Mechatronics 2 CH 2

Chapter (2) Sensors
Chapter(2) Sensors
❑ Course Syllabus
o Microcontroller programming and interfacing including:
Microcontroller architectures using a specific example with details of its assembly language
programming and interfacing some common peripheral.
o Sensors including:
position and speed measurement, Stress and strain measurement, Temperature measurement,
Vibration and acceleration measurement, Pressure and flow measurement and semiconductor
sensors and MEMS (micro-electromechanical systems).
o Actuators including:
Solenoids and relays, Electric motors, Stepper motors, Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators.
o Mechatronic systems including:
Control architectures and a number of case studies, using code sign concepts and VHDL
❑ Chapter Outlines
Sensors including: Position and Speed Measurement, Stress and Strain

Measurement, Temperature Measurement, Vibration and Acceleration
Measurement, Pressure and Flow Measurement . Semiconductor Sensors and
MEMS (Micro-electromechanical Systems).
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Mechatronics (2) Dr. Ali M. Gaballa
Chapter(2) Sensors What is a Sensor
❑ Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it

into a signal which can be measured or recorded.
❑ Sensors: Sense physical phenomena and translate (convert) it into electric
signal.
❑ Physical phenomena (non electrical signal)
◼ Temperature ◼ Displacement, Level

◼ Sound ◼ Pressure, Force, strain
◼ Light ◼ Mass, Velocity, Acceleration
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❑ Need of Sensors in daily life:

o Temperature Sensor in Microwave.
o Temperature and Humidity Sensors in an AC.
o Smoke Detectors with Fire Alarm.
o ATM and Detection Sensors.
o Accelerometers in an Automobile Airbag system.
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❑ Transducer is a device that transfers power from one system to another in the
same or in the different form'. Thermistor with it associate circuit convert heat to
electricity.
❑ Each sensor is based on a transduction principle: conversion of energy from one
form to another (transducer)
Physical
Phenomena
Input Out Put
Electrical
Signal
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Chapter(2) Sensors Types, Applications, Structures Classifications
❑ Each sensor is based on a transduction principle: conversion of energy from one

form to another (transducer).
Mechanical
Magnetic Electric output
Optical Signal
Sensor
Electric Conditioning
Radiation
Chemical
Temperature Sensors , Humidity Sensors , Optical sensors, Proximity Sensors,

Fire Detection, Smoke / Heat/ Flame, Distance Sensors, Force sensors, Velocity
Sensors, Accelerometer Sensors, Fluid pressure sensors, Fluid level, sensors,
Liquid flow sensors Electric strain and stress measurement
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Chapter(2) Sensors
Type of Sensors
Accelerometer Gyro Tilt Sensors Piezo Bend Sensor Metal Detector Gas Sensor Radiation Sensor
Digital Infrared Ranging Resistive Bend Sensors UV Detector Pyroelectric Detector Pressure Switch
Resistive Light Sensor
IR Sensor w/lens Limit Switch Mechanical Tilt Sensors Touch Switch Miniature Polaroid Sensor
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Chapter(2) Sensors
Type of Sensors
IR Pin Diode Thyristor Magnetic Sensor Hall Sensors Polaroid Sensor Board
IR Reflection Sensor IR Amplifier Sensor IRDA Transceiver Magnetic Reed Switch Solar Cell
IR Remote Receiver Radio Shack Remote Receiver IR Modulator Receiver Piezo Ultrasonic Transducers
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Smart Security System
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Smart Car proximity sensor
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Chapter(2) Sensors Sensor Performance Terminology
❑ Explain the significance of the following information given in the specification of sensor
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❑ Static Characteristics
1. Range Minimum to maximum value that can be measured is the range. The range defines the
allowable range of the physical quantity that can be detected by the sensor.
2. Sensitivity The relationship between the measured input and the output of the sensor is its
sensitivity. For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/˚C
𝒚 𝒙 =𝑨𝒙 𝒙𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙
Sensor transfer function describe the relation between the input and output
Physical
Phenomena
Input Out Put
Electrical
Signal
3. Resolution The smallest change in input value that can detected by the sensor.
4. Accuracy The difference between true and actual measured value is the accuracy. For example,
if a temperature sensor has a range of 0 to 200°C and an accuracy of ± 0.5% full-scale value,
then the temperature read by the sensor is off from the true actual temperature by ±1°.
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❑ Static Characteristics
5. Precision a measure of the lack of random errors (scatter)
6. Hysteresis The maximum difference in sensor output for

the same input quantity is the hysteresis, with one
measurement taken while the input was increasing from
zero and the other by decreasing the input from the
maximum input.
7. Repeatability Error in output value for repeated application of the same input value is called
repeatability or precision. The smaller the repeatability error, the higher the measurement
precision would be. Repeatability is affected by signal interference, vibration, and temperature
fluctuation. Repeatability error cannot be reduced by calibration.
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❑ Dynamic characteristics
1. Rise Time.
2. Time Constant.
3. Settling Time.
4. Bandwidth.
5. Output resistance.
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Chapter(2) Sensors Classification of sensors
❑ Type of Sensors with respect to principle of operation:

▪ Resistive sensor.
▪ Capacitive sensor.
▪ Inductive sensor.
▪ Piezoelectric sensor.
▪ Ultrasonic sensor.
▪ Light sensor.
❑ Type of Sensors for Various Measurement Objectives:

▪ Temperature sensors.
▪ Light sensors.
▪ Humidity Sensors.
▪ Proximity sensors.
▪ Linear/Rotational sensors.
▪ Acceleration sensors.
▪ Force, torque, and pressure sensor.
▪ Liquid Flow sensors.
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❑ There are two main types of sensors based on the output they produce: Digital
sensors and Analog sensors.
Digital Analog
Object Object
sensor sensor
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❑ Sensors can also be classified as passive  Absolute

or active.  Detects a stimuli in response to an
absolute physical scale that is
❑ Passive independent of the measurement
▪ Doesn’t need any additional energy source condition.
▪ Directly generate an electric signal in
 E.g. LM35 thermal transistor
response to an external stimuli.
▪ E.g. Thermocouple, Piezoelectric sensor.
 Active  Relative
▪ Require external power called excitation  Produce a signal that relate to some
signal. special case
▪ Sensor modify excitation signal to provide  E.g. Thermocouple
output.
▪ E.g. Thermistor, resistive strain gauge.
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Chapter(2) Sensors Other Sensor classification Criteria
 Field of application :Automotive, energy, health and medicine, space,…

 Detection mean used in the sensor: chemical, optical, electric, magnetic
 Conversion phenomena: Thermoelectric, photoelectric, Thermo-optic.
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Chapter(2) Sensors Sensors Types
• Types
• How it works:
• Make up:
• Range:
• Accuracy:
• Resolution
Temperature Sensors , Humidity Sensors , Optical sensors, Proximity Sensors,

Fire Detection, Smoke / Heat/ Flame, Distance Sensors, Force sensors, Velocity
Sensors, Accelerometer Sensors, Fluid pressure sensors, Fluid level, sensors,
Liquid flow sensors Electric strain and stress measurement
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Chapter(2) Sensors Temperature Sensors
❑ Temperature is a basic quantity in process control systems, and there are several
types of sensors available to measure temperature. These include thermistors,
thermocouples, RTD, and IC sensors.
❑ Expansion Thermometers.
▪ Bimetallic Thermometers
▪ Liquid in Glass Thermometers
▪ Gas Thermometers.
❑ Resistance Temperature Detectors.
▪ Metal wire
▪ Thin film
▪ Silicon based
❑ Thermistor.
▪ NTC :Negative Temperature Coefficient.
▪ PTC :Positive Temperature Coefficient.
❑ Thermocouples.
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1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

❑ Based on variation of resistance with temperature.
❑ Temperature-resistance relationship.
𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕)
Where: 𝑹𝟎 Resistance at 𝟎𝟎 𝑪 , 𝑹𝒕 Resistance at 𝒕 𝟎𝑪 , 𝜶 : material

thermal coefficients of resistance.
❑ For pure platinum (Pt) 𝜶 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟒 𝒙𝟏𝟎 −𝟑 ൗ 𝑜𝐶
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1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
❑ Typical Specification of Pt RTD
1. Range : −𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒐 𝑪
2. Resolution : 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒐 𝑪 𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝒐 𝑪
, 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏 𝒐 𝑪 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 𝒐 𝑪 𝒖𝒑 𝒕𝒐 𝟖𝟓𝟎 𝒐 𝑪
3. Accuracy : ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒐 𝑪.
❑ The most common metal used in RTDs is platinum because of its high melting
point, resistance to oxidation, predictable temperature characteristics, and stable
calibration values
❑ Resistance to Voltage
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2. Thermistor
▪ It is a temperature semiconductor resistor.
▪ Typically have negative temperature coefficient NTC, PTC thermistors also available.
▪ Large resistance change with temperature.
▪ Small range, high nonlinearity, and small size.
𝟏 𝟏
▪ Resistance–Temperature Relationship: 𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 𝜷 −
𝑻 𝑻𝟎
𝑹 = Resistance at T K, 𝑹𝟎 = Resistance at T0 K ,𝚩 =Material constant ranging from 3000-5000K.
∆𝑹/𝑹 −𝜷
▪ Sensitivity 𝒔 = = 𝟐.
∆𝑻 𝑻
▪ Made of oxides of manganese , nickel or cobalt and sulphides of iron, copper or aluminum.
▪ Typical Specification of Thermistor
1. Range : 𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟓𝟎 𝒐 𝑪
2. Resolution : 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒐 𝑪
3. Accuracy : ±𝟎. 𝟏 𝒐 𝑪 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝟑𝟐 𝒕𝒐 𝟒𝟐 , ±𝟎. 𝟐 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒔𝒊𝒅𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆.
NTC PTC
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3. Thermodiodes
▪ The thermo-diode converts temperature to a small DC voltage. The output voltage
varies linearly with the temperature. It consists of semiconductor diode.
▪ Temperature-voltage relationship.
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒒𝑽/𝑲𝑻 − 𝟏
Where T is temperature on the Kelvin scale, 𝒒 the charge on an electron, and K and I0 are
constants.
▪ By taking logarithms we can write the equation in terms of the voltage as:
𝑲𝑻 𝑰
𝑽= 𝒍𝒏 +𝟏
𝒒 𝑰𝟎
▪ Diodes for used as temperature sensors LM3911, give a very small compact sensor, the output
voltage from LM3911 is proportion to the temperature at the rate of 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑽/ 𝑜𝐶
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4. Thermotransistor.
▪ Transistors for used as temperature sensors, give a small compact sensor, the
voltage across the junction between the base and the emitter depends on the
temperature. this sensor can be used in the range (-40 : 110) ° C and gives an output
of 10 mV/ ° C
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5. Thermocouples
▪ The thermocouple converts temperature to a small DC voltage.
▪ It consists of two dissimilar metal.
▪ The output voltage varies linearly with the temperature difference between the
junctions.
▪ Temperature-voltage relationship.
𝑽 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑 + ⋯
𝒕𝟏 − 𝒕𝟐 = 𝒕,
𝒕𝟏 > 𝒕𝟐
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5. Thermocouples
▪ EMFs in Thermocouple Circuits
𝑽 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑 + ⋯
▪ Typical Specification of thermocouple
Type J K T
Positive iron Chromel Copper
Negative constantan Alumel constantan
Range −𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒐𝑪 −𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟐𝒐𝑪 −𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒕𝒐 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝒐𝑪
Sensitivity 𝟓𝟑µ𝑽/𝒐𝑪 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗𝟓µ𝑽/𝒐𝑪 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟓𝟎µ𝑽/𝒐𝑪
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Comparison of different temperature sensors
𝟏 𝟏
𝜷 𝑻−𝑻
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝒆 𝟎 𝑹𝒕 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶𝒕)
𝑲𝑻 𝑰
𝑽= 𝒍𝒏 −𝟏
𝒒 𝑰𝟎
𝑽 = 𝒂𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒂𝟐 𝒕𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑 𝒕𝟑 +⋯
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Chapter(2) Sensors Humidity Sensors
❑Hygrometer : a piece of equipment used to measure humidity ( how much water is in air). Relative humidity is
the moisture content of the air compared to air completely saturated with moisture and is expressed as a
percentage.
1. Resistive Hygrometer Sensors
▪ There are resistive hygrometer elements whose resistance varies with the vapor pressure of water in the
surrounding atmosphere. They usually contain a hygroscopic (water-absorbing) salt film, such as Lithium
Chloride, which ionizes in water and is conductive with a measurable resistance. These devices are usable
over a limited humidity range and have to be periodically calibrated, as their resistance may vary with time,
because of temperature and humidity cycling, as well as exposure to contaminating agents.
Humidity
2. Capacitive Hygrometer Sensors

▪ Capacitive hygrometer elements that contain a hygroscopic film whose dielectric constant varies with
humidity, producing a change in the device's capacitance. Some of these can be more stable than the resistive
elements. The capacitance is usually measured using an AC bridge circuit.𝑪 = 𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑨/𝒅
where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric, εo a constant called permittivity of free space, d is the
plates separation, and A the area of overlap between the two plates
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Chapter(2) Sensors Proximity Sensors
❑ Proximity sensors are used to detect the presence of an object (or obstacle). They are in much
demand in robotic and automated machinery applications. Proximity sensors are used to
sense the obstacle detection, line tracing and direction monitoring.
Proximity Sensors
Inductive Proximity Hall Effect Photoelectric Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic Sensors
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Chapter(2) Sensors Proximity Sensors
Ultrasonic Sensors
❑ Basic principle of operation:
▪ Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
▪ Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
▪ Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
𝑫 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕 D = round-trip distance, v = speed of propagation(𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔), and t = elapsed time
❑ Applications:
▪ Distance Measurement
▪ Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
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Chapter(2) Sensors Fire Detection and Alarm System Basics
Addressable Systems
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Chapter(2) Sensors Smoke Detector
❑ Photoelectric
▪ Light Scattering Smoke Detection. The principle of using a light source and a photosensitive
sensor arranged so that the rays from the light source do not normally fall onto the
photosensitive sensor. When smoke particles inter the light path, some of the light is scattered by
reflection and refraction onto the sensor. The light signal is processed and used to convey an
alarm condition when it meets preset criteria.
▪ A :Light Source & B : Photo Sensor
SLR-24V detector
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Chapter(2) Sensors Smoke Detector
❑ Ionization
❑ Ionization Smoke Detection. The principle of using a small amount of radioactive material to
ionize the air between two differentially charged electrodes to sense the presence of smoke
particles. Smoke Particles entering the ionization volume decrease the conductance of the air by
reducing ion mobility. The reduced conductance signal is processed and used to convey an
alarm condition when it meets preset criteria.
❑ Radioactive material knock electrons off oxygen and nitrogen molecules to form a current,
when numerous small particles enter the chamber the current is disrupted sounding the alarm.
SIJ-24 detector
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Chapter(2) Sensors Heat/Thermal ( Fixed Temp & Rate of Rise)
❑ Fixed-temperature heat detectors are designed to alarm when the temperature of the operating elements
reaches a specific point. Fixed-temperature heat detectors are available to cover a wide range of operating
temperatures from about 57oC and higher.
❑ Fixed-Temperature Detector. A device that responds when its operating element becomes heated to a
predetermined level.
DFE Series Heat Detector DSC-EA Heat Detector
❑ The rate-of-rise detector, however, will function when the rate of temperature increase exceeds a
predetermined value, typically around 7o to 8oC) per minute. Rate-of-rise detectors are designed to
compensate for the normal changes in ambient temperature that are expected under non-fire conditions.
❑ Rate-of-Rise Detector. A device that responds when the temperature rises at a rate exceeding a
predetermined value
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Chapter(2) Sensors Heat/Thermal Flame Detector
❑ A flame detector responds either to radiant energy visible to the human eye (400 to 770 nm)
or outside the range of human vision.
❑ Flame Detector. A radiant energy-sensing detector that detects the radiant energy emitted by a
flame.
❑ Radiant Energy-Sensing Fire Detector. A device that detects radiant energy, such as ultraviolet,
visible, or infrared, that is emitted as a product of combustion reaction and obeys the laws of
optics.
❑ Each type of fuel, when burning, produces a flame with specific radiation characteristics. A
flame detection system must be chosen for the type of fire that is probable. For example an
ultraviolet (UV) detector will respond to a hydrogen fire,
HF-24 Flame Detector
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Chapter(2) Sensors Distance (Position or Displacement) Sensors
❑ A wide variety of transducers are used to measure mechanical displacement or the

position of an object.
Displacement Sensors
Potentiometers Capacitive Sensors LVDT Sensors Ultrasonic/LASAR Ranging
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Chapter(2) Sensors Displacement Measurement
1. Potentiometers
▪ The potentiometer (variable resistor) is often mechanically coupled for displacement measurements. It can
be driven by either AC or DC signals and does not usually require an amplifier. It is inexpensive but cannot
usually be based in high-speed applications. It has limited accuracy, repeatability, and lifetime, due to
mechanical wear of the active resistive material. Often, the resistive element is polymer-based to increase its
usable life
Linear Potentiometer V. resistance Angular Potentiometer
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2. Capacitive Transducers
▪ Simple capacitive and inductive sensors produce a change in reactance (capacitance
or inductance) with varying distance between the sensor and the measured object.
They require AC signals and conditioning circuitry and have limited dynamic
range and linearity.
𝑪 = 𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑨/𝒅
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3. LVDT Sensors
▪ The LVDT (linear voltage differential transformer) is a versatile device used to measure
displacement. It is an inductor consisting of three coils wound around a movable core,
connected to a shaft.
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4. Ultrasonic Sensors
❑ Basic principle of operation:
▪ Emit a quick burst of ultrasound (50kHz), (human hearing: 20Hz to 20kHz)
▪ Measure the elapsed time until the receiver indicates that an echo is detected.
▪ Determine how far away the nearest object is from the sensor
𝑫 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕 D = round-trip distance, v = speed of propagation(𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔), and t = elapsed time
❑ Applications:
▪ Distance Measurement
▪ Mapping: Rotating proximity scans (maps the proximity of objects surrounding the robot)
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4. Ultrasonic ranging system

▪ Time of Flight
▪ The measured pulses typically come form ultrasonic, RF and optical energy
sources.
▪ 𝑫 = 𝒗 ∗ 𝒕 . D = round-trip distance, v = speed of propagation(𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝒎/𝒔), and t = elapsed time
▪ Sound = 0.3 meters/msec
▪ RF/light = 0.3 meters / ns (Very difficult to measure short distances 1-100 meters)
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5. Laser Ranger Finder

▪ Range 2-500 meters
▪ Resolution : 10 mm
▪ Field of view : 100 - 180 degrees
▪ Angular resolution : 0.25 degrees
▪ Scan time : 13 - 40 msec.
▪ These lasers are more immune to Dust and Fog.
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Chapter(2) Sensors Velocity and Motion Sensors
Velocity and motion Sensors
Optical Encoder Tachogenerator Doppler Effect Pyroelectric Sensors
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1. Optical Encoder
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1. Optical encoder : Incremental encoder
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❑ Usage of Incremental Encoder
o An incremental encoder can be used to extract three pieces of information about a
rotating shaft:
1. First, by counting the number of pulses received and multiplying the count by
the encoder’s resolution, we can determine how far the shaft has been rotated in
degrees. Rotation angle= No. of pulses*resolution
2. Second, by viewing the phase relationship between the phase A and phase B
outputs, we can determine which direction the shaft is being rotated.
3. Third, by counting the number of pulses received from either output during a
fixed time period, we can calculate the angular velocity in either radians
per second or RPMs.
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1. Optical encoder: Absolute Encoder
❑ Unlike the incremental encoder, the absolute encoder provides digital values as an
output signal. The output is in the form of a binary word which is proportional to
the angle of the shaft.
❑ The absolute encoder does not need to be homed because when it is energized, it
simply outputs the shaft angle as a digital value.
❑ The absolute encoder is constructed similar to the incremental encoder in that is
has an etched glass circular disk with opto-emitters and photo-transistors to detect
the clear and opaque areas in the disk.
❑ The pattern is a simple binary count pattern that has been curved into a circular
shape. For the disk of 4-bit there are 4 distinct rings of patterns, each identified
with a numerical weight that is a power of 2.
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1. Optical encoder: Absolute Encoder
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1. Optical encoder: Gray Encoder

❑ It is possible to purchase an absolute encoder that does not need a data valid output
signal (nor does it have one).
❑ In some applications, this is more convenient because it requires one less signal line
from the encoder to the PLC (microcontroller or computer), and the PLC
(microcontroller or computer) can read the encoder output at any time without error.
This is done by using a special output coding method that is called gray code.
❑ Gray code requires the same number of bits to achieve the same resolution as a binary
encoder equivalent; however, the counting pattern is established so that, as the angle
increases or decreases, no more than one output bit changes at a given time.
❑ The Gray Code : important: the Gray code exhibits only a single bit change from one
code word to the next in sequence.. This property is important in many applications,
such as shaft position encoders.
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1. Optical encoder: Gray Encoder
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1. Optical encoder
Binary to Gray Conversion
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1. Optical encoder
Binary to Gray Conversion
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1. Optical encoder
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1. Optical encoder
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2. Tacho-generator: Variable Reluctance

▪ The Tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity.
▪ One form, the variable reluctance Tahcogenerator, consists of a toothed wheel of
ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating shaft. A pick up coil is wound on a
permanent magnet.
▪ If the wheel contains n teeth and rotates with an angular velocity ω , then the flux change
with time for the coil can be considered to be of the form: 𝝋 = 𝝋𝟎 + 𝝋𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝝎𝒕)
Where : 𝛗𝟎 is the mean flux, 𝛗𝒂 is the amplitude of the time varying flux. n is the number of teeth of the wheel.
▪ The induced e.m.f. E in the N turns of the pick-up coil is thus:

𝐕 = 𝑬 = −𝑵 𝒅𝝋Τ𝒅𝒕 = 𝑵𝝋𝒂 𝒏 𝝎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝝎𝒕 = 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝝎𝒕
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑵𝝋𝒂 𝒏 𝝎
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3. Doppler effect
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4. Pyroelectric sensors
❑ The Pyroelectric sensor converts temperature to a small charge. The output charge varies
linearly with the temperature. It consists of Pyroelectric material ,e.g. lithium tantalate, which
generate charge in response to heat flow. Curie temperature 610o
Charge
Curie temperature
Infrared radiation
Temperature
❑ Temperature-Charge relationship: ∆𝑸 = 𝒌𝒑 ∆𝒕. Where kp is a sensitivity constant for the crystal.

❑ A moving human gives an alternating current of the order of 10 -12 A.
I R R O/P
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Chapter(2) Sensors Pressure , Force Sensors
1. Piezoelectric sensor
❑ Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charge. As a result a
voltage is produced.
❑ Piezoelectric materials are ionic crystals which when stretched or compressed.
Surface become charged Pressure Sensors

❑ When certain solid materials are deformed, they generate within them
an electric charge. This is the piezoelectric effect.
❑ Material
▪ Synthetic: Lithium Sulfate, Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate
▪ Polarized ferroelectric crystals: Barium Titanate, Lead Zirconate
titanate
▪ Natural : Quartz, Rochelle salt
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1. Piezoelectric sensor
▪ The net charge 𝑸 on a surface is proportional to 𝒙 by which the charges have been displaced,
and since the displacement is proportional to the applied force.
𝑸 = 𝒌 𝒙 = 𝑺𝑭 Where 𝒌 is a constant and 𝑺 a constant termed the charge sensitivity
𝑸 = 𝑪𝑽 𝑪 = 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 𝑨/𝒅.
▪ The output voltage can be written as
𝑽 = 𝒔𝒅Τ𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 𝑨 𝑭
𝑷 = 𝑭Τ𝑨 Where P is the pressure.
𝑽 = 𝑺𝒗 𝒅 𝑷
Where 𝑺𝒗 = (𝒔Τ𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 )is voltage sensitivity factor. The voltage sensitivity for quartz is about 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟓 𝑽/𝒎 𝑷𝒂. For Barium
Titanate it about 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝑽/𝒎 𝑷𝒂
▪ Piezoelectric sensors are used to measurement of Pressure , Force and Acceleration.
❑ Drive the relationship between the pressure and the output voltage of a piezoelectric sensor
❑ Write shorts notes on the following: Hall Effect, and Piezoelectric Effect.
63
2. Tactile sensor
output
PVDF
Soft film
input PVDF
❑ Force sensor
64
Chapter(2) Sensors Acceleration Sensors
❑ Accelerometer is a device which can detect and measure acceleration.

𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒂= =
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐
❑ Basic Principle of Acceleration: Velocity is speed and direction so any

time there is a change in either speed or direction there is acceleration
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
❑ There are a lot of types of accelerometers

▪ Capacitive
▪ Piezoelectric
▪ Piezo-resistive
▪ Hall Effect
▪ Magneto resistive
▪ Heat Transfer
Accelerometer
Seismic mass Accelerometer Piezoelectric Accelerometer IC Accelerometer
65
1. Seismic Accelerometer
❑ Basic Accelerometer
▪ Newton’s law 𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒂
𝒂 = (𝒌Τ𝒎) 𝚫 𝒙
▪ Hooke’s law 𝑭 = 𝒌 ∆𝒙
▪ 𝑭 = 𝒌 𝚫 𝒙 = 𝒎𝒂
66
2. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
▪ In 1880, Pierre and Jacques Curie discovered the piezoelectric effect. Certain materials were observed to
generate a voltage when subjected to a mechanical strain, or undergo a change in physical dimensions under
an applied voltage. In response to a mechanical strain the piezo element generates a charge, which is
temporarily stored in the inherent capacitance of the piezo element
67
2. Piezoelectric Accelerometer
68
3. IC Accelerometer
4. Capacitive Accelerometer
Data Acquisition Systems Dr. Ali Gaballa. 69

Chapter(2) Sensors Fluid Pressure
Fluid Pressure
Diaphragms Capsules Bellows Tubes
Air Pressure Barometers
70
❑ Diaphragms
pressure
pressure
Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm
Transfer voltage taps

Strain gauge
Diaphragm
Active Element
pressure
Pressure sensor element

Diaphragm pressure gauge
71
❑ Capsules
72
❑ Tubes ❑ Bellows
Iron rod
Primary coil
Movement
Secondary coil
pressure
LVDT with Bellows
73
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Flow
Liquid Flow
Orifice Plate Turbine Meter
74
❑ For a horizontal tube, where ν1 is the fluid velocity, P1 the pressure and A1 the cross section
area of the tube prior to the constriction, ν2 is the fluid velocity, P2 the pressure and A2 the
cross section area at the constriction, ρ the fluid density, then Bernoulli’s equation gives
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ = + 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 𝝆 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝝆
𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈
❑ The quantity Q of liquid passing through the tube per second

𝑨𝟐
𝑸= 𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )Τ𝝆
𝑸 = 𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝟐
𝟏 − (𝑨𝟐 Τ𝑨𝟏 )
75
❑ Orifice plate
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ = +
𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈
▪ The quantity Q of liquid passing through the tube per second
𝑨𝟐
𝑸= 𝟐(𝑷𝟏 − 𝑷𝟐 )Τ𝝆
𝟐
𝟏 − (𝑨𝟐 Τ𝑨𝟏 )
76
❑ Turbine meter
❑ Principle of operation
▪ Reluctance of flux path varies periodically with the angular (θ) of
the wheel.
▪ MMF is constant.
▪ Flux can be approximated as: 𝝋 𝜽 = 𝜶 + 𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒏𝜽) . Where: α is
the mean flux. β is the amplitude of the time varying flux. n is the
number of teeth of the wheel
▪ MMF can be written as
𝒅𝝋 𝒅𝝋 𝒅𝜽
▪ 𝑬=− =− = 𝜷 𝝎 𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏( 𝒏 𝝎 𝒕).
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝒕
▪ Where ω is the rotational velocity of the wheel.

▪ ω is proportional to amplitude and frequency of E.
▪ Assuming the drag force due to bearing and viscous friction
negligible, the rotor angular velocity (ω) is proportional to flow rate
(Q)
77
Chapter(2) Sensors Liquid Level Sensors
❑ Level sensors measure the level of solid and liquid. Example: Mechanical, Electrical,
Ultrasonic
Liquid Level
Floats sensors Capacitive sensors Hall sensors Ultrasonic sensors
78
1. Ultrasonic Level Sensor

▪ Emit high-frequency (20 to 200 kilohertz) acoustic waves
79
2. Floats
80
3. Capacitive sensors
𝑪 = 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 𝑨/𝒅
81
4. Hall effect sensors

▪ A Hall-effect sensor is a non-contact type sensor that is based on the Hall effect, which was discovered by
Hall in 1877. The Hall effect states that a voltage difference is developed in a current-carrying conductor
when subjected to a magnetic field. This voltage is perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.
V = 𝐾𝐻 𝐵 𝐼 Τ𝑑
Current
▪ Hall effect sensors can be used to as position, displacement and proximity sensors if the object being
sensed is fitted with a small permanent magnetic
Ground
Supply Output
Magnetic
Spring
Float
Spring
❑ Hall effect sensors can be used to determine the level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank
82
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric Strain And Stress Measurement
❑ Strain is a basic quantity in solid mechanics. When a force (torque) acts on a member, it leads
to a deformation of the member. The deformation is expressed in terms of strain.
▪ Strain = (∆𝑳/𝑳)
▪ Stress = Strain x modulus of elasticity of the material
Electrical Strain
Resistive Capacitive Semiconductor Photoelectric
83
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric Strain And Stress Measurement
1. Resistive strain gage:

▪ The use of strain gages is based on the fact that the resistance of a conductor changes when the conductor is
subjected to strain.
R =  L/A
▪ Strain gages can be calibrated to measure Force or pressure, and operate by detecting the
variation in electrical resistance, piezoresistance, capacitance, inductance, piezoelectricity or
photoelectricity
84
Chapter(2) Sensors
Electric strain and stress measurement
1. Resistive strain gage

▪ The electrical resistance of a cylindrical conductor is given by:𝑹 = 𝝆𝑳Τ𝑨, where L is
the length of the cylindrical conductor,ρ is the resistivity of the conductor material,
and A is cross-sectional area of the conductor.
▪ Taking the natural logarithm, gives: 𝒍𝒏 𝑹 = 𝒍𝒏 𝝆 + 𝒍𝒏 𝑳 − 𝒍𝒏 𝑨
▪ Differentiating gives the following expression for the change in resistance:
𝒅𝑹Τ𝑹 = 𝒅𝝆Τ𝝆 + 𝒅𝑳Τ𝑳 − 𝒅𝑨Τ𝑨
▪ Adapting this for a foil strain gage, the cross-sectional area (width x height) of the
conductor is 𝑨 = 𝒘 𝒉.
▪ Differentiating gives the following expression for the change in area:
𝒅𝑨Τ𝑨 = (𝒘 𝒅𝒉 + 𝒉 𝒅𝒘)Τ 𝒘𝒉 = 𝒅𝒉Τ𝒉 + 𝒅𝒘Τ𝒘
▪ From the definition of Poisson's ratio
𝒅𝒉Τ𝒉 = −𝝂 𝒅𝑳Τ𝑳 𝒅𝒘Τ𝒘 = −𝝂 𝒅𝑳Τ𝑳 .
85
Chapter(2) Sensors Electric strain and stress measurement
1. Resistive strain gage

𝒅𝑨 𝒅𝑳 𝒅𝑹Τ𝑹 𝒅𝝆Τ𝝆
= −𝟐𝒗 = −𝟐 𝒗 𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏+𝟐𝒗 + =𝑲
𝑨 𝑳 𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Strain = (∆L/L)
Stress = Strain x modulus of elasticity of the material
𝒅𝑹Τ𝑹 = 𝑲 𝑺𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
2. Capacitance strain gages

❑ Capacitance devices, which depend on geometric features, can be used to measure strain.
❑ The capacitance can be varied by changing the plate area and the gap. The electrical properties
of the materials used to form the capacitor are relatively unimportant, so capacitance strain
gage materials can be chosen to meet the mechanical requirements. This allows the gages to be
more rugged, providing a significant advantage over resistance strain gages.
𝑪 = 𝝐𝟎 𝝐𝒓 𝑨/𝒅
86
Chapter(2) Sensors
Electric strain and stress measurement
3. Photoelectric strain gages

An extensometer is used to amplify the movement of a specimen. A beam of light is passed through
a variable slit, actuated by the extensometer, and directed to a photoelectric cell. As the gap
changes, the amount of light reaching the cell varies, causing a change in current generated by the
cell.
4. Semiconductor strain gages

❑Semiconductor strain gages are widely used today, and these differ in many aspects from the
metallic wire and foil strain gages. Most importantly, they produce much greater sensitivity (10
to 50 times). This was at one time thought to herald the downfall of metallic gages, but
semiconductor gages are very limited as a general-purpose gage, and so there is a place for both
types in modern strain measurement.
❑In piezoelectric materials, such as crystalline quartz, a change in the electronic charge across the
faces of the crystal occurs when the material is mechanically stressed.
❑The piezoresistive effect is defined as the change in resistance of a material due to an applied
stress and this term is used commonly in connection with semiconducting materials.
❑The resistivity of a semiconductor is inversely proportional to the product of the electronic
charge, the number of charge carriers, and their average mobility. The effect of applied stress is
to change both the number and average mobility of the charge carriers. By choosing the correct
crystallographic orientation and dope type, both positive and negative gage factors may be
obtained. Silicon is now almost universally used for the manufacture of semiconductor strain
gages.
87

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Mechatronics 2 CH 2

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Chapter (2) Sensors

Sensors including: Position and Speed Measurement, Stress and Strain

❑ Sensor is a device that detects a change in a physical stimulus and turns it

◼ Temperature ◼ Displacement, Level

❑ Need of Sensors in daily life:

❑ Each sensor is based on a transduction principle: conversion of energy from one

form to another (transducer)

Input Out Put

❑ Each sensor is based on a transduction principle: conversion of energy from one

Temperature Sensors , Humidity Sensors , Optical sensors, Proximity Sensors,

Smart Security System

Smart Car proximity sensor

𝒚 𝒙 =𝑨𝒙 𝒙𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙

6. Hysteresis The maximum difference in sensor output for

❑ Type of Sensors with respect to principle of operation:

❑ Type of Sensors for Various Measurement Objectives:

❑ Sensors can also be classified as passive  Absolute

 Field of application :Automotive, energy, health and medicine, space,…

Temperature Sensors , Humidity Sensors , Optical sensors, Proximity Sensors,

1. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Where: 𝑹𝟎 Resistance at 𝟎𝟎 𝑪 , 𝑹𝒕 Resistance at 𝒕 𝟎𝑪 , 𝜶 : material

▪ Typical Specification of thermocouple

Comparison of different temperature sensors

2. Capacitive Hygrometer Sensors

Inductive Proximity Hall Effect Photoelectric Ultrasonic

DFE Series Heat Detector DSC-EA Heat Detector

HF-24 Flame Detector

❑ A wide variety of transducers are used to measure mechanical displacement or the

Potentiometers Capacitive Sensors LVDT Sensors Ultrasonic/LASAR Ranging

Linear Potentiometer V. resistance Angular Potentiometer

4. Ultrasonic ranging system

5. Laser Ranger Finder

Velocity and motion Sensors

Optical Encoder Tachogenerator Doppler Effect Pyroelectric Sensors

1. Optical encoder : Incremental encoder

1. Optical encoder : Incremental encoder

1. Optical encoder : Incremental encoder

1. Optical encoder : Incremental encoder

1. Optical encoder: Absolute Encoder

1. Optical encoder: Absolute Encoder

1. Optical encoder: Gray Encoder

1. Optical encoder: Gray Encoder

2. Tacho-generator: Variable Reluctance

▪ The induced e.m.f. E in the N turns of the pick-up coil is thus:

❑ Temperature-Charge relationship: ∆𝑸 = 𝒌𝒑 ∆𝒕. Where kp is a sensitivity constant for the crystal.

Surface become charged Pressure Sensors

▪ Piezoelectric sensors are used to measurement of Pressure , Force and Acceleration.

❑ Accelerometer is a device which can detect and measure acceleration.

❑ Basic Principle of Acceleration: Velocity is speed and direction so any

❑ There are a lot of types of accelerometers

Seismic mass Accelerometer Piezoelectric Accelerometer IC Accelerometer

Data Acquisition Systems Dr. Ali Gaballa. 69

Diaphragms Capsules Bellows Tubes

Air Pressure Barometers

Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm

Transfer voltage taps

Pressure sensor element

LVDT with Bellows

Orifice Plate Turbine Meter

❑ The quantity Q of liquid passing through the tube per second

▪ The quantity Q of liquid passing through the tube per second

▪ Where ω is the rotational velocity of the wheel.

Floats sensors Capacitive sensors Hall sensors Ultrasonic sensors