PSYC 3014 INDUSTRIAL/ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Lecture 2 – Chapters 3 & 4

CHAPTER 3

Job Analysis

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying Chapter 3, students should be able to:

 Define job analysis, the personnel products it yields, and its importance in work
organizations.
 Describe the various job analysis methods, including specific methods, and their
respective advantages and disadvantages.
 Discuss the use of job analyses in job evaluations, and the concepts of comparable worth
and exceptioning.
 Discuss the influence of civil rights legislation on the structure and use of job analyses.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Personnel psychology, a specialty area of I/O psychology, is concerned with the creation, care,
and maintenance of a workforce. I/O psychologists who specialize in personnel psychology are
involved in several activities, such as employee recruitment and selection, the measurement of
employee performance and the establishment of good performance review procedures, the
development of employee training programs, and the formulation of criteria for promotion,
firing, and disciplinary action.

Job analysis is the systematic study of a job's tasks, duties, and responsibilities, and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the job. The job analysis, which is the
important starting point for many personnel functions, yields several products: a job description,
which is a detailed accounting of job tasks, procedures, responsibilities, and output; a job
specification, which consists of information about the physical, educational, and experiential
qualities required to perform the job; a job evaluation, which is an assessment of the relative
value of jobs for determining compensation; and performance criteria, which serve as a basis for
appraising successful job performance.

Job analysis methods include observation, the use of existing data, interviews, surveys, and job
diaries. In addition to these general methods for conducting job analysis, there are also a number
of specific, standardized techniques. One structured job analysis technique is the job element
method, a broad approach to job analysis that focuses on the knowledge, skills, abilities and other
characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform a particular job. Functional job analysis (FJA) is a
method that has been used to classify jobs in terms of the worker's interaction with data, people,
and things. FJA uses the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT), a reference book listing
general job descriptions for thousands of jobs (since replaced by the U.S. Labor Department’s
O*NET database), and examines the sequence of tasks required to complete the job as well as
the process by which the job is completed. Another structured job analysis technique, the
Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), uses a questionnaire that analyzes jobs in terms of 187
job elements arranged into 6 categories. Finally, the critical incidents technique of job analysis
involves the collection of particularly successful or unsuccessful instances of job performance.
Through the collection of hundreds of these incidents, a very detailed profile of a job emerges.
Research has determined that all of these specific, standardized methods are effective.

In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) became law. This act requires employers
prevent employment discrimination against disabled persons. Compliance with the ADA requires
employers to understand “essential elements” of a job, making accurate job analysis a critical
skill for employers and personnel psychologists.

Job analysis yields a job evaluation, or an assessment of the relative value of jobs used to
determine appropriate compensation. These evaluations usually examine jobs on dimensions that
are called compensable factors, which are given values that signify the relative worth of the job
and translate into levels of compensation.

An important topic in the area of job evaluation concerns the "gender gap" in wages. Evidence
indicates that women are paid far less than men for comparable work. This inequity has recently
given rise to the comparable worth movement, which argues for equal pay for equal work. This
issue is controversial because of the difficulty and costs of making compensation for comparable
jobs equitable. Research has also suggested that women and ethnic minorities are affected by a
glass ceiling, which creates difficulties for members of minority groups in rising to the highest-
level positions in organizations.
CHAPTER 3: Job Analysis

 Personnel Psychology

 Personnel psychology, a specialty area of I/O psychology, is concerned with the

creation, care, and maintenance of a workforce.

 I/O psychologists who specialize in personnel psychology are involved in:

 Employee recruitment and selection.

 Measurement of employee performance and establishment of good performance

review procedures.

 Development of employee training programs.

 Formulation of criteria for promotion, firing, and disciplinary action.

 Job Analysis

 Job analysis is the systematic study of a job's tasks, duties, and responsibilities, and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform the job.

 Job analysis is the starting point for many important personnel functions.

 A job analysis yields several products.

 Job Analysis Products

1. Job description

 A detailed accounting of job tasks, procedures, responsibilities, and output.

2. Job specification

 Information about the physical, educational, and experiential qualities required to

perform the job.

 Job Analysis Products

3. Job evaluation

 An assessment of the relative value of jobs for determining compensation.

4. Performance criteria

 Work and performance outcomes required by the job that serve as a basis for
appraising successful job performance.
 Job Analysis Methods

 Job analysis methods include observation, the use of existing data, interviews, surveys,
and job diaries.

 Each method has strengths and weaknesses.

 In addition to these general methods for conducting job analysis, there are also a number
of specific, standardized techniques.

 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

 Job Elements Method

 A broad approach to job analysis that focuses on the knowledge, skills, abilities,
and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to perform a particular job.

 Relies on subject matter experts (SMEs)

 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

 Functional job analysis (FJA) is a method that has been used to classify jobs in terms of
workers’ interaction with data, people, and things.

 Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)

 Standard Occupational Classification (SOC)

 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

 The DOT has been replaced by the Occupational Information Network (O*NET;
www.onetcenter.org)

 Functional job analysis is helpful when the job analyst must create job descriptions for a
large number of positions.

 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

 The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) assesses several qualities of jobs:

 Information input

 Mental processes

 Work output

 Relationships with other persons

  Job context

 Other job characteristics

 Specific Job Analysis Techniques

 The Critical incidents technique (CIT) records specific worker behaviors that have led
to particularly successful or unsuccessful instances of job performance.

 Job incumbents usually provide examples of critical incidents.

 Job Analysis and the ADA

 Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)

 Requires that employers prevent employment discrimination against disabled

persons.

 Requires employers to understand “essential elements” of a job.

 Job Evaluation and

Comparable Worth

 Job analysis yields a job evaluation, or an assessment of the relative value of a job, and is
used to determine appropriate compensation.

 These evaluations usually examine jobs on dimensions that are called compensable
factors (e.g., physical demands of a job, amount of training, working conditions,
responsibility).

 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth

 The Equal Pay Act of 1963 mandates that men and women performing equal work
receive equal pay.

 However, women continue to make less than men. Women make about 75% of what men
make (2000).

 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth

 Why is there a wage gap between men and women?

 Men have greater access to higher paying jobs.

 Women are paid less than men for performing equivalent tasks.
  Similar jobs may have different titles and different ranks depending on the sex of
the worker (e.g., “records manager” vs. “personnel clerk”).

 Job Evaluation and Comparable Worth

 Comparable worth

 The idea that jobs that require equivalent KSAOs should be compensated equally.

 Relies on valid and fair job evaluations.

 Exceptioning

 The practice of ignoring pay discrepancies between particular jobs possessing

equivalent duties and responsibilities.
CHAPTER 4

Employee Selection

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading and studying chapter 4, students should be able to:

 Discuss the development and use of criteria and predictors in employee screening and
selection.
 Describe methods of employee recruitment and the use of realistic job previews.
 Discuss the various methods of employee screening, including the use of various types of
employee tests and their effectiveness.
 Discuss the various methods of employee selection, including selection models.
 Discuss the influence of civil rights legislation on employee screening and selection
procedures and practices.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Employee recruitment is the process of attracting potential workers to apply for jobs. There are a
variety of employee recruitment methods, such as advertisements, college recruitment programs,
employment agencies, and employee referrals. An important element of the recruitment process
is to present applicants with an accurate picture of the job through the use of realistic job
previews (RJPs), which help increase satisfaction and decrease turnover of new employees.

Employee screening is the process of reviewing information about job applicants to select
individuals for jobs. The first step is the evaluation of written materials such as applications and
resumes. Basic background information can be translated into numerical values to compare the
qualifications of applicants through the use of weighted application forms or biographical
information blanks (BIBs). Employee screening also involves methods, such a references and
letters of recommendation. However, the use of these methods is on the decline because they
tend to be overly positive and are often uninformative.

The second step in screening is employee testing, which typically uses standardized instruments
to measure characteristics that are predictive of job performance. Any screening test or method
must demonstrate that it is a reliable and valid predictor of job performance. Three methods for
establishing reliability are test-retest reliability, parallel forms, and internal consistency. The two
forms of validity that are most important for the development and use of screening tests are
content validity, or whether the test content adequately measures the knowledge, skills, and
abilities required by the job, and criterion-related validity, or the relationship between screening
test scores and some criterion of job success.

Employee screening tests vary greatly both in their format and in the characteristics that they
measure. Categories of such tests include cognitive ability tests, mechanical ability tests, motor
and sensory ability tests, job skills and knowledge tests, personality tests, and miscellaneous
instruments such as polygraphs. For the most part, the standardized tests are among the best
predictors of job performance. Often they are used in combination--in test batteries--to help
select the best qualified candidates. An important issue regarding the effectiveness of employee
screening tests is validity generalization, or a test's ability to predict job performance in settings
different from the one in which it was validated. Another concern is test utility, an estimate of the
dollars gained in increased productivity and efficiency because of the use of screening tests.
Faking is trying to beat an employment test by distorting responses. Assessment centers use the
test battery approach to offer a detailed, structured assessment of applicants' employment
potential, most often for high-level managerial positions.

Employment screening for most jobs includes at least one hiring interview. Just like any other
selection method, the interview is a measurement tool. Unfortunately, research indicates that the
hiring interview, as it is typically used, generally has low levels of reliability and validity. Used
correctly, the interview should help supply information that cannot be obtained from
applications, resumes, or tests, and should present the applicant with a realistic job preview.
However, most interviews are not conducted with this in mind. One of the greatest sources of
problems with hiring interviews stems from interviewer biases.

Once the screening information has been obtained, a selection decision must be made. All too
often, subjective decision-making processes are used. Statistical models of decision-making
include the multiple regression model, an approach that allows predictors to be combined
statistically; the multiple cutoff strategy, a method of setting minimum cutoff scores for each
predictor; and the multiple hurdle approach, a stringent method that uses an ordered sequence of
screening devices.

Regardless of the screening and selection procedures used, an overriding concern in all personnel
decisions is to protect against discrimination in employment. The federal Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has established guidelines to ensure against discrimination
against ethnic minorities and other protected groups. To take preventive steps to avoid
employment discrimination, many organizations have adopted affirmative action plans to ensure
that jobs are made available to members of protected groups.
CHAPTER 4 Employee Selection

A Model for Employee Selection

 Criteria are measures of job success typically related to performance; for example, for a
sales person, dollar sales figures may be a performance criteria.

 Predictors are variables about applicants that are related to the criteria; In employee
selection, we measure predictors such as job-related knowledge and expertise, education,
and skills.

Steps in the Employee Selection Process

 Employee recruitment

 Screening and testing procedures

 Employee selection and placement

The goal of this process is straightforward – to try to gather information that will
predict who, from the pool of applicants, will be the “best” employees.

Employee Recruitment

 Employee recruitment is the process of attracting potential workers to apply for jobs.

 There are a variety of employee recruitment methods, such as advertisements, college

recruitment programs, employment agencies, and employee referrals.

 An important element of the recruitment process is to present applicants with an accurate

picture of the job through the use of realistic job previews (RJPs). These are accurate
descriptions of a job’s daily tasks, duties, and responsibilities.

 RJPs help increase satisfaction and decrease turnover of new employees.

 Another important element of the recruitment process is to avoid intentional or

unintentional discrimination.

Employee Screening

 Employee screening is the process of reviewing information about job applicants to select
individuals for jobs.
  Data sources such as resumes, job applications, letters of recommendation, employment
tests, and hiring interviews can be used in screening and selecting candidates.

EVALUATION OF WRITTEN MATERIAL

 Basic background information can be translated into numerical values to compare the
qualifications of applicants through the use of weighted application forms or
biographical information blanks (BIBs).

 Employee screening also involves references and letters of recommendation.

 Such sources can provide information about:

o Employment and educational history.

o Evaluations of the applicant’s character.

o Evaluations of the applicant’s job performance.

o The recommender’s willingness to rehire the applicant.

 The use of these methods is on the decline because they tend to be overly positive and are
often uninformative.

 The second step in screening is employee testing, which typically uses standardized
instruments to measure characteristics that are predictive of job performance.

 Any screening test or method must demonstrate that it is a reliable and valid predictor of
job performance.

o A measurement instrument is reliable if it repeatedly gives the same or similar

results when applied repeatedly to the same quantity.

o A measurement instrument that is valid is accurately measuring what it purports

to measure.

 Three methods for establishing reliability are test-retest reliability, parallel forms, and
internal consistency.

 Two forms of validity that are most important for development and use of screening tests
are:

o Content validity, or whether the test content adequately measures the knowledge,
skills and abilities required by the job.
 o Criterion-related validity, or the relationship between screening test scores and
some criterion of job success.

 Employee screening tests vary greatly in format and in characteristics they measure.

 Categories of such tests include:

o Cognitive ability tests.

o Mechanical ability tests.

o Motor and sensory ability tests.

o Job skills and knowledge tests.

o Personality tests.

o Miscellaneous instruments such as polygraphs.

 Standardized tests are often used in combinationin test batteriesto help select the best
qualified candidates.

 An important issue regarding the effectiveness of employee screening tests is validity

generalization, or a test's ability to predict job performance in settings different from the
one in which it was validated.

 Another concern is test utility, an estimate of the dollars gained in increased productivity
and efficiency because of the use of screening tests.

 Faking is trying to beat an employment test by distorting responses.

o Many tests have subscales designed to determine if a test-taker is trying to fake

the test

o It is often difficult for the test-taker to determine which are the desired responses

o There is evidence that personality and integrity test are quite robust and still
validly measure their intended construct even when test-takers try to fake.

 Employment screening for most jobs includes at least one hiring interview, which is a
measurement tool just like any other screening device.

 Unfortunately, research indicates that hiring interviews (as they are typically used)
generally have low levels of reliability and validity.

 One of the greatest sources of problems with hiring interviews stems from interviewer
biases.
Employee Selection and Placement

 Statistical models of decision-making include:

o The multiple regression model, an approach that allows predictors to be combined

statistically.

o The multiple cutoff strategy, a method of setting minimum cutoff scores for each
predictor.

o The multiple hurdle approach, a stringent method that uses an ordered sequence
of screening devices.

 Regardless of the screening and selection procedures used, an overriding concern in all
personnel decisions is to protect against discrimination in employment.

 The federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) has established

guidelines to ensure against discrimination against ethnic minorities and other protected
groups.

 To take preventive steps to avoid employment discrimination, many organizations have

adopted affirmative action plans to ensure jobs are made available to members of
protected groups.