with increases in temperature for gases.
33. Write short notes on compressibility and Bulk modulus. [Nov/Dec 2011]
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio
of compressive stress to volumetric stain.
Consider pressure and value of cylinder fitted with piston.

Bulk modulus K = Increase of pressure/Volumetric strain

=( dp/-d˅) V
Compressibility = 1/K
34. A soap bubble is formed when the inside pressure is 5 N/m2 above the atmospheric
pressure. If surface tension in the soap bubble is 0.0125 N/m, find the diameter of the
bubble formed. [Ap/May 2010]
Given:
Absolute pressure (P) = 5 N/m2
Surface tension in the soap bubble (σ) = 0.0125 N/m
To find:
Diameter of soap bubble (d)
Solution:
Pressure (P) = 8σ/d
5 = (8×0.0125)/5
d = 0.02 m.
35. Define the term vapour pressure and absolute temperature.
Vapour Pressure:
The pressure above the surface of the liquid is reduced, at some point, there will be vapourisation
of the liquid. If the reduction in pressure is continued vapourisation will also continue. If the
reduction in pressure is stopped, vapourisation continues until vapours of the liquid exert certain
pressure which will just stop the vapourisation. This minimum partial pressure exerted by the
vapours of the liquid just to stop vapourisation is calledVapour Pressure of the liquid.
Absolute temperature:
The zero reading of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale is chosen arbitrarily. On Celsius scale, the
ice and steam points are assigned the values of 0°c and 100°c respectively. The corresponding
values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F. Absolute zero temperature is the zero below

6
 which the temperature of any substance cannot fall. It is taken as the value of -273°c. The
temperature measured from the absolute zero temperature is called as absolute temperature.
36. Define capillarity.
Capillarity is the phenomenon by which liquids will rise or fall in a tube of small diameter dipped
in them. Capillarity is due to cohesion / adhesion and surface tension of liquids. If adhesion is
more than cohesion then there will be capillary rise. If cohesion is greater than adhesion then will
be capillary fall or depression. The surface tensile force supports capillary rise or depression.
37. Write the expression for capillary rise and capillary fall.
4X  Y
Capillary rise or fall, h = .
Z 
Where,
h = Height of depression in tube.
σ = Surface tension of liquid.
θ = Angle of contact between liquid and glass tube.
ρ = Density of liquid.
38. Calculate the height of capillary rise for water in a glass tube of diameter 1mm? [Ap/May
2017]
Given:
d = 1 mm
Solution:
For water and glass tube interface, θ = 0
So, the capillary rise of water in the glass tube
Assume
w for water = 9810 N/m3
σ for water = 0.075 N/m
46
h=
^7
4 × 0.075
ℎ=
9810 × 0.001
ℎ = 0.031 2
39. Calculate the capillary rise in a glass tube of 2.5 mm diameter when immersed vertically in
(a) water (b) mercury. Take surface tension σ = 0.0725 n/m for water and σ = 0.52 N/m for
mercury in contact with air. The specific gravity for mercury is given as 13.6 and angle of
contact = 1300. [Nov/Dec -2016]
Given:
d = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10-3 m
σ for water = 0.0725 N/m
σ for mercury = 0.52 N/m
S = 13.6
Density = 13.6 × 1000 kg/m3
(a) Capillary rise for water (θ = 00)
Using equation,
4σ 4 × 0.0725
h= =
ρ×g×d 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 108A

= 0.0118 m = 1.18 cm
(b) For mercury
Using equation,
4σcosθ 4 × 0.52 × cos 130g
h= =
ρ×g×d 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 2.5 × 108A

= −0.004 m = −0.4 cm
The negative sign indicates the capillary depression.
40. Define free liquid jet.
Free liquid jet is defined as the jet of water coming out from the nozzle in atmosphere. The path
travelled by the free jet is parabolic.
A jet is a stream of fluid that is projected into a surrounding medium, usually from some kind of
a nozzle, aperture or orifice. Jets can travel long distances without dissipating.Jet fluid has higher

7
 momentum compared to the surrounding fluid medium.
In the case that the surrounding medium is assumed to be made up of the same fluid as the jet,
and this fluid has a viscosity, the surrounding fluid is carried along with the jet in a process called
entrainment.
41. What is cohesion and adhesion in fluids?
Cohesion is due to the force of attraction between molecules of same liquid. The inner molecular
attraction holds the liquid molecules together are known as cohesion.
Adhesion is defined as the force of attraction between the molecules of two different liquids or
between the molecules of the liquid and molecules of the solid boundary surface. This property
enables a liquid to stick over another body.

42. What are the merits and demerits of Piezometers?

Merits
• Simple in construction
• Economical-easy to install and remove from pipline.x
Demerits
• Not suitable for high pressure intensity.
• Pressure of gases cannot be measured.
• Poor accuracy.
• Unsuitable for dirty or sticky liquids
43. Define surface tension and express its unit. [Ap/May 2011]
Surface tension is due to cohesion between the molecules of liquid and weak adhesion between
the molecules on the exposed surface of the liquid and molecules of air.
4X 
Surface tension in liquid droplet, p = ⟹ σ=
 4

jX 
Surface tension in soap bubble, p = 
⟹ σ= j
,X 
Surface tension in liquid jet, p =  ⟹ σ = ,
44. Write the equation of surface tension of liquid jet, liquid droplet and soap bubble.
4X 
Surface tension in liquid droplet, p =  ⟹ σ = 4

jX 
Surface tension in soap bubble, p = 
⟹ σ= j
,X 
Surface tension in liquid jet, p =  ⟹ σ = ,
45. What is the effect of temperature on surface tension of liquids and angle of contact?
In case of liquids, surface tension decreases with increase in temperature. Pressure has no or very
little effect on surface tension of liquids.
Angle of contact:
The angle between surface tensile force and the vertical is called angle of contact. If adhesion is
more than cohesion then angle of contact is obtuse.
46. Why is it necessary in winter to use lighter oil for automobiles than in summer? To what
property does the term lighter refer? [Nov/Dec -2010]
W
For liquid viscosity # = #g kWlmnlon p q.
In winter, temperature is low and hence the viscosity of the oil increases and hence in winter,
lighter oil is used. The property referring to lighter is viscosity.
47. Discuss about stream line and streak line.
Stream Line:
A stream line is an imaginary line drawn in the fluid in such a manner that the velocity of the
fluid at each and every point on the stream line is tangent to stream line.

8
 Streak line:
It is an instantaneous picture of the positions of all fluid particles in the flow which have passed
(or) emerged from a given point.
Example: the line of smoke from a cigarette (or) from a chimney is nothing but a streak line (or)
filament line.
48. Write short note on stream tube and path line.
Stream tube:
The stream tube is defined as a circular space formed by the collection of stream lines passing
through the perimeter of a closed curve in a steady flow as stream tube is bounded on all sides by
stream lines.

Path line:
A path line is a curve traced by a single fluid particle during its motion. Thus the path line shows
the direction of a fluid particle for a certain period of time.

49. What are the major assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation?[Apr/May
2008]
• The flow is steady and continuous.
• The liquid is ideal and incompressible if the velocity is uniform.
• The velocity is uniform in entire cross sectional area and is equal to mean velocity.
• The pressure and gravity forces are only considered, others are neglected.
• All frictional losses are neglected.
• The flow is irrational.
• The ideal, incompressible liquid through a non – uniform pipe.

50. What is an impulse- momentum equation? [May/June-2016] [May/June-2013]

Impulse momentum equation states that the impulse of force acting on a fluid mass in a short
interval of time is equal to the change of momentum is the direction of force.

F=ma
∆v
F=m
∆t
F∆t = m∆v

51. What is continuity equation? [Nov/Dec -2012]

The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is called continuity equation. Thus
for a fluid flowing through the pipe at all the cross section the quantity of fluid per second is
constant.
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2
This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and called
continuity equation. If the fluids is incompressible then ρ1= ρ2 and continuity equation 2 reduces
to
A1V1 = A2V2
52. Define control volume. [Apr/May-2015]
In fluid mechanics and thermodynamics, a control volume is a mathematical abstraction

9
 employed in the process of creating mathematical models of physical processes.
In an inertial frame of reference, it is a volume fixed in space or moving with constant velocity
through which the fluid (gas or liquid) flows. The surface enclosing the control volume is
referred to as the control surface.

53. Define Pascal’s law.

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at appoint in static fluid is equal in all direction.
This is proved as the fluid element is of very small dimensions that is dx, dy, and ds.
The forces are :

• Pressure force normal to the surfaces and

• Weight of element in the vertical direction.
Px=Py=Pz
54. What is the use of control volume? [Ap/May 2015]
Control volume is bounded by a closed surface, and it is used to find out the net change of fluid
mass, momentum and energy in the fluid flow devices.
• It’s a system of fixed mass with fixed identity.
• This type of system is usually referred to as "closed system".
• There is no mass transfer across the system boundary.
• Energy transfer may take place into or out of the system.
55. What do you understand by Momentum and Moment of momentum? [May/June-2014]
Moment of momentum equation is derived from moment of momentum principle which states
that the resulting torque acting on rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change of moment of
momentum.
T = ρQ [V2 r2 - V1 r1]
Equation 1 is known as moment of momentum equation. This equation is applied:
• For analysis of flow problems in turbines and centrifugal pumps.
• For finding torque exerted by water on sprinkler.
56. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Orifice meter?
Advantages :
• Low initial cost
• Ease of installation and replacement
• Requires less space as compared with venturimeter
• Can be used in wide range of pipe sizes
Disadvantages:
• High loss of head
• Co-efficient of discharge has a low value
• Susceptible to in accuracies resulting from erosion, corrosion and scaling.
57. What are the advantages of Venturi meter?
• Loss of head is small and hence high Cd value and it may approach unity under
favorable condition
• No wear and tear
• Less likelihood of becoming clogged with sediment
• Well-established characterizes
• Suitable for large flow of water process fluids wastes gases and suspended solids.
58. Write down the limitations of Bernoulli’s equation.
• Velocity of flow across section is assumed to be constant where as it is not so in
actual practice.
• The velocity of liquid particle is maximum at the centre of the pipe and gradually
decreases towards the wall of the pipe due to pipe friction.
• The equation has been derived under assumption that no external force, except
gravity force is acting.

59. State the Bernoulli’s theorem and mention its applications. [Nov/Dec -2006]
Statement of Bernoulli’s Theorem:

10
 It is states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point of
the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy.
Application:
• Venturimeter
• Orifice meter
• Pitot tube.
60. State the assumptions made in deriving continuity equation.
• The liquid is ideal and incompressible
• The flow is steady and continuous
• The velocity is uniform over the cross section and is equal to mean velocity
• The only forces acting on the fluids are the gravity force and pressure force
• All the frictional losses are negligible.

PART- B [16 Marks]

1. Calculate the dynamic viscosity of oil which is used for lubrication between a square plate
of size 0.8m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30o. The weight of the
square plate is 330 N and it slide down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s.
The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. [ Nov/Dec – 2015] (16)
Given:
Area of plate, A = 0.8 X 0.8 = 0.64 m2
Angle of plane θ = 30o
Weight of plate W = 300 N
Velocity of plate u = 0.3 m/s
Thickness of film t = dy = 1.5mm = 1.5 X 10-3
To Find:
Dynamic viscosity of oil, µ
Solution:

Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is µ.

Component of weight W, along the plane = W co 60o = 150 N
Thus the shear force F, on the bottom surface of the plate = 150N
We know that,
Shear stress,
F
τ=
Area
150
τ= N/m,
0.64

11
 

Now using τ = µ
}

Where,
du = change of velocity = u − 0 = u = 3 m/s
7D = N = 1.5 × 108A 2
150 0.3
= μ
0.64 1.5 × 108A
150 × 1.5 × 108A
μ=
0.64 × 0.3
Ns
μ = 1.17
m,
μ = 1.17 × 10 = 11.7 poise
Result:
Dynamic viscosity µ = 11.7 poise

12
2. Two points (1) and (2) which are at the same level in the body of water in a whirlpool are at
radial distances of 1.2 m and 0.6m respectively from the axis of rotation. The pressure and
velocity of water at point (1) and 15 KPa (gauge) and 2 m/s respectively. What are the
pressure and velocity at point (2)? What is the difference in water surface elevations above
points (i) and (2)? What are the radial distances of a point on the water surface which is at
the same level as (1) and (2)? [Apr/May – 2015] (16)
Given:
Radial distance, r1 = 1.2 m
Radial distance, r2 =0.6 m
Pressure at point 1, P1 = 15 kPa = 15000 N/m2
Velocity at point 1, V1 = 2 m/s
To find:
1. What are the pressure and velocity at point (2)? P2 , V2
2. What is the difference in water surface elevations above points (i) and (2)?
3. What are the radial distances of a point on the water surface which is at the same
level as (1) and (2)?
Solution:
We know that for vortex flow
Lׅ =†

Pressure and velocity at point (2): P2 , V2

‡ …W = , …,
W …W
, =
…,
2 × 1.2 2.4
= =
0.6 0.6
ˆ‰ = Š ‹/Œ
Using the relation
TW W, T, ,,
+ + ŽW = + + Ž,
=@ 2@ =@ 2@
But z1 = z2
TW W, T, ,,
+ = +
=@ 2@ =@ 2@
15 × 10A 2, T, 4,
+ = +
9.81 × 1000 2 × 9.81 9.81 × 1000 2 × 9.81
T,
1.53 + 0.204 = + 0.815
9.81 × 1000
T,
= 0.919
9.81 × 1000
5, = 9015 ?/2,
‰ = ‘ ’“”
Difference in water surface elevations above points (i) and (2), Δz:
We know that
5W 5,
∆Ž = • − –
=@ =@
5W − 5,
=
=@
15 × 10 − 9 × 10A
A
=
9810
6 × 10A
= = 0.612
9810
∆— = ˜. ™šš ‹
Radial distances, r =0.41 m
Result: 13
V2 = 4 m/s, P2 = 9 kPA
3. (i) Water flows at the rate of 200 litres per second upwards through a tapered vertical pipe.
The diameter at the bottom is 240 mm and at the top 200 mm and the length is 5m. The
pressure at the bottom is 8 bar, and the pressure at the topside is 7.3 bar. Determine the
head loss through the pipe. Express it as a function of exit velocity head. [Nov/Dec – 2014]
(10)
Given Data:
Flow rate Q = 200 l/s
Diameter of the bottom, D1=240mm
Diameter of the top, D2=200mm
Length of the pipe L=5m
Pressure at bottom of pipe, P1=8 bar
Pressure at top side of pipe, P1=8 bar
To find:
Loss of head hL=?
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and 2 and considering the bottom level as datum
2 2
P1 v P v
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + losses
γ 2g γ 2g
2 2
P1 v P v
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + losses
ρ × g 2g ρ × g 2g
Or
2 2
 200 × 10 3   200 × 10 3 
( ) ( )
 4   4 
2 2
 π × 0.24   π × 0.2 
8 × 10 2   7.3 × 10 2  
+ +0= + + 5 + Losses
9810 2 × 9.81 9810 2 × 9.81

Losses =1.07m
V22
∴1.07 = X
2g
 200 × 10 3 × 4 

 π × 0.22 
1.07 = X
2 × 9.81
X=0.516
Result:
V22
Loss of head hL = 0.516
2g
(ii) Determine the viscous drag torque and power absorbed on one surface of a collar
bearing of 0.2 m ID and 0.3 , OD with an oil film thickness of 1 mm and a viscosity of 30
centi poise if it rotates at 500 rpm. [Nov/Dec – 2014] (6)

Given Data:
Inner Diameter, ID=0.2m
Outer Diameter, OD=0.3m
2
Viscosity, µ = 30cp = 30 × 0.001Ns / m

14
 Speed, N=500rpm
Outer Radius, Ro=0.15m
Inner Radius Ri=0.1m
Head, H=0.002m
Solution:
To find viscous drag torque:
The Equation is
µ × π 2 × N ( R o 4 − Ri 4 )
T=
60 × h
∴
30 × 0.001× 500(0.5 4 − 0.14 )
T=
60 × 0.002
T = 0.5012 Nm To find power absorbed:
2πNT
P=
60
2 × π × 500 × 0.5012
P=
60
P=26.243W

Result:
Torque, T= 0.5012 Nm
Power, P =26.243 W
4. The space between tow square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is
60cm. The thickness o the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate which moves at 2.5 meter
per sec requires a force of 9.81 N to maintain the speed. Determine: The dynamic viscosity
of the oil in poise and 2. The kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of
the oil is 0.95. [Nov/Dec-2012] (16)
Given:
Each side of square plate = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Area = 0.6 X 0.6 = 0.36 m2
Thickness of oil film = dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 X 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate u = 2.5 m/sec
Change of velocity between plates , du = 2.5 m/s
Force required on upper plate, F = 9.81 N
To Find:
Dynamic viscosity of oil, µ = 13.635 poise
Kinematic viscosity of oil, v = 14.35 stokes.
Solution:
›œ‡ž › ¡.jW ¢
Shear stress " = = Ÿ = g.A9 £p
Ÿ‡ž 

1. µ = Dynamic viscosity of oil

Using
7C 9.81 2.5 1.365
"=# M… =#× =
7D 0.36 12.5 × 108A 2,
= 1.3635 X 10
µ = 13.635 poise.
2. Specific gravity of oil, S = 0.95
Let v= kinematic viscosity of oil

15
 Using
Mass density of oil = ρ =S X 1000 = 0.095 X 1000 = 950 kg/m3
¤
Using the relation, L =
¥

We get
1.3635 2,
L= = 0.001435
9.50 
104 K2,
= 0.001435 ×

v= 14.35 stokes
Result:
Dynamic viscosity of oil, µ = 13.635 poise
Kinematic viscosity of oil, v = 14.35 stokes.
‰
5. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by ¦ = § ¨ − ¨ ‰ in which u is the velocity in
metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at y = 0
and y = 0.15m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises. [May/June – 2016] (16)

Given data:
Dynamic viscosity = 8.63 poise
To find:
Shear distance at 1. y = o, 2. y = 0.15 m
Solution:
,
Using,u = A
y − y,
7C 2
∴ = – 2D
7D 3
$% ,
( ) = – 2(0)
$& &«g
At y = 0,
A
,
= A = 0.667
$% ,
At y = 0.15 m , ( $& )&«g.W¬ = A
– 2(0.15)

= 0.667 – 0.30
= 0.367.
Value of # = 8.63 TMJO
j.9A
= Wg
SI units
= 0.863 Ns/m2
Now shear stress is given by the equation as ,
7C
" =#
7D
(i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by

 du 
τ0 = µ  
 dy  y =0

16
 = 0.863 × 0.667
= 0.5756 N/m2.
(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 m is given by

 du 
(τ ) y =0.15 = µ  
 dy  y =0.15
= 0.863 × 0.367
= 0.3167 N/m2.
Result:
(τ)y=0 = 0.863 Ns/m2
(τ)y=0.15 = 0.3167 N/m2
6. If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by ­ = “®‰  ¯®  ° with the vertex 0.2 m
from the plate, where the velocity is 1.2 m/s. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear
stresses at a distance of 0m, 0.1m and 0.2 m from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is
0.85 Ns/m2.[Apr/May-2015]
2015] (16)
Given:
Distance of vertex from plate = y – 20 cm
Velcity of vertex = u = 120 cm/s
Viscosity of fluid = µ = 0.85 Ns/m2
Solution:

The equation of parabolic path is

,
C  ID  ±D  K -----------------1
Differentiating w.r.t, y
du = 2ay+b ---------------------------2

Where a,b and c are constants to be determined, the boundary conditions are
i) At y= 0, u=0
ii) At y= 20cm u= 120 cm/s
iii) At y= 20 cm, du/dy =0
Putting the boundary condition in equation of parabolic path we get,
C=0
120 = a(20)2+b(20)
120 = 400 a+20b --------------------3
Consider equation (2)
Du/dy = 2ay+b
0 = 2a(20)+b
B = -40 a
Substituting value of b, in equation (3) we get
120 = 400a+20(-40a)
Solving we get a=-0.3
And b= 12

17
 Putting the value of a,b and c in equation (1)
U= -0.3y2 +12y
du du
Velocity gradients, = -0.3(2y) +12
dy dy
= -0.6y+12
 du 
At y = 0,   = 12
 dy  y = 0
 du 
At y= 10,   =6
 dy  y =10
Shear stress
du
τ =µ
dy
At y = 0 τ0 = 0.855 x 12 = 10.2 N/m2

and y =10 τ10 = 0.855 x 6 = 5.1 N/m2

Result:
τ0 = 0.855 x 12 = 10.2 N/m2
τ10 = 0.855 x 6 = 5.1 N/m2
7. (i) Classify the fluids according to the nature of variation of viscosity. Give examples. (8)
An ideal fluid has zero viscosity. Shear force is not involved in its deformation. An ideal fluid
has to be also incompressible. Shear stress is zero irrespective of the value of du/dy. Bernoulli
equation can be used to analyze the flow.
Real fluids having viscosity are divided into two group’s namely
1. Newtonian and
2. Non Newtonian fluids.
In Newtonian fluids a linear relationship exists between the magnitude of the applied shear stress
and the resulting rate off deformation. It means that the proportionality parameter τ = µ (du/dy),
viscosity, μ is constant in the case of Newtonian fluids (other conditions and parameters
remaining the same).
The viscosity at any given temperature and pressure is constant for a Newtonian fluid and is
independent of the rate of deformation. The characteristics are shown plotted in Fig.1. Two
different plots are shown as different authors use different representations.

Non Newtonian fluids ds can be further classified as simple non Newtonian, ideal plastic and shear
thinning, shear thickening and real plastic fluids. In non Newtonian fluids the viscosity will vary
with variation in the rate of deformation. Linear relationship between shear stress s and rate of
deformation (du/dy), ), does not exist. In plastics, up to a certain value of applied shear stress there
is no flow.
After this limit it has a constant viscosity at any given temperature. In shear thickening materials,
the viscosity will increase
rease with (du/dy)
( ) deformation rate. In shear thinning materials viscosity

18
will decrease with (du/dydy).
). Paint, tooth paste, printers ink are some examples for different
behaviors. These are also shown in Fig.2. Many other behaviors have been observed which are
more specialized in nature. The main topic of study in this text will involve only Newtonian
fluids.
(ii) Explain the practical significance of the following liquid properties: Surface tension,
Capillarity, and vapour pressure [A/M-2015]
[A/M (8)
Surface tension
Many of us would have seen the demonstration of a needle being upported on water surface
without it being wetted. This is due to the surface tension of water. All liquids exhibit a free
surface known as meniscus when in contact with vapour or gas. Liquid molecules exhibit
cohesive forces binding them with each other. The molecules below the surface are generally
free to move within the liquid and they move at

random. When they reach the surface they reach a dead end in the sense that no molecules
molecul are
present in great numbers above the surface to attract or pull them out of the surface. So they stop
and return back into the liquid.
A thin layer of few atomic thickness at the surface formed by the cohesive bond between atoms
slows down and sends back back the molecules reaching the surface. This cohesive bond exhibits a
tensile strength for the surface layer and this is known as surface tension. Force is found
necessary to stretch the surface. Surface tension may also be defined as the work in Nm/m2 or
N/m required to create unit surface of the liquid.
The work is actually required for pulling up the molecules with lower energy from below, to
form the surface. Another definition for surface tension is the force required to keep unit length
of the surfacee film in equilibrium (N/m). The formation of bubbles, droplets and free jets are due
to the surface tension of the liquid.
Capillarity:

Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the
assistance of, and in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the
drawing-up up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush,
paint brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such
as paper, in some non-porous
porous materials such as liquified carbon fiber, and in a cell. It occurs
because of intermolecular attractive forces between the liquid and solid surrounding surfaces. If
the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is
caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive
adhesive forces between the liquid and the container
act to lift the liquid.
With some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass (see ), the intermolecular forces within
the liquid exceed those between the solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms, and

19
 capillary action works in reverse.
Vapour pressure:

Liquids exhibit a free surface in the container whereas vapours and gases fill the full volume.
Liquid molecules have higher cohesive forces and are bound to each other. In the gaseous state
the binding forces are minimal.
Molecules constantly escape out of a liquid surface and an equal number constantly enter the
surface when there is no energy addition. The number of molecules escaping from the surface or
re-entering will depend upon the temperature. Under equilibrium conditions these molecules
above the free surface exert a certain pressure. This pressure is known as vapour pressure
corresponding to the temperature. As the
Temperature increases, more molecules will leave and re-enter the surface and so the vapour
pressure increases with temperature. All liquids exhibit this phenomenon. Sublimating solids also
exhibit this phenomenon.
The vapour pressure is also known as saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature. The
temperature corresponding to the pressure is known as saturation temperature. If liquid is in
contact with vapour both will be at the same temperature and under this condition these phases
will be in equilibrium unless energy transaction takes place.
The vapour pressure data for water and refrigerants are available in tabular form. The vapour
pressure increases with the temperature. For all liquids there exists a pressure above which there
is no observable difference between the two phases. This pressure is known as critical pressure.
Liquid will begin to boil if the pressure falls to the level of vapour pressure corresponding to that
temperature. Such boiling leads to the phenomenon known as cavitation in pumps and turbines.
In pumps it is usually at the suction side and in turbines it is usually at the exit end.
8. (i) Calculate the capillary rise in glass tube of 3 mm diameter when immersed in mercury,
take the surface tension and angle of contact of mercury as 0.52 N/m and 1300 respectively.
Also determine the minimum size of the glass tube, if it is immersed in water, given that the
surface tension of water is 0.0725 N/m and capillary rise in tube is not to exceed 0.5 mm.
[N/D 2016] (8)
Given date:
Diameter of tube = 3 mm
Surface tension, σ for mercury = 0.52 N/m
Surface tension, σ for water = 0.0725 N/m
Angle of contact of mercury θ = 1300
Capillary rise, h = 0.5 mm = 0.5 × 103 m
To find:
Capillary rise for mercury
Minimum size of the glass tube
Solution:
46 × KM² 4 × 0.52 × cos 130g
=
=×@×7 13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 3 × 108A
ℎ

ℎ = −0.0033

³ = ˜. ˜˜§§ (´µ¶·¸¸µ¹¨ º»¶¹»¼¼·½¾)

20
 (ii) Define Surface tension. Prove that the relationship between surface tension and
pressure inside a droplet of liquid in excess of outside pressure is given by p=4σ/d [N/D
2016] (8)
Surface Tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a
gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a
membrane under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have
the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter σ. In MKS units,
it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m.
Surface tension on liquid droplet:
Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. on the entire surface of the droplet, the
tensile force due to surface tension will be acting.
Let σ = Surface tension of the liquid
p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet ( in excess of the outside pressure intensity)
d = Diameter of droplet
Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The force acting on one half (say left half) will be
(i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as
shown in fig and this is equal to
= σ × circumference
= σ × πd
3
7  T × 7, as shown in fig. These two forces will be
3 ,
(ii) Pressure force on the area
4 4
equal and opposite under equilibrium conditions, i.e.,
'
T × 7, = 6 × '7
4
6 × '7 46
T= 3 =
7 , 7
4
46
T=
7
Equation shows that with the decrease of diameter of the droplet, pressure intensity inside the
droplet increase.
9. Calculate the capillary effect in millimeters in a glass tube of 4mm diameter when
immersed in (i) Water and (ii) mercury. The temperature of the liquid is 20oC and the
values of the surface tension of water and mercury at 20oC in contact with air are 0.073575
N/m and 0.51 N/m respectively. The angle of contact for water is zero and that for mercury
is 130o. Take density of water at 20oC as equal to 998 kg/m3. (16)
Given:
Diameter of tube d= 4 mm = 4 x 10-3 m
To Find:
1. Capillary effect for water
2. Capillary effect for mercury
Solution:
The capillary effect (i.e capillary rise or depression) is given by
4σcosθ
h=
ρ×g×d
Where,
σ= surface tension in N/m
θ = angle of contact
ρ = density
(i) Capillary effect for water

21
 σ= 0.0373575 N/m
σ
θ = 00
ρ = 998 kg/m3 at 20oC
4 ) 0.073575 ) cos 0
h
998 ) 9.81 ) 4 ) 108A
h= 7.51 x 10-3 m = 7.51 mm.
(ii) Capillary effect for mercury
σ 0.51 N/m
σ=
θ = 1300
ρ = specific gravity x 1000 =13600 kg/m3

4 ) 0.51 ) KM13 0œ
ℎ
13600 ) 9.81 ) 4 ) 108A

h= 2.46 x 10-3 m = - 2.46 mm.

Note: the negative sign indicates the capillary depression.

Result:
1. Capillary effect for water = 7.51 mm.
2. Capillary effect for mercury = -2.46 mm.

22
10. (i) Derive an expression for the capillary rise of a liquid having surface tension σ and
contact angle θ between two vertical parallel plates at a distance W apart. If the plate are of
glass what will be the capillary rise of water? Assume σ = 0.773 N/m, θ =0o. Take W= 1mm.
[May/June - 2014] (10)

Given:
σ = Surface tension
θ = Contact angle
h = Height of liquid between plates above general liquid surface.
Solution:
Under a state of equilibrium, the weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force at the
surface of liquid between the plates.Then weight of liquid of height h is balanced by the force
between the plates
=Volume of liquid of height h between the plates × w
=W × L × h × w
Where, L = Length of plate, and w = weight density of the liquid.
Vertical component of surface tensile force
= ( σ × circumference) × cos θ
= σ × 2 L × cos θ
For Equilibrium,
W × L × h × w = σ × 2 L × cos θ
2σ cos θ
h=
W ×w
This equation is the expression for capillary rise
When plates are of glasses,
θ = 0o ,
σ = 0.073 N / m
W=1 mm=0.001 m,
w=9810 N/m2
Capillary rise of water,
2σ cos θ
h=
W ×w
2 × 0.073 × cos 0
h=
0.001 × 9810
=0.014m=14.9mm
Result:
h=14.9mm

(ii) Derive Euler’s equation of motion. [May/June- 2014] (6)

EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION:
This is equation of motion n which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taen into
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a a stream- line
as:
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown in Fig. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross section A and length ds. The forces acting on the cylindrical element
are
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction flow

23
 ¿À
2. Pressure force (T  ¿Á 7)7ÂMTTMJNONMNℎO7J…OKNJMHMPPQM^
3. Weight of element ρgdAds

Let θ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight oelement.The
resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to te mass of fluid element
X acceleration in the direction s.

T
 − ÃT + Ä 7 − =@7Â7 †M ² = =@7Â7 × IÁ


Where as is the acceleration in direction of s
7L
IÁ = ^ℎO…O L J I PCHKNJMH MP  IHN N
7N

L 7
L L
L
L
= + = +

 7N
N

N
¿Å
If the flow is steady ¿n = 0
L
L
IÁ =


Substituting the value of as in equation 1 and simplifying the equation we get

T
L
− 77Â − =@7Â7KM² = T7Â7 ×



¿À Å¿Å
Dividing byT77Â, − ¥¿Á − @KM² =
¿Á

Or

T
L
+ @KM² + L =0
=


$Ç
But from fig we have cosθ =$n
1 7T 7Ž L7L 7T
+@ + = 0 M… + @7Ž + L7L = 0
= 7  7 =
$À
¥
+ @7Ž + L7L = 0 ----------3

This equation is known as Euler equation of motion.

11. (i) The water level in tank is 20m above the ground. A hose is connected to the bottom of
the tank and the nozzle at the end of the hose is pointed straight up. The tank is at sea level
and the water surface is open to the atmosphere. In the line leading from the tank to the
nozzle is a pump, which increases the pressure of water. If the water jet rises to a height of
27 m from the ground, determine the minimum pressure rise supplied by the pump to the
water line. [Nov/Dec – 2014] (8)

24
 Given:
Water level in the tank = 20 m
Water rise = 27 m
Datum head, z2-z1 = 27 m
To Find:
Minimum Pressure, Pmin
Solution:

This problem involves the conversion of flow, kinetic, and potential energies to each other
without involving any pumps, turbines, and wasteful components with large frictional losses, and
thus it is suitable for the use of the Bernoulli equation.
The water er height will be maximum under the stated assumptions.
The velocity inside the hose is relatively low (V( 1= 0) and we take the hose outlet as the reference
level (z1 = 0). At the top of the water trajectory V2 = 0, and atmospheric pressure pertains. Then
the Bernoulli equation simplifies to
Bernoulli’s equation is given by

TW W, T, ,,
  ŽW    Ž,
=@ 2@ =@ 2@

Assuming an air density of 1.225 kg/m3

Pressure at (2) , p2 = ρgh = 1.225 x 9.1 x (27-20)
20) = 84.12 Pa (bellow atmosphere)
Absolute pressure at (2) , p2 = Atmosphere pressure, patm – 84.12
=101.325 x103-84.12
=101240.88
= ρgh + Pump pressure, PP
= 1000x9.1x20+Pp
=196200+ Pp
Absolute pressure at (2) , p1=Patm + Pp = 297525+ Pp
V1 = V2 = 0
∴ it is negligible
Substituting all values in equation 1

297525  PÉ 10240.88
  27
1000 ) 9.81 1000 ) 9.81

∴ Minimum pressure rise, Pp = 68585.88 Pa = 68.585 kPa

Result:
Minimum pressure rise, Pp = 68585.88 Pa = 68.585 kPa

(ii) A hollow cylinder of 150 mm OD with its weight equal to the buoyant forces is to be
kept floating vertically in a liquid with surface tension of 0.45 N/m2. The contact angle is
60o. Determine the additional force required due to surface tension. [Nov/Dec – 2014]
(8)
Given Data:

25
 Outer Diameter, OD=150mm
σ = 0.45 N / m 2
α = 60 o
To find:
Additional force due to surface tension
Solution:
In this case a capillary rise will occur and this requires an additional force to keep the cylinder
floating.
Capillary rise
4 × σ × cos β
=
υ×D
As (Pi – Po) = h × specific weight,
4 × σ × cos β
(Pi – Po) =
D
4 × 0.45 × cos 60
(Pi – Po) = = 6.0 N/m2
0.15
Force = Area × (Pi – Po)
π × 0.0152
= × 6 = 0.106 N
04
As the immersion leads to additional buoyant force the force required to kept the cylinder
floating will be double this value.
So the additional force = 2 × 0.106 = 0.212 N.
Result:
Force, F= 0.212 N
12. (i) A 400 mm diameter shaft is rotating at 200 rpm in a bearing of length 120 mm. If the
thickness of film is 1.5 mm and dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.7 Ns/m2, determine 1.
Torque required overcoming friction in bearing 2. Power utilized to overcoming viscous
friction. Assume linear velocity profile. [May/June- 2014] (8)
Given:
Diameter of the shaft, d=400mm=0.4m
Speed of the shaft, N=200rpm
Thickness of oil film, t=1.5mm=1.5 × 10 −3 m
Length of bearing, l=120mm=0.12m
2
Viscosity, µ = 0.7 N .s / m
To find:
1. Torque required overcoming friction in bearing
2. Power utilized to overcoming viscous friction.
Solution:
Tangential velocity,
2πrn πDN
u= =
60 60
π × 0.4 × 200
u=
60
u = 1.49 m / s
Using
du
τ = µ.
dy
Where

26
 du =Change in velocity =u-0 = 4.19m/s
Using
dy =t=1.5 × 10 −3 m
4.19
τ = 0.7 ×
1.5 × 10 −3
τ = 1955.3 N/m2
Shear force, F=(Shear stress) × (area`)
F = τ .πdl
F = 1955.3 × π × 0.4 × 0.12 = 294.58 N
d 0.4
Viscous torque=F × =294.85 × =58.97m
2 2
2πN
Power, P= T × Watts
60
Where T is in Nm
2 × 200
P = 58.97 × = 1225 watts
60
Result:
Power, P = 1225 watts

(ii) Gasoline of specific gravity of 0.8 is flowing upward a vertical pipeline which tapers
from 300 mm to 150 mm diameter. A gasoline mercury differential manometer is connected
between 300 mm 150 mm pipe section to measure the rate of flow. The distance between the
manometer tapings is 1 m and gauge readings is 500 mm of mercury find 1. Differential
gauge reading in terms of gasoline head and 2. Range of flow. [May/June- 2014] (8)

Given Data:
Specific gravity of gasoline=0.8
At inlet, diameter, d1=300 mm = 0.3 m
π
Area, A1 = × 0.3 2 = 0.0707 m 2
4
At outlet, diameter, d2=150 mm = 0.15 m
π
Area, A2 = × 0.15 2 = 0.01767 m 2
4
Thus, length of the pipe L =1m
Let datum of the pipe at inlet, z1=0
Thus, datum of the pipe at inlet, z2=1m
Gauge reading, h=500 mm of mercury =0.5 m of mercury
Differential gauge reading in terms of gasoline head:
Gauge reading = 0.5 m of mercury
13.6 − 0.8
A2 = × 0.5 of gasoline =8 m of gasoline
40.8
To Find:
1. Differential gauge reading in terms of gasoline head and
2. Range of flow.
Solution:

27
 Rate of flow, Q:
Let V1 be the velocity of gasoline at the inlet and V2 be the velocity of gasoline at the
outlet
We know that as per equation of continuity,
A1V1 = A2V2
A1V1
= V2
A2
0.0707 × V1
V2 =
0.01767
V2 = 4V1
Now, using Bernoulli’s equation for the inlet and outlet of the pipe, we get
p1 v1 p v
+ + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2
w 2g w 2g
p1 p 2 v1 v2
− + − + ( z1 − z 2 ) = 0
w w 2g 2g
 (v )2 (4v )2 
8 +  1 − 1  + (0 − 1) = 0
 2g 2g 
− 15v12
=0
2g
7 × 2 × 9.81
v1 =
15
v1 = 3.026 m / s
Q = A1v1
Q = 0.0707 × .0326 = 0.2139 m 3 / s
Result:
V= 3.026 m/s, Q = 0.2139 m3/s

13. A pipe 200 m long slopes down at 1 in 100 and tapers from 600 mm diameter at the higher
end to 300 mm diameter at the lower end, and carries 100 lit/sec of oil having specific
gravity 0.8. If the pressure gauge at the higher end reads 60 kN/m2, determine the
t velocities
at the two ends and also the pressure at the lower and Neglect all losses. [Apr/May-2015]
[Apr/May
(16)
Given:
Length of pipe L=200m
Diameter of upper end
D1 = 600 mm = 0.6m
π π
A1 = × D12 = × 0.6 2 = 0.2827 m 2
4 4
D2 = 300mm = 0.3 m

28
 π π
A2 = × D22 = × 0.3 2 = 0.07068m 2
4 4
Pressure at upper end P1=60KN/m2=60 × 10 3 N / m 2
Specific gravity=0.8
3
Density of the oil=0.8 × 1000 = 800kg / m
To Find:
1. Velocity of both upper and lower end V1&V2
2. Pressure at lower end P2

Solution:
Let the datum line is passing through the centre at the lower end. Then Z2=0.
1
As slope is 1 in 100 means Z1= × 200 = 2m
100
Also we know
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Q
V1 =
A1
0.1
=
0.2827
V1 = 0.354m / s
Q
V2 =
A2
0 .1
=
0.07068
V2 = 1.414m / s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and 2 we get
TW W, T, ,,
  ŽW    Ž,
=@ 2@ =@ 2@
60 ×104 0.3542
+ +2
800 × 9.81 2 × 9.81

P2 1.4142
= + +0
800 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
P2
7.645 + 6.387 × 10 − 3 + 2 = + 0.102 + 0
800 × 9.81
P2
7.549 =
800 × 9.81
P2=59.27KN/m2
Result:
1. Velocity of both upper and lower end V1 =0.354 m/s , V2=1.414 m/s
2. Pressure at lower end P2 = 59.27 KN/m2
14. (i) Derive the Reynol’s Transport theorem. (6)
Reynolds transport theorem (also known as the Leibniz-Reynolds transport theorem), or in short
Reynolds theorem, is a three-dimensional generalization of the Leibniz integral rule. This
theorem is used to compute derivatives of integrated quantities. Reynolds transport theorem can
be simply stated as - What was already there plus what goes in minus what comes out is equal to

29
what is there. Reynolds theorem is used in formulating the basic conservation laws of continuum
mechanics, particularly fluid dynamics and large-deformation solid mechanics. These
conservation laws (law of conservation of mass, law of conservation of linear momentum, and
law of conservation of energy) are adopted from classical mechanics and thermodynamics where
the system approach is normally followed.
In fluid mechanics, it is often more convenient to work with control volumes as it is difficult to
identify and follow a system of fluid particles. Thus, there is a need to relate the system
equations and corresponding control volume equations. The link between the two is given by the
Reynolds transport theorem. The theorem is named after Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912).
Imagine a system and a coinciding control volume with a control surface. Reynolds transport
theorem states that the rate of change of an extensive property N, for the system is equal to the
time rate of change of N within the control volume and the net rate of flux of the property N
through the control surface.
For an example, the law of conservation of mass states that rate of change of the property, mass,
is equal to the sum of the rate of accumulation of mass within a control volume and the net rate
of flow of mass across the control surface. The differential forms of these equations with
additional assumption of Newton's viscosity law are commonly known as the Navier-Stokes
equations

(ii) The dynamic viscosity of oil used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise.
The shaft is of diameter 0.4m and rotates at 190 rpm. Calculate the power lost in the
bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. the thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. (7) [Nov/Dec 2016]
Given data:

Viscosity, µ = 6 poise = (6/10) Ns/m2 = 0.6 Ns/m2.

Diameter of the shaft, D = 0.4m

Speed of shaft, N = 190r.p.m

Sleeve length, L = 90mm = 90 x 10-3 m

Thickness of oil film, t = 1.5mm = 1.5 x 10-3 m

Solution:
πDN π × 0.4 ×190
Tangential velocity of shaft, u = = = 3.98 m / s
60 60
du
Using the relation, τ = µ
dy

du = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 3.98 m/s

dy = change of distancet = t = 1.5 x 10-3 m

3.98
τ = 10 × −3
= 1592 N / m 2
1.5 ×10

This is shear stress on shaft

Shear force on the shaft, F = shear stress x Area

= 1592 × πDL = 1592 × 3.14 × 0.4 × 90 × 10 −3 =180.05 N

30
 D 0 .4
Torque on the shaft, T = force × = 180.05 × = 36.01 Nm
2 2

2πNT 2π ×190 × 36.01

Power lost = = = 716.48W
60 60

15. A 0.5 m shaft rotates in a sleeve under lubrication with viscosity 5 poise at 200 rpm.
Calculate the power lost for a length of 100 mm if the thickness of the oil is 1mm. (Nov/Dec
2009) (16)
Given Data:
Viscosity = 5 poise
Diameter Of shaft = 0.5 m
Speed of the shaft N= 200 rpm
Sleeve length l = 100mm = 0.1 m
Thickness of oil film t = 1mm = 1x10-3
To find:
1. Power lost , P
Solution:
We know that
Tangential velocity of shaft
u = πDN/60

πX0.5X200
= Ì. ‰§Ì Í/¼
60
u
Using relation.
du
τ= μ
dy
Where,
du = Change of velocity = u - 0 = 5.235 m/s
dy = Change of distance = t = 1 X 10-3 m
0.5 X5.235
τ=
1 X 108A

τ = 2617.5 NÎ ,
m
This is the shear stress on the shaft
Shear force on the shaft
F = shear stress X area
= 2617.5 x π x D x L
F = 410.95 N
Torque on the shaft
T = Force x D/2
= 410.95 x 0.25
T = 102.74 Nm
Power lost
P=Txω

2πN
P = 102.74 × W
60

2πx200
P=Tx
60

31
 = 2150 W
P = 2.15 kW
P = 2.15 kW Ans
Result:
Power lost P = 2.15 kW
16. A 30 x 15 cm venturimeter is provided in a vertical pipe line carrying oil of relative density
0.9, the flow being upwards. The difference in elevation of the throat section and entrance
section of the venturimeter is 30 cm. The differential U tube mercury manometer show a
gauge deflection of 25mm calculate the discharge of oil, the pressure difference between the
entrance section and throat section. Take the coefficient of discharge as 0.98 and specific
gravity of mercury as 13.6. (13)

Given:
Diameter Of inlet d1 = 30 cm
3 3
Area = a1 = 4 7, = 4 30, = 706.85 K2,
Diameter at throat d2 = 15cm
3 3
Area a2 =4 7, = 4 15, = 176.7 K2,
Let section 1 represents inlet and section 2 represents throat. Then z2 –z1 =30 cm
Specific gravity of oil So=0.9
Specific gravity of mercury Sg = 13.6
To Find:
Calculate the discharge of oil, Q
The pressure difference between the entrance section and throat section. (P1 – P2)
Solution:
Reading of differential head h is given by
TW T,
ℎ=à + ŽW Ä − ( + Ž, )
=@ =@
ÓÔ 13.6
=• − 1– = 25 • − 1–
Ӝ 0.9
h = 352.77 K2MPMJQ
The discharge Q of oil
 Õ  p
= K$ = × ×2@ℎ
Ö Õp 8 pp

0.98 × 706.85 × 176.7

=
×(706.85, ) − (176.7, )
= √2 × 981 × 352.77
101832219.9
= = 148790.5K2,
684.4
= 148.79 QJN…O/
Pressure difference between entrance and throat section

TW T,
ℎ=à + ŽW Ä − à + Ž, Ä = 352.77
=@ =@
or

32
 TW T,
à + Ä + Ž, − ŽW = 352.77
=@ =@
But z2 – z1 = 30 cm
TW T,
à + Ä + 30 = 352.77
=@ =@
TW T,
à − Ä = 352.77 + 30
=@ =@
= 382.77 K2MPMJQ
= 3.8277 2MPMJQ
(p1 - p2) = 3.8277 x=@
But
density of oil = specific gravity of oil x 1000 kg/m3
= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg /cm3
(p1-p2) = 3.8277x 900 9.81 N/m2
= 33795/104 = 3.3795 N/cm2 Ans
Result :
Q = 148.79 liters/s
Pressure difference (p1 –p2) = 3.3795 N/cm2
17. (i) An orifice meter with orifice diameter 10 cm is inserted in a pipe of 20cm diameter. The
pressure gauges fitted upstream and downstream of the orifice meter give readings of 19.62
N/cm2 respectively. Co-efficient of discharge for the orifice meter is given as 0.6. Find the
discharge of water through pipe. (8)

Given:
Diameter of orifice = do= 10 cm
Area = ao= π/4 x 102 = 78.54 cm2
Diameter of pipe d1= 20 cm
Area = a1= π/4 x 202 = 314.16 cm2
p1= 19.62 N/cm2 = 19.62 x 104 N/m2
To Find:
Find the discharge of water through pipe, Q

Solution:
TW 19.62 × 104
= 20 2MP^INO…
=@ 1000 × 9.81


T, 9.81 × 104
= = 10 2MP^INO…
=@ 1000 × 9.81

33
 TW T,
ℎ= − = 20 − 10
=@ =@
= 10 2MP^INO…
= 1000 K2MP^INO…
Cd = 0.6
The discharge Q is given by equation
Iœ IW
Ù = †$ × ×2@ℎ
×IW, − Iœ,
78.54 × 314.16
= 0.6 × × √2 × 9.81 × 1000
√314.16, − 78.54,
20736838.09
= 68213.28 K2 Î = ™Ú. ‰š ÛÜÝÞߌ /Œ
A
=
304
Result:
Q = 68.21 lit/s
(ii) A nozzle of diameter 20 mm is fitted to a pipe of diameter 40mm. Find the force exerted
by the nozzle on the water which is flowing through the pipe at the rate of 1.2m3/min. (5)
Given:
Diameter of pipe D1= 40 mm = 40 X10-3 m = 0.04m
π π
Area = AW = DW , = 0.4, = 0.001256 m,
4 4
Diameter of pipe D2=20 mm = 20 X10-3 m = 0.02m
π π
Area = A, = D, , = 0.2, = 0.000314 m,
4 4
Discharge Q = 1.2 m3/minute = 1.2/60 = 0.02 m3/s

To Find:
Force exerted by the nozzle on the water, Fx
Solution:
Applying continuity equation at section 1 and 2
A1V1=A2V2 =Q
Q 0.2
VW = = = 15.92 m/s
AW 0.001256

Q 0.2
V, = = = 63.69 m/s
A, 0.000314

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and 2 we get

pW VW, p, V,,
+ + zW = + + z,
ρg 2g ρg 2g
z1= z2, p2/ ρg = atmospheric pressure = 0
pW VW, V,,
+ =
ρg 2g 2g

pW V,, VW, 63.69, 15.92,

= − = −
ρg 2g 2g 2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81

= 206.749 − 12.917 = 193.83 m of water

P1= 193.83 X 1000 X 9.81 = 1901472 N/m2

Let the force exerted by the nozzle on water = Fx
Net force in the direction of x = rate of change of momentum in the direction of x

34
 P1A1 – p2A2 + Fx = ρQ(V2-V1)
Where,
p2 = atmosphere pressure = 0 and ρ =1000

1901472 X 0.001256 – 0 + Fx = 1000 X 0.02(63.69-15.92) or 2388.24+Fx = 916.15

Fx = -1472.09
- Ve sign indicate that the force exerted by the nozzle on water is acting from right to left.
Result:
Fx = -1472.09

18. An incompressible fluid flows downward through a vertical cylindrical pipe under the
action of gravity. The flow is fully developed and laminar. Use the Navier – Strokes
equations to derive an expression for the flow rate for the case of zero pressure gradients
along the pipe. [may/June -2016](13)

This is equation of motion n which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream- line
as:

Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown in Fig. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross section A and length ds. The forces acting on the cylindrical element
are
1. Pressure force pdA in the direction flow

2. Pressure force (T  ¿Á 7)7 MTTMJNONMNℎO7J…OKNJMHMPPQM^

¿À

3. Weight of element ρgdAds

Let θ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight oelement.The
resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to te mass of fluid element
X acceleration in the direction s.

T
 − ÃT + Ä 7 − =@7Â7 †M ² = =@7Â7 × IÁ


Where as is the acceleration in direction of s
7L
IÁ = ^ℎO…O L J I PCHKNJMH MP  IHN N
7N

L 7
L L
L
L
= + = +

 7N
N

N
¿Å
If the flow is steady
¿n
=0
L
L
IÁ =



35
 Substituting the value of as in equation 1 and simplifying the equation we get

T
L
− 77Â − =@7Â7KM² = T7Â7 ×



Dividing by

T L
L
T77Â, − − @KM² =
=


Or

T
L
+ @KM² + L =0
=


$Ç
But from fig we have cosθ =
$n
1 7T 7Ž L7L 7T
+@ + = 0 M… + @7Ž + L7L = 0
= 7  7 =
$À
¥
+ @7Ž + L7L = 0 ----------3

This equation is known as Euler equation of motion.

19. With basic assumptions derive the Bernoulli’s Equation from the Euler’s Equation.
[Nov/Dec-2015] (13)
Statement of Bernoulli’s Theorem:
It is states that in a steady, ideal flow of an incompressible fluid, the total energy at any point of
the fluid is constant. The total energy consists of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential
energy. These energies per unit weight of the fluid are:
Pressure energy = p/ρg
Kinetic energy = v2/2g
Datum energy = z
Thus mathematically, Bernoulli’s theorem is written is
p v,
 + z = constant
ρg 2g
Derivation of Bernoulli’s theorem:
This is equation of motion n which the forces due to gravity and pressure are taen into
consideration. This is derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a a stream- line
as :
Consider a stream-line in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown in Fig. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross section A and length ds. The forces acting on the cylindrical element
are Pressure force pdA in the direction flow
ä
2. Pressure force (p + ds)dA opposite to thedirection of low
ä
Weight of element ρgdAds
Let θ is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of
element. The resultant force on the fluid element in the direction of s must be equal to the
mass of fluid element X acceleration in the direction s.
∂p
A − Ãp + Ä dA − ρgdAds Cos θ = ρgdAds × a
∂s
Whereas is the acceleration in direction of s
dv
a = where v is a function of s ant t
dt
∂v ds ∂v v ∂v ∂v
= + = +
∂s dt ∂t ∂s ∂t
äç
If the flow is steady ä = 0
v ∂v
a =
∂s
Substituting the value of as in equation 1 and simplifying the equation we get

36
 ∂p ∂v
−
dsdA − ρgdAds cosθ = pdAds ×
∂s ∂s
ä ç äç
Dividing by pdsdA, − − gcosθ =
Z ä ä
ä äç
Or Z ä
+ gcosθ + v ä =0
è
But from fig we have cosθ=
1 dp dz vdv dp


+g + = 0 or + gdz + vdv = 0
ρ ds s ds ρ

Z
+ gdz + vdv = 0 -----------3
Bernoulli’s equation from Euler’s equation:
Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion as
dp
é + é gdz + é vdv = Constant
ρ
If flow is incompressible ρ is constant and
p v,
= Constant
2g
 gz 
ρ
p v,
+z+ = Constant
ρg 2g
 çp
+ , + z = Constant------ 4
Z
Equation 4 is Bernoulli’s equation in which
p
= pressure energy per unit weitht of luid or pressure head.
ρg
2
v /2g = kinetic energy per unit weight or kinetic head.
z = potential energy per unit weight or potential head.
Assumptions: The following assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation
• The fluid is ideal
• The flow is steady
• The flow is incompressible
• The flow is irrigational.
20. (i) Water is flowing through a pipe of diameter 30 cm and 20 cm at section 1 and 2
respectively. The rate of flow through pipe is 35 lps. The section 1 is 8m above datum and
section 2 is 6m above datum. If the pressure at section 1 is 44.5 N/cm2. Find the intensity of
pressure at section 2. [Nov/Dec-2015] (8)
Given:
At section 1 D1 =30 cm = 0.3 m
π
A1 = × 0.3 2 = 0.07068m 2
4
p1 = 44.5 N/cm2
p2=…..?
z1 = 8 m
At section 2 D2 =20 cm = 0.2 m
π
A1 = × 0.12 = 0.0314m 2
4
z2 = 6 m
To Find:
Intensity of pressure at section 2, p2
Solution:
Rate of flow Q = 35 lit/s = 35 /1000 = 0.35 m3/s
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
V1=Q/A1 = 0.035/0.0707 = 0.49 ≈ 0.5 m/s
V2 = Q/A2 = 0.035/0.0.314 = 1.114 m/s

37
 Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and 2 we get
TW W, T, ,,
+ + ŽW = + + Ž,
=@ 2@ =@ 2@
Or
44.5 × 10 4 0.4952 P2 1.114 2
+ +8 = + +6
1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81 1000 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
P2
45 .36 + 0.01223 + 8 = + 0.063 + 6
1000 × 9.81
P2
53 .37 = + 6.063
1000 × 9.81
P2 = 47.307×19.62
P2 = 928.16
464081.67
P2 = 4
= 46.408 N / cm 2
10
Result:
P2 = 46.408 N/cm2
(ii) An oil sp. gravity 0.8 is flowing through a ventruimeter having inlet diameter 20cm
and throat diameter 10cm. The oil-mercury differential manometer shows readings of
25cm. Calculate the discharge of oil through the horizontal ventruimeter. Take Cd=0.98. (5)

Given:
Specific gravity of oil , So = 0.8
Specific gravity of mercury Sh = 13.6
Reading of differential manometer x = 25 cm
To Find:
Discharge, Q
Solution:
Difference of pressure head
Óë
ℎ = ê• − 1–
Ӝ
13.6
= 25 • − 1– K2 MP MJQ = 25ì17 − 1í = 400 K2 MP MJQ
0.8
Diameter at inlet d1 = 20 cm
' '
IW = 7W, = 20, = 314.16 K2,
4 4
Diameter at outlet d2 = 10 cm
' '
I, = 7,, = 10, = 78.54 K2,
4 4
Cd = 0.98
The discharge Q is given by equation
IW I,
Ù= × ×2@ℎ
×IW, − I,,

314.16 × 78.54
= 0.98 × × √2 × 981 × 400
√314.16, − 78.54,

21421375.68 21421375.68 A
= = K2 /
√98696 − 6168 304

=70465 cm3/s = 70.465 litres/s

38
 Result:
Discharge Q = 70.465 lit/s

Part C

1. Why does the viscosity of gas increases with the increase in temperature while that of liquid
decreases with increase in temperature? Explain with suitable example. (15)
Temperature affects the viscosity. The viscosity of liquids decrease with the increase of
temperature while the viscosity of gases increases with the increase of temperature. This is due to
reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to cohesive forces and molecular momentum
transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates the molecular momentum transfer, due to
closely packed molecules and with the increase in temperature, the cohesive forces decreases
with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of gases the cohesive forces are small and
molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the increase in temperature, molecular
momentum transfer increase and hence viscosity increase. The relation between viscosity and
temperature for liquids and gases are:

(i) for liquids,

1
# = #œ à Ä
1 + îN + ïN ,
Where, μ = viscosity of liquid at t0C, in poise
μo = viscosity of liquid at 00C, in poise
α , β = constants for the liquid
for water, μo = 1.79 × 10-3 poise, α = 0.03368 and β = 0.000221
equation shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decrease
For a gas,
#  #œ + îN − ïN ,

for air, μo = 0.000017, α = 0.000000056 and β = 0.1189 × 10-9

equation shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increase
2. A liquid has a specific gravity of 0.72. Find its density, specific weight and its weight per
litre of the liquid. If the above liquid is used as the lubrication between the shaft and the
sleeve of length 100mm. determine the power lost in the bearing, where the diameter of the
shaft is 0.5 m and the thickness of the liquid film between the shaft and the sleeve is 1 mm.
take the viscosity of fluid as 0.5 N-s/m2 and the speed of the shaft rotates at 200 rpm.
Ap/May -2017 (15)
Given:
S = 0.72
μ = 0.5 Ns/m2
D = 0.5 m
N = 200 rpm
L = 100 mm = 0.1 m
t = 1 mm = 1×103 m
To find:
(i) Density

39
 (ii) Specific weight
(iii) power lost in the bearing

Solution:
Volume = 1 litre = 1/1000 m3
Density ρ = S × 1000 = 0.72 × 1000 =
Specific weight w = ρ × g =
Tangential velocity of shaft,
πDN π × 0.5 × 200
= = 5.235 m/s
60 60
u
Using relation,
du
τ= μ
dy
Where,
du = change of velocity = u – 0 = u = 5.235 m/s
dy = change of distance = t = 1×103 m
0.5 × 5.235
τ= = 2617.5 N/m,
1 × 10 8A
This is the shear stress on the shaft
Shear force on the shaft, F = shear stress × Area = 2617.5 × πD × L
= 2617.5 × π × 0.5 × 0.1 = 410.95 N
Torque on the shaft,
D 0.5
T  force × = 410.5 × = 102.74 Nm
2 2
2πN
Power ∗ lost = T × ω Watts = T × W
60
2π × 200
= 102.74 × = 2150 W = 2.15 kW
60
3. Describe with the help of sketch the construction, operation and use of pitot static tube. (15)
A pitot-static system is a system of pressure-sensitive instruments that is most often used in
aviation to determine an aircraft's airspeed, Mach number, altitude, and altitude trend. A pitot-
static system generally consists of a pitot tube, a static port, and the pitot-static
instruments. Other instruments that might be connected are air data computers, flight data
recorders, altitude encoders, cabin pressurization controllers, and various airspeed switches.
Errors in pitot-static system readings can be extremely dangerous as the information obtained
from the pitot static system, such as altitude, is potentially safety-critical. Several commercial
airline disasters have been traced to a failure of the pitot-static system.

The pitot-static system obtains pressures for interpretation by the pitot-static instruments. While
the explanations below explain traditional, mechanical instruments, many modern aircraft use
an air data computer (ADC) to calculate airspeed, rate of climb, altitude and Mach number. In
some aircraft, two ADCs receive total and static pressure from independent pitot tubes and static
ports, and the aircraft's flight data computer compares the information from both computers and
checks one against the other. There are also "standby instruments", which are back-up pneumatic

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 instruments employed in the case of problems with the primary instruments.
Use of pitot static tube:
Pitot tubes are used for a wide range of applications across several industries. Most common
applications are seen in aircrafts and racing cars. These tubes are fitted on the wing of an aircraft
in order to measure the aircraft’s speed. Some major industrial applications of these tubes include
measuring liquid flow and/or air flow in pipes and channels, ducts, and stacks during
construction.
4. State the different devices that one can use to measure the discharge through a pipe and
also through an open channel. Describe one of such devices with a neat sketch and explain
how one can obtain the actual discharge with its help? (15)
The thickness of the segment is equal to the distance the fluid has travelled in the direction
normal to dA, so the thickness equalsδtu.n. The volume dVS of this segment of the strip, given
by the area dA times the height, equals
7Á  òN C. H 7Â
To get the momentum, we simply multiply by the local momentum per unit volume, which is
7óÁ = òN =C. H 7Â

To get the total contribution, we simply integrate over all outside surface areas of our control
volume. The contribution of the inflow strip in figure 4 should be negative, but since we always
take the unit vector in the direction pointing out of the control volume, this is automatically taken
care off. There is no in or outflow through the solid surface of the pipe itself, but since u.n is here
zero, that too is automatic. So we get the single integral over the entire outside surface which we
wrote down earlier.
How about conservation of mass? It is almost exactly the same story. If we take the change in the
mass M inside the control volume and add to it the mass in the shaded strip in and subtract the
mass in the hatched strip, we get the change in mass in the fluid region
7ô
òN + ì2I JH Óí − ì2I JH õí
7N

According to physics, this change in fluid mass must be zero. To find the mass of the strips is
exactly the same as finding their momentum, except that we must multiply the volume of the
segment in figure 5 by the mass per unit volume ρ instead of the momentum per unit volume ρu.
So the equation for the mass M within the control volume becomes
7ô
 é = C. H 7 = 0
7N Ÿ

For the equation for the energy we take the change in the energy E inside the control volume and
correct for the energy in the strips in figure 4. This gives the change in energy for the fluid which
equals the work done on the fluid and the heat Qδt added to it:
òN  ìOHO…@D JH Óí − ìOHO…@D JH õí = ÷ø òN + Ùø òN
7ö
7N

In this case we use the energy per unit volume ρ(e+1/2u.u) instead of the momentum per unit
volume ρu, where e is the internal energy per unit mass and 1/2u.u is the kinetic energy per unit
mass. So the equation for the energy E within the control volume becomes

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5. Define the following and explain with give one practical example for each
a. Laminar flow
b. Turbulent flow
c. Steady flow
d. Uniform flow (15)
a. Laminar flow:
Laminar flow is defined as that type of flow in which various fluid particles move in layers with
one layer of fluid sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer.
Examples: flow through a capillary tube.

b. turbulent flow:
Turbulent flow is defined as that type of flow in which fluid particles move in a zig-zag way.
Due to the movement of fluid particles in a zig-zag way, eddy formations take place which are
responsible for high energy loss.
Examples:
Flow in natural streams, artificial channels, water supply pipes, sewers, etc.,

c. steady flow:
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time. Mathematically,
L
≠0
N
T
≠0
N
=
≠0
N
Example:
Liquid efflux from a vessel in which constant level is maintained.

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d. Uniform flow
Uniform flow is defined as that flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change
with respect to space.
Mathematically,
L
ù ú =0
 n«œûÁn ûn
Where v= change of velocity
s = displacement in any direction.
Example: flow through a straight pipe of constant diameter.

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