[CANVAS] MODULE 5: PLANT ORGANOGRAPHY: FLOWERS, FRUITS, AND SEEDS

MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY (EXTERNAL AND

OUTLINE INTERNAL STRUCTURES)
I L1: FLOWERS
 A flower is the reproductive structure of an angiosperm
A Morphology and Anatomy (External and Internal
structures) plant.
B Functions of a flower  angiosperm, also called flowering plant, any of
C Sexual Reproduction, Pollination and Fertilization about 300,000 species of flowering plants, the
D Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Importance of the largest and most diverse group within the kingdom
flowers Plantae.
II L2: FRUITS AND SEEDS  Flowers have ovaries with ovules that develop into fruits
A Morphology and Anatomy of fruits
with seeds.
B Types of fruits
C Seed  There are over 300,000 species of angiosperms, and their
D Structure of a Monocot and Dicot seed flowers and fruits vary significantly.
E Dispersal of fruits and Seeds  Flowers and fruits are among the most useful features for
F Germination the identification of plant species and determination of their
G Modes of Germination evolutionary relationships.
i. Modes of Germination  Consists of reproductive organs: stamens and carpels
ii. Factors affecting Germination
H Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Importance of  Typically surrounded by: petals (corolla) and green sepals
seeds and fruits (calyx).
 The part of the plant that produces seeds, is often brightly
colored, and sometimes has a pleasant smell.
FLOWERS

MONTH BIRTH FLOWER MEANING

Carnation Admiration, love
January
Snowdrop Hope, rebirth
Modesty,
Violet
February faithfulness
Primrose
Young love
New beginnings,
March Daffodil
prosperity
Daisy Purity, innocence
April
Sweet pea Blissful pleasure
Sweetness,
Lily of the valley SEPALS
May motherhood
Hawthorn
Hope  First whorl is of green sepals.
Rose Romance  Constitute the outermost and lowest whorl on a floral
June
Honeysuckle Happiness shoot, are leaf like in shape and form and are often green.
Larkspur Positivity, dignity  Cover and protect the flower parts when the flower is a
July
Water lily Purity bud.
Strength of  The collective term for all the sepals of a flower is calyx.
Gladiolus
August
Poppy
character STAMENS
Imagination  Third whorl
Love, affection  reproductive organs
Aster
September Unrequited love,  male reproductive part of a flower.
Morning glory
mortality
 All the stamens of a flower are collectively called the
Marigold Creativity, passion androecium.
October
Cosmos Peace, tranquility Filament
November Chrysanthemum Loyalty, honesty  In all but a few extant angiosperms, the stamen consists of
Hope, wealth a long slender stalk, the filament, with a two-lobed anther at
Narcissus
December Protection, the tip.
Holly
defense  to hold up the anther, extending it up to an accessible part
of the flower for pollinators reach, or for the wind to disperse
the pollen.
Anther
 consists of four saclike structures (microsporangia) that
produce pollen for pollination. Consists of numerous small
pollens, which are male reproductive cells.

1
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

 Pollen, a mass of microspores in a seed plant THALAMUS OR TORUS

appearing usually as a fine dust.  the apical part of the pedicel. It contains nodes and
 pollination, transfer of pollen grains from the
condensed internodes
stamens, the flower parts that produce them, to
POLLINATION
the ovule-bearing organs or to the ovules (seed
precursors) themselves. In pollination, compatible pollen grains land on the stigma and
NECTARY (NECTARIES) then germinate, forming a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows
down through the tissue of the style to deposit sperm for the
 Small secretory structures that are often found at the base fertilization of the ovules in the ovary. Pistils in the collective
of the stamens sense form the gynoecium.
 provide food rewards for insect and bird pollinators
Female floral parts Male floral parts
FLORAL LEAVES (WHORLS)
POLLEN GRAIN
 CALYX (each will produce
two sperm cells)
 COROLLA STIGMA

 ANDROECIUM PISTIL STYLE

 GYNOECIUM OR PISTIL (consisting
of one or

 Calyx and Corolla together called as PERIANTH. more

carpels) ANTHER
STAMEN
OVARY
FILAMENT

OVULES
(Each PETAL
producing
one egg cell)

SEPAL
RECEPTACLE

PENDUCLE

FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION

 A fruit develops from an ovary.
Non-essential Organs of the Flower:
 A seed develops from an ovule.
CALYX
 First whorl
FLOWER STRUCTURE VARIATION
 made up of sepals, green leaf-like structures that enclose
the unopened bud.
 a protective role for the flower before it opens, and
afterward extend from the base of the flower.
COROLLA (Petals)
 The second whorl of colorful petals
 usually thin, soft and colored to attract animals
 help the process of pollination.
Essential Organs:
ANDROECIUM
 male parts of the flower
 comprise the stamens
 each of which consists of a supporting filament and an Bisexual Flower – with both androecium and gynoecium
anther, in which pollen is produced. Unisexual Flower – with either androecium or gynoecium
PISTIL Male flower or Staminate – unisexual flower with androecium
 The fourth whorl is of carpel/pistil Female flower or Pistillate – unisexual flower with gynoecium
 female reproductive part of a flower OVARY POSITION
 centrally located
 Basic unit of female reproductive structure is the carpel.
 It is composed of a variable number of carpels.
CARPEL (Pistil)
 Contains:
 a swollen base, the ovary
 the potential seeds, or ovules; containing the
gametes, housed inside the ovary
 a stalk, or style, arising from the ovary; The SUPERIOR OVARY: above the attachment of the petals, sepals
supportive stalk, becomes the pathway for pollen and stamens; alsp an ovary that is free from hypanthium.
tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the Hypogynous- petals, sepals & stamens attached at base of
stigma ovary.
 a pollen-receptive tip, the stigma, variously Perigynous- petals, sepals & stamens on the rim of hypathium
shaped and often sticky. (receptor of pollen) INFERIOR OVARY: Below the attachment of the petals, sepals,
TYPES OF GYNOECIUM and stamens; may have hypanthium adnate to the top of ovary.
Apocarpous- consists of two or more carpels and all carpels Epigynous- petals, sepals & stamens attached at top of ovary
are free. Perigynous- petals, sepals & stamens on the rim of hypathium
Syncarpous- consists of two or more carpels and all carpels are
free. Having several carpels united in one compount pistil.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 2

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

A flower having sepals, petals,

stamens, and pistils is
complete; if a flower is lacking
one or more of these whorls, it
is said to be incomplete.
COMPLETE FLOWER- flower
with all four floral parts.
INCOMPLETE FLOWER-
flower in which any one of the
part is absent.

INFLORENCES
 An inflorescenceis a group or cluster of flowers. It may be
branched or unbranched. THE CYCLE
 Usually the modifications have been evolved to optimize the
plant’s method of pollen dispersal.

UMBEL DICHASIUM
SPIKE RACEME PANICLE CORYMB

CATKIN CYME HEAD

PHYLUM ANTHOPHYTA (Flowering Plants)

TYPES OF INFLORENCES: DICOTS MONOCOTS
Raceme
Two cotyledons One cotyledon
 Flower on individual stem coming off the main stem
 an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence with Flower parts in multiple of Flower parts in multiples of
pedicellate flowers along the axis. four or five three
Spike Leaves with distinct network Leaves with parallel primary
 type of raceme with flowers that do not have a pedicel of veins veins
Panicle Vascular cambium and cork Vascular cambium and cork
 more strongly and irregularly branched from the top to the cambium present cambium absent
bottom and where each branching has a terminal flower. Vascular bundles of stem in Vascular bundles of stem
Umble ring scattered
 type of raceme with a short axis and multiple floral pedicels Pollen grains with three Pollen grains with one
of equal length that appear to arise from a common point. apertures aperture
Compound Umbel
 umbels in which the single flowers are replaced by many STRUCTURE OF A FLOWER
smaller umbels calledumbellets.
Catkin or amentis
 a scaly, generally drooping spike or raceme.
Spadix
 is a spike of flowers densely arranged around it, enclosed
or accompanied by a highly specialized bract called
aspathe.
Corymb
 is an unbranched, indeterminate inflorescence that is flat-
topped or convex due to their outer pedicels which are
progressively longer than inner ones.
Composite Head
 capitulumis a very contracted raceme in which the single
sessile flowers are borne on an enlarged stem.
Cyme ANTERIOR SIDE – the bract side of the flower.
 A flat-topped inflorescence in which the central flower POSTERIOR SIDE – the mother axis side of the flower.
opens first, followed by the peripheral flowers. BRACT – flowers develop in the axils of specialized leaves
called BRACTS.
BRACTEATE – flowers with bracts.
EBRACTEATE – flowers without bracts.
PEDICEL – stalk of the flower
PEDICELLATE – flowers with pedicel

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 3

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

SESSILE – flowers without pedicel

BRACTEOLE- the small leaf like structure present on the
pedicel
BRACTEOLATE- flowers with bracteoles
EBRACTEOLATE- flowers without bracteoles

SEX DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS

Based on the sexuality of the flowers, the sex distribution is
consist of three types:
MONOECIOUS PLANT- plant with male and female flowers
 Ex. Cocos nucifera & Acalypha
DIOECIOUS PLANT – plant with either male or female flowers.
 Male plant- dioecious plant with male flowers SEXUAL REPRODUCTION, POLLINATION AND
 Female plant- dioecious plant with female flowers FERTILIZATION
o Ex. Borassus & Vallisnaria  The process begins with pollination, it is a process in which
POLYGAMOUS PLANT – plant with unisexual male and female the pollen grains from the flower anther is transferred to the
flowers and bisexual flowers. stigma.
 Ex. Magnifera & Polygonum  After pollination, fertilization takes place, it is a process of
fusion of the pollen grains with the ovum to form the zygote.
Summary table for the structure of the flower and its function.  Plants reproduce their own kind
Structure Function  Most of the plants reproduce through seeds
Calyx Outer whorls of sepals that
are typically green color. Reproductive Plant Parts
Style The supportive stalk which External plant structures such as leaves, stems, roots,
becomes the pathway for flowers, fruits and seeds are known as plant organs. Each
pollen tubes to grow from organ is an organized group of tissues that works together to
pollen grains adhering to the perform a specific function.
stigma. These structures can be divided into two groups: sexual
Carpel It is the female reproductive reproductive and vegetative.
organ of flower, consisting Sexual reproductive parts produce seed; they include flower
ovary, a stigma, and usually buds, flowers, fruit and seeds.
a style. Fertilization
Stigma The sticky tip of pistil and is  When pollens from the anther of stamen joins with the
the receptor of pollen ovules present in the ovary, we call it fertilization.
Anther This holds and contains male  Fertilization forms the seeds inside the ovary
gametes  After fertilization, this ovary changes into a fruit.
Corolla Whorl of petals which  That’s why seeds are inside the fruit.
function to attract animals for Pollination
pollination.  Is a process by which pollen is transferred from the anther
Ovary The fruit develops from this. that is the male part to the stigma which is the female part
Produces the female sex of the plant.
cells (contained in the  process of pollens reaching the sticky tops of pistils
ovules)  When pollens reach the stigma of the same flower, it is
Stamen Male reproductive organ called self pollination.
Sepals Protect the unopened flower  When pollens reach the stigma of a different flower of the
Petals May be brightly coloured to same kind, it’s called cross pollination.
attract insects Agents of pollination:
Stamens The male parts of the flower  insects like bees, butterflies, beetles etc. are the main
(each consists of an anther agents of pollination.
held up on a filament)  Birds and mammals
Nectary Produce a sugary solution  Wind
called nectar, which attracts  water
insects How pollens reach the stigma?
 Flowers have bright petals and strong fragrance that attract
FUNCTIONS OF A FLOWER insects and other animals.
 The primary purpose of a flower is reproduction.  Also, flowers have thin nutritious honeylike liquid nectar
 Since the flowers are the reproductive organs of plant, they inside them, that acts as food for many insects.
mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to  The pollens from the anther gets attached to the body of the
the ovules — contained in the ovary. insects.
 Pollination is the movement of pollen from the  When these insects visit some other flower for nectar,
anthers to the stigma. pollens get to the sticky top of the pistils by long tubes called
 Flowers not only involved in reproduction but are also a style.
source of food for other living organisms since these are  Pollens reach the ovary where ovules are present and
rich source of nectar. fertilization occurs leading to the formation of seeds.
 This process of pollens reaching the sticky tops of pistils, is
called pollination.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 4

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5
PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE OF FLOWERS
Source: pdf in canvas
Feverfew (Chrysanthemum parthenium or Tanacetum
parthenium)
 Treatment of migraine headaches
 Induces abortion and treat problems with menstruation
 Insecticide
 Dilutes bronchial mucus
Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium)
 Relief for those suffering from a fever, headache or
common cold.
 The cooled liquid can also be applied as a compress to
soothe tired eyes.
Jimson weed (Datura stramonium)
 Aka Jamestown weed or Devil’s breath
 Active compound: scopolamine
 Used for knockout drops and for asthma
 Highly poisonous and fatal
 Used as recreational psychoactive drug.
Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)
 Promote restful sleep
 Aid in balancing irregular heartbeat
Camptotheca (Camptotheca acuminate)
 Effective against form of cancer.
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)
 Helps greatly with ulcers and menstrual cramps.
 It can also be used as a wash for gargling in cases of sore
throats.
Rose (Genus Rosa)
 Contain Vitamin C
 The petals can be eaten raw to increase blood circulation,
and they also relieve depression.
 Acts as a mild laxative.
 A paste or cream made from the petals does wonders to
improve the condition of the skin, especially on the face.
Rosy Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus)
 Given as a tea for diabetes and HTN.
 Has beneficial properties towards diseases that include
leukemia, cancer and Hodgkin’s Disease.
Blue Lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica)
 Treatment for syphilis as well as less severe ailments.
 Tea made with this flower helps to relieve fevers, coughs
and colds, and digestive problems.
Butterfly Weed (Asclepias tuberosa)
 Effective in treating respiratory and related lung problems.
 If ingested, it can be used for internal cleansing and pain
relief.
 Direct application to the skin in the form of a poultice can
help to reduce swelling or heal wounds.
California Poppy (Eschscholzia californica)
 Not addictive and do not have any opium in the plant.
 Help with depressionand fatigue
 Help reduce anxietyand insomnia
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Jasmine (Jasminum officinale)
 Aid in digestive issues, stomach ulcers and ulcers.
 Sipping this brew before bedtime can help to ward off
insomnia and anxiety.
Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides)
 Medicine for blood cleansing and disorders, bladder
problems, and physical injuries.
 It also works on a mental level in helping to alleviate
depression, stress, anxiety, insomnia and similar disorders.
Honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens)
 Used to create an antibacterial gargle wash for sore throats.
 Skin rashes or inflammation are also effectively treated by
applying a paste made from the flowers.
Lilac (Syringa vulgaris)
 Used as tonic that reduces fever and to get rid of internal
parasites.
 Skin burns or wounds are soothed and heal well
Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus)
 Has an antimicrobial properties used as remedy against
colds and flu.
 It is also useful in treating infections of the lungs, bladder
and reproductive organs.
Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)
 Snapdragon can be used as a gentle sedative and mental
relaxant.
 It is especially useful when battling insomnia or stress.
Hyssop (Agastache rugose)
 Potent against sore throats, bronchitis, congested chests,
rheumatism and arthritis.
 It can also be used to improve circulation of the blood.
Black Cohosh (Actaea racemose)
 Used as an emmenagogue (stimulates the uterus to
increase menstrual flow).
 At low dose, effective in women with menstrual problems to
help regulate their cycles and relieve pain.
 Pregnant women should avoid it since it can bring on a
miscarriage or early labor.
Daisy (Bellis perennis)
 It acts as a laxative as well as an expectorant to purge the
body of toxic matter.
 A home remedy to help treat physical disorders such as
arthritis and rheumatism.
 Direct application to the skin through an ointment or poultice
aids in healing wounds.
Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)
 Dandelions are very effective for cleaning the blood and
help in treating anemia.
 It was also used as a laxative and a tonic of overall
wellbeing.
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 5
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5
MORPHOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF FRUITS
Fruit Regions
One of the many healthy things available in the world today is
fruits. They are mostly sweet to taste, are filled with nutrients
and some of them are like tomatoes are also eaten as
vegetables. The fruit is broadly divided into the pericarp which is
the various covering layers of the fruit and the seed or seeds
which are present inside it. The pericarp (3 regions) of a fruit
can be further divided into:
 Exocarp– It is the outermost layer which is formed
from the outer layer or the epidermis. (Skin)
 Mesocarp– Is the second or the middle layer which is
often juicy and varies in thickness in different fruits
(tissue between exocarp and endocarp)
 Endocarp– It is the innermost layer and also is
different in different kinds of fruits (inner boundary
around seeds)
Once pollination and fertilization occur, the zygote is formed
and the ovary begins to differentiate into the fruit. The outer wall
of the ovary begins to differentiate into the pericarp whereas the
seed develops within the fruit itself.
 Fruits are a characteristic of flowering plants. Once
pollination and fertilization occur, the ovary of the plant
becomes the fruit and the ovules become the seeds.
 They can be fleshy or dry.
 The main purpose of fruits is that they protect the seeds
during development.
 Fruits are often colorful and emanate a delectable odor,
they help in attracting birds and other animals to eat seeds.
This way the seeds get dispersed to other areas for
generating new plants.
TYPES OF FRUITS
The structure known as a "fruit" is found only in the members of
the Angiosperms. A fruit developed solely from the ovary and its
contents is known as a true fruit. A fruit developed from the
ovary and its contents plus additional parts of the flower such as
the receptacle, petals, and sepals are known as accessory
fruits (e.g. pineapple). The following is a common classification
of fruit types.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
Simple fruit- one fruit that has developed from one single flower
Aggregate fruit- one flower that produces tiny fruits clustered
tightly together.
Multiple fruit- fruits from many different flowers which develop
closely together to form one bigger fruit
1. Simple Fruits- Fruits formed from 1 pistil. They may be either
true or accessory fruits.
 Dry Fruits: - Fruits in which the coat becomes dry at
maturity.
o Dehiscent Fruits- Dry fruits which at maturity open by
definite natural means to shed the contained seeds.
 Legume - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from 1
carpel and at maturity splitting along both the
dorsal and ventral sutures. (beans, peas).
 Follicle - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from 1
carpel and at maturity splitting along only one
suture. (columbine)
 Capsule - A dry dehiscent fruit developed from
several carpels.
 Silique - A special long slender capsule of 2
carpels. (mustards).
o Indehiscent fruits- Dry fruits which do not open when
mature to shed their seeds. Many of this group are one-
seeded fruit.
 Achene- A one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit; the
one seed is attached to the fruit wall at a single
point. (dandelion, sunflower).
 Nut- A dry, indehiscent, one seeded fruit similar to
an achene but with the wall greatly thickened and
hardened. (chestnut, hazel, walnut - note:
because of extrafloral bracts, or "husk", the latter
two fruits are sometimes called "drupes").
 Samara- A one- or two-seeded dry, indehiscent
fruit in which part of the fruit wall grows out into a
wing. (maple).
 Grain- A maple one-seeded dry, indehiscent fruit
in which the fruit wall and the seed coat are fused.
(wheat, corn).
 Schizocarp- A fruit formed from several carpels,
each carpel of this pistil enclosing a single ovule,
at maturity the carpels separate as separate
indehiscent fruits. (mallow, wild carrot, dill).
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 6
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

3. Aggregate Fruit- A fruit formed by the development of a

number of pistils from the same flower. The individual units may
be berries or other specific types. (raspberry, strawberry).

4. Multiple Fruit- A fruit formed by the development of a number

of pistils often with accessory parts, the pistils being from a
number of flowers. (mulberry, fig).

 Fleshy Fruits- A fruit in which the wall becomes soft and

fleshy as it matures.
o Drupe- A one-seeded simple fruit developed from a
superior ovary in which the innermost portion of the
wall (endocarp) becomes hard and stony, the
outermost part (exocarp) becomes a relatively thin
skin, and the middle portion between the skin and the
stone (mesocarp) becomes either fleshy or fibrous.
(cherry, coconut, walnut - note: because of extrafloral SEED
bracts, or "husk", the latter two fruits are sometimes  are embryotic plants enclosed in a protective outer
called "drupes", but best called "nuts"). covering.
o Berry- A simple fruit in which the ovary wall or at least Functions:
its inner portions become enlarged and usually juicy.  Reproduction
(grape, banana). Two special types of berry-like fruits  Covering the embryo
may be singled out for special consideration.  Storage of food
 Hesperidium- This is a special type of berry in  Dispersal to a new location and dormancy during
which a leathery rind forms; the interior of the fruit unfavorable conditions
divided by septa, indicating the number of carpels.  A seed is a basic part of any plant. The ovules after
(lemon). fertilization, develop into seeds.
 Pepo- This is a special type of berry in which a  A seed is made up of a seed coat and an embryo.
relatively hard rind is formed; the interior of fruit not The embryo is made up of a radicle, an embryonal
divided by septa. (watermelon, squash). axis and one (wheat, maize) or two cotyledons (gram and
o Pome- An accessory fleshy fruit formed by a group of pea).
carpels more or less firmly united with each other and  A seed is found inside a fruit which converts into a new plant
surrounded by and united to the floral tube or when we plant it. Hence, the seed is the most important
receptacle. (apple, pear, mountain ash). part.
o A true berry is a simple fleshy fruit formed from the
ovary of one flower with seeds embedded in the flesh. Angiosperms Gymnosperm
Some examples of true berries are blueberries, Have seeds that are Have no flowers or fruits,
gooseberries, cranberries, grapes, tomatoes, bananas enclosed within an ovary and have unenclosed or
and peppers. (usually a fruit), while “naked” seeds on the
surface of scales or leaves.
Angiosperms include Gymnosperm seeds are
flowers, fruits, and often configured as cones.
endosperm in the seeds.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 7

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5
STRUCTURE OF A MONOCOT AND DICOT SEED
A Monocotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has only
one cotyledon. There is only one outer layering of the seed coat.
A seed has the following parts:
 Seed Coat:In the seed of cereals such as maize, the
seed coat is membranous and generally fused with the
fruit wall, called Hull.
 Endosperm: The endosperm is bulky and stores food.
Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are endospermic
but some as in orchids are non-endospermic.
 Aleurone layer: The outer covering of endosperm
separates the embryo by a proteinous layer called
aleurone layer.
 Scutellum: This is one large and shield-shaped
cotyledon.
 Embryo: The embryo is small and situated in a groove
at one end of the endosperm.
 Embryonal axis: Plumule and radicle are the
two ends.
 Coleoptile and coleorhiza: The plumule and radicle
are enclosed in sheaths. They are coleoptile and
coleorhiza
Unlike monocotyledonous seed, a dicotyledonous seed, as
the name suggests, has two cotyledons. It has the following
parts:
 Seed coat: This is the outermost covering of a
seed. The seed coat has two layers, the outer testa and
the inner tegmen.
 Hilum:The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through
which the developing seed was attached to the fruit.
 Micropyle:It is a small pore present above the hilum.
 Embryo: It consists of an embryonal axis and two
cotyledons.
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
 Endosperm: In some seeds such as castor, the
endosperm formed as a result of double fertilization, is
a food storing tissue. In plants such as bean, gram and
pea, the endosperm is not present in the matured seed.
They are known as non-endospermous.
 Cotyledons: These are often fleshy and full of reserve
food materials.
 Radicle and plumule: They are present at the two
ends of the embryonal axis.
STRUCTURE OF SEED
A.EXTERNAL
1. Seed coat/Testa – outer protective covering
2. Hilum – scar from the seed being attached to the parent plant.
B. EMBRYO
1. Cotyledon – the first leaf that germinates
 Epicotyl and Hypocotyl – the portion of axis above
and lower portion of the cotyledon respectively.
2. Plumule – the first apical bud of shoot
 Coleoptile – covering the young shoot
3. Radicle – part of the seed where the root develops
 Coleorhiza - the protective sheath investing the
radicle in some monocotyledonous plants through
which the roots emerge
C. ENDOSPERM
 The endosperm is a source of stored food, consisting
primarily of starches.
 It is the structure that has been formed to provide nutrition
for embryo in germination
MONOCOT VS DICOT
Monocot Seed (Ex. Corn Seed)
1. Only one cotyledon present in the embryo
2. Cotyledons is thin and small and lacks food materials
3. Endosperm is mostly present and stores food
4. Radicle is protected by coleorhiza and plumule by coleoptile.
Dicot Seed (Ex. Bean Seed)
1. Two lateral cotyledons are present in embryo axis.
2. Cotyledons are fleshy and store food.
3. Endosperm is mostly absent and lacks food.
4. Coleorhiza and Coleoptiles are absent.
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 8
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5
DISPERSAL OF FRUITS AND SEED
There are a variety of methods that will get seeds from the ovary
to a fertile spot to begin germinating and growing. Not all
methods will work for every plant and some plants are very
method specific.
1. Dispersal by wind
The wind can carry light seeds for miles and most seeds and
fruits relying on wind dispersal have specialized adaptations.
The samaras with their wings and membranes are highly ideal
fruits for wind dispersal. Some fruits are too large to be carried
in the air but can be rolled along by the wind. Cottony or woolly
hair type adaptations as in the Willow Family, enable the better
transfer of seeds via the wind. Tumbleweed plants break off and
blow along in the wind, all the while dispersing seeds as it bumps
along.
2. Dispersal by animals
There are so many adaptations for the dispersal of seeds by
animals that it would take a volume or two to discuss them all.
Birds can carry seeds in the mud that they pick up on their feet.
Seeds pass through digestive tracts and are deposited randomly
by animals. Ants carry collect and carry seeds. Some seeds will
not germinate unless they have passed through the acidic
environment of a digestive tract. Fur and feathers can trap seeds
and some seeds have burrowing type screws or hooks to ensure
getting caught on something and carried along.
3. Dispersal by water
Some fruits contain trapped air and are thus adapted to
dispersal by water. Some pericarps are thick and spongy
enough to absorb water slowly and will thus protect the tiny
embryo held within. Saltwater dispersed plants generally have
these type pericarps and survival requires washing up on a
beach somewhere before the saltwater reaches the inside of the
seed.
4. Other dispersal mechanisms
Some fruits mechanically eject fruits, some at a violent velocity.
Humans are another method of dispersal whether intentionally
or not. Most countries have regulations with regards to bringing
fruits and seeds into the country that may harm native species
and cultivated crops.
MAIN MODES OF SEED DISPERSAL
Self Dispersal
o Ballistic
 Witch hazel, squirting cucumber
o Gravity – carpel grows inside the soil (geocarpic)
 Peanuts
Wind dispersal
 dandelion and maple
Water
Animals
 Fleshy fruits eaten and dispersed with feces
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
 Some have Velcro-like hooks that cling to animal
fur (burdock, cockleburs)
Dispersal by Wind
 Seeds are small and light weight
 Fruits: samaras, plumes
Dispersal by Animals
 Oils attract ants.
 –Elaiosomes (Greek élaion "oil" and sóma "body") on
bleeding hearts used as food by ants.
GERMINATION
 Germination is the process by which a dormant seed
begins to sprout and grow into a seedling under the right
growing conditions.
 Germination includes emergence of the radicle, is the
beginning or resumption of growth of a seed, and it depends
on the interplay of a number of internal and external factors.
 The emergence and development from the seed embryo of
those structures which seed indicate the ability to produce
a normal plant.
 The process by which a dormant seed begins to sprout and
grow into a seedling under the right growing conditions.
 There are a host of internal and external factors that have
to be in place in order for germination to occur.
 Most seeds require some period of dormancy before they
will germinate. This can come about by either physiological
or mechanical methods or both.
 Some seeds can break dormancy by scarification which
involves artificially cracking the seed coat.
 In nature, seeds may require a period of freezing and
thawing in order to crack the seed coat or passage through
an acidic digestive tract.
 In most woody plants in temperate regions, a cold period is
required before growth will commence.
 Some plants will absorb vast amounts of water which
instigates the activity of enzymes before germination
begins.
 When the seed is waterlogged oxygen may be reduced and
anaerobic respiration may occur until the seed coat cracks
and oxygen is admitted to the embryo.
 In most cases, the temperature is vital to germination. Light
roles in germination vary depending on the kind of plants
involved.
 Some lettuce seeds, for example, will not germinate in the
dark, whereas some seeds such as the California poppy will
only germinate in the dark.
Germination Process
 The process of seed germination includes the following five
changes or steps.
MODES OF GERMINATION
Modes of germination is based on the behavior of the cotyledons
or storage organ:
 Epigeal Germination
 Seeds emerge out of the soil or above the soil
 The cotyledons come out above the soil surface
and generally turn green and act as first foliage
leaves. This type of germination present in
groundnut, bean, cotton, sunflower, and cotton
seeds.
 Hypogeal Germination
 Seeds remain inside the soil or below the soil
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 9
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

 The cotyledons do not come above the soil

surface. This type of germination is found in
wheat, barley, maize, and pea.

FACTORS AFFECTING GERMINATION

Internal Factors
 Maturity of embryo
 In some plants the embryo is not fully mature at
the time of seed shedding. Such seeds do not
germinate till the embryo attains maturity.
 Presence or absence of chemical inhibitors
 The freshly shed seed in certain plants may not
have sufficient amounts of growth hormones
required for the growth of embryo. These seeds
require some interval of time during which the
hormones get synthesized.
External Factors
 Oxygen
 Oxygen is necessary for respiration which
releases the energy needed for growth.
 Water
 Dormant seeds must absorb external water to
become active and show germination. Besides
providing the necessary hydration for the vital
activities of protoplasm, water softens the seed
coats, causes their rupturing, increases
permeability of seeds, and converts the insoluble
food into soluble form for its translocation to the
embryo
 Temperature
 Moderate warmth is necessary for the vital
activities of protoplasm, and, therefore, for seed
germination. Though germination can take place
over a wide range of temperature (5-40°C), the
optimum for most of the crop plants is around 25-
30°C. The germination in most cases stops at 0°C
and 45°C.

To further understand the germination process, please watch

this video: https://youtu.be/oH1vg5hYbnM

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 10

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum)

PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL  Seeds used in bulking laxatives; reduces mucus resulting
IMPORTANCE OF SEEDS AND FRUITS from asthma and sinus problems; reduces skin
MEDICAL USE OF FRUITS inflammation
Angelica (Angelica archangelica)
 Fruits used in treating colds and fevers; leaves used to Flax (Linum usitatissimum)
stimulate  Cold-processed seed oils are rich source of GLA, beneficial
in suppressing or reversing atherosclerosis;
Buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus)  Crushed seeds used as a laxativeand for treating bronchial
 Fruits used as a laxative problems.

Cranberry (Vaccinium oxycoccum) Grape (Vitis vinifera)

 Fruit juice drunk to treat female yeast infections  Seed extract source of powerful antioxidant
(Candidiasis)  (including quercetin) that also improve blood flow to the
retina, thereby retarding macular degeneration; red grapes
Cubebs (Piper cubeba) in particular produce significant amounts of reservatrol,
 Dried fruit best known as a condiment but is also used in which has been demonstrated to enhance enzyme activity
treatment of asthma associated with the regeneration and stimulation of nerve

Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana) Grapefruit (Citrus paradise)

 Fruit acid is believed to aid in weight reduction  Seed extract used to combat bacterial or fungal infections

Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) Horse Chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum)

 Liquid from boiled fruit used as an astringent; fruits with high
beta-carotene content; leaves have high vitamin C content
Spicebush (Lindera benzoin)
 Berries, buds, and bark brewed for tea used to reduce
fevers
 Seed and leaf extracts used to improve blood flow; night
cramps of legs; reduce varicose veins and leg swelling
 (Caution: Plant is poisonous and only standardized
extracts of demonstrated therapeutic value should be used;
a coumarin component of horse chestnut leaves can
interact adversely with aspirin and other anticoagulants)

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) Java plum (Syzygium cumini)

 Fruit pulp used as laxative  Powdered seeds used to counter excessive thirst and
excretion of sugar in the urine, characteristic of diabetics
MEDICAL USE OF SEEDS
Anise (Pimpinella anisum) Apricot (Prunus armeniaca)
 Seed oil used to relieve indigestion, colds, and respiratory  Seed extract said to function as a bronchodilator
problems such as sinusitis
Black currant (Ribes nigrum)
Velvet bean (Mucuna spp.)  Oil from seeds used to improve suppleness of skin and to
 Seeds contain levodopa used in treatment of Parkinson’s reduce skin dryness
disease
Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)
Strophanthus (Strophanthus spp.)  Seed oil has antibiotic properties and is used in treatment
 Seeds are major source of cortisone and also source of a of cold
heart stimulant
Celery (Apium graveolens)
Strychnine plant (Strychnos nox-vomica)  Seed contains an essential oil that acts like an antioxidant
 Strychnine extracted from seeds widely used as an insect that fights free radicals that attack joints; oil believed to have
and animal poison sedative properties
 minute amounts stimulate the central nervous system and
relieve paralysis Borage (Borago officinalis)
 Oil from seeds contains gamma linoleic acid (GLA) and
Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo) other oils beneficial in human nutrition
 Seed oil used to promote prostate health
Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus spp.)
Oats (Avena sativa)  Seed oil used in the treatment of skin diseases such as
 Extract from green oat seeds said to enhance both physical eczema, psoriasis, and leprosy
and sexual health
Chia (Salvia columbariae)
Perilla (Perilla frutescens)  Seeds contain a caffeine-likeprinciple that enabled Native
 Seeds are the source of perilla oil, which is exceptionally Americans to perform unusual feats of endurance;
rich in omega-3 fatty acids essential to cardiac health  Seed paste used in eye irritationby foreign matter

Evening primrose (Oenothera spp.) Chocolate (Theobroma cacao)

 Seeds are source of Gamma Linoleic Acid (GLA) oils  Seed extracts are good source of L-arginine and
beneficial in human nutrition magnesium and are believed (when combined with other
chocolate constituents) to elevate serotonin levels;

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 11

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 5

 Contains theobromin (somewhat similar to caffeine in

action) and phenylethylene, which are believed to produce
sustained elevation of mood.

Cola (Cola nitida, C. acuminate)

 Seeds contain up to 3.5% caffeine and 1% theobromine,
which may lessen fatigue

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 12

 [CANVAS] MODULE 6: PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION
OUTLINE
I L1: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
II L2: RESPIRATION
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Plants are of central importance to life. Without plants and other
photosynthetic organisms, there would be no energy for animals
or other non-photosynthetic organisms. Animals, humans
included, depend on plants for food, which provides energy, and
for oxygen.
 The relationship between photosynthesis and cellular
respiration is such that the products of one system are the
reactants of the other.
Plants need to...
 collect light energy
 transform it into chemical energy
 store light energy
 in a stable form to be moved around the plant & also saved
for a rainy day
 need to get building block atoms from the environment
 C,H,O,N,P,S
 produce all organic molecules needed for growth
 carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
Photosynthesis involves the use of energy from sunlight, water
and carbon dioxide to produce glucose and oxygen.
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
Cellular respiration uses glucose and oxygen to produce carbon
dioxide and water.
Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
 To emphasize this point even more, the equation for
photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration.
Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reaction in cells
without being used up in the reaction.
 Anabolism – building of molecules by chemical bonds
formation with the help of enzymes
 Catabolism – enzymes breaking down chemical bonds
 Photosynthesis → anabolic
➢Carbon dioxide and water forming carbohydrates
Respiration → catabolic
➢Carbohydrates is broken releasing carbon dioxide and
Water
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 is the process by which organisms that contain the pigment
chlorophyll convert light energy into chemical energy which
can be stored in the molecular bonds of organic molecules
(e.g., sugars).
 It powers almost all trophic chains and food webs on the
Earth.

 The net process of photosynthesis is described by the
following equation: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6+ 6O2
 This equation simply means that carbon dioxide
from the air and water combine in the presence of
sunlight to form sugars; oxygen is released as a
by-product of this reaction.
 During the process of photosynthesis, light penetrates the
cell and passes into the chloroplast.
 The light energy is intercepted by chlorophyll molecules on
the grana stacks (thylakoid).
 Some of the light energy is converted to chemical energy.
 During this process, a phosphate is added to a molecule
to cause the formation of ATP.
 The third phosphate chemical bond contains the new
chemical energy.
 The ATP then provides energy to some of the other
photosynthetic reactions that are causing the conversion
of CO2 into sugars.
LIGHT ABSORPTION
 The wave length of the visible light (0.5 x 10-6) drives the
photosynthesis.
 Sun gives off visible (white) light.
 White light is a mixture of ROYGBIV
 Red has a longer wavelength and violet has more
narrow
 Colors are either reflected or absorbed by objects
 What we see is reflected light
 Green leaves = reflect green light
 White reflects all the colors
 Nothing reflects in black, it always absorbs
 Most plants have green leaves, which means they:
 Reflect green light
 Absorb other colors
 Energy in red (700nm) and blue (400nm) light most
stimulates photosynthesis
 Green has least amount of impact in their ability to do
photosynthesis
 Because most green light is reflecting and very
little green light is absorbing into the leaf
 Photosynthesis is defined as the process that converts
solar energy into glucose
 Who performs photosynthesis: Autotrophs
 Plants
 Algae
 Phytoplankton
 Kelp
 Cynobacteria
 Photosynthesis is also called Endergonic chemical reaction
 It requires energy
 End result of photosynthesis: Sugar (glucose) and oxygen
waste
1
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 6
 Stomata take in carbon dioxide and produce
oxygen as a waste. Through this pores they
exchange gas with the atmosphere
SITE IN CELLS THAT ALLOWS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
SOURCE: https://youtu.be/fTXh7A7Uc2M
Chloroplast
 Site of photosynthesis
Stage 1: Light dependent reactions (Light reaction)
 Location: Thylakoid membranes
 In the membrane of thylakoids is where the light
dependent reactions occur
 Photosystems (chlorophyll and protein molecules)
capture/transfer energy
 Creates: Oxygen, ATP, and sNADPH
 Involves the actual harnessing of light energy
 Occur in the grana
Stage 2: Light independent reactions (Dark reaction)
 Location: Stroma – fluid filled interior of the
chloroplast
 Creates: Glucose
 Involve the creation of the carbohydrates
 Products of the light reaction are used to form C-
C covalent bonds of carbohydrates
 Occur in the stroma
LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTIONS
Step 1:
 Chlorophyll in Photosystem II (PSII) absorbs sunlight and
electrons become excited
 PSII- the first in the chain of the events
 PSI and PSII are named by the order which they
are discovered
 The electrons flow into the thylakoid membrane
 Thylakoid membrane becomes negatively
charged
 Starts an “electron transport chain”
Step 2:
 Hydrogen (H+) pulled intro thylakoids
 As the electrons move through the thylakoid membrane
 Will operate any power and turn on these protein
pumps that will pull the hydrogens into the
thylakoids
 And as more and more hydrogens accumulate this
is gonna make a really large concentration of
hydrogen
 Water molecules are broken
 With the help of enzymes, the hydrogens are
broken off
 The electron from the hydrogen went into PSII.
 Water’s electrons replenish the PSII so it does not run out
of electrons
 This is why you need to constantly water a plant
 Oxygen waste released
Step 3:
 Chlorophyll in PSI absorbs sunlight and electrons become
excited
 PSI is filled with chlorophyll and it has electrons that also
become excited and move through the thylakoid
membrane.
 Longer electron transport chain
Step 4:
 Electrons help bond NADP+ and H+ to create NADPH
 In the stroma, NADP+ and H+ are drawn together
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
 The electrons of the electron transport chain help
these to bond together to make a really important
molecule called NADPH.
 NADPH- carrier of hydrogen that carries it from
one place to another
 NADPH will be used later
 In this stage, the hydrogen really beginning to accumulate
inside the thylakoid from breaking of water from the electron
transport chain pulling in hydrogens from the outside
 Large concentration of hydrogens inside the
thylakoid
Step 5:
 H+ diffuses into the stroma
 Through the enzyme labeled ATP synthase
 Because of a large amount of hydrogen
 H+ helps bond ADP + P to create ATP
 ATP will be used later
 ATP and NADPH are most important things that is
created during light dependent reaction
Summary:
 Oxygen, NADPH, and ATP is created
 No glucose is created
LIGHT INDEPENDENT REACTIONS
 Also called as Calvin Cycle
Step 1:
 5C bonds with CO2 from the air bonds to make a short-lived
6C molecule (C- carbon molecule)
 Ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) C5H12O11P2
Step 2:
 ATP and NADPH (from light dependent cycle) used
 The 6C molecules will be broken down by the energy
contained with ATP and NADPH in enzymes to break down
ATP and NADPH to release energy
 When the energy is released, the 6C molecule broken into
2 3C molecules called Phosphoglycerate (PGA)
 PGA has 3C each side
 Will happen multiple times
 The NADP and ATP leftovers will be recycled in the next
light dependent reaction
Step 3:
 Some 3 carbon molecules (PGA) will bond to make
Glucose.
 Other 3 carbon molecules will recombine to make 5 carbon
molecule
 Will be broken down by ATP to keep the cycle
going
 When ATP breaks the other PGA down, enzymes
helps build the same 5C molecule RuBP.
 Process restarts
Summary:
 CO2, ATP, NADPH create glucose.
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 2
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 6

LIGHT REACTIONS  regenerated ADP

1. Electron Transfer/Photoactivation
2. Photophosphorylation
3. Photolysis
 Light hits reaction centers of chlorophyll, found in
chloroplasts
 Chlorophyll vibrates and causes water to break apart.
 Oxygen is released into air •Hydrogen remains in
chloroplast attached to NADPH
Electron transfer/Photoactivation
 When light strikes Magnesium (Mg) atom in center of
chlorophyll molecule, the light energy excites a Mg electron
and it leaves orbit from the Mg atom.
Photophosphorylation
 The excited electron (plus additional light energy)
eventually provides energy so a phosphate group can be
added to a compoundcalled adenosine diphosphate (ADP),
yielding adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
 Chemiosmosis
Photolysis
 The 2 Water molecules are split into Hydrogen and Oxygen
 The Hydrogen is attached to a molecule called
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP)
Produces NADPH2
 The oxygen is given off as oxygen gas
 2 H20 + NADP + light → NADPH2 + O2
DARK REACTIONS
2 Main Steps
 Carbon Dioxide Fixation
 Sugar Formation
 Occur in the Stroma of the Chloroplasts
 From Light reactions to Calvin cycle
Calvin cycle
 Chloroplast - stroma
 Needed products of light reactions to drive synthesis
reactions
 ATP, NADPH
 regenerated NADP
FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Availability of Carbon Dioxide
 Availability of Water
 Light quality
 Photoperiod (light duration)
 Light intensity
 Chlorophyll content
 Temperature
 Carbohydrate translocation
 Leaf age
RESPIRATION
 Respiration is the general process by which organisms
oxidize organic molecules (e.g., sugars) and derive energy
(ATP) from the molecular bonds that are broken.
 Respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis, and is
described by the equation:
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
 Simply stated, this equation means that oxygen
combines with sugars to break molecular bonds,
releasing the energy (in the form of ATP)
contained in those bonds. In addition to the energy
released, the products of the reaction are carbon
dioxide and water.
 CO2 and H2O are end products of these
reactions.
 In eukaryotic cells, cellular respiration begins with the
products of glycolysis being transported into the
mitochondria. A series of metabolic pathways (the Krebs
cycle and others) in the mitochondria result in the further
breaking of chemical bonds and the liberation of ATP.
 The theoretical maximum yield of cellular respiration is 36
ATP per molecule of glucose metabolized.
 Low-temperature oxidation of carbohydrates carried out by
enzymes and living systems
 Net reaction appears as the reverse of PS
 The individual reactions that occur to achieve the net effect
are entirely different
 Reactions occur in different parts of cells
 Net Reaction C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
 It is the means to turn sugars into usable chemical energy
(ATP) for many other plant reactions including PS
Respiration occurs
 At same time as PS
 During the night
 In developing and ripening fruit
 In dormant seeds
AEROBIC RESPIRATION

 Requires oxygen
 Main type of respiration that occurs in most situations in
Rubisco
plants and animals
 Enzyme which fixes carbon from atmosphere
 Involves complete breakdown of glucose back to CO2 and
 ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase
water
SUMMARY OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Not all of the energy in glucose is converted to ATP
Light reactions formation
 produced ATP ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
 produced NADPH
 ‘Fermentation’
 consumed H2O
 Occurs in low-oxygen environments
 produced O2 as byproduct
 Wet or compacted soils for plants
Calvin cycle
 After strong exertion for animals
 consumed CO2
 C6H12O6 + O2 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 H2O + 2 ATP
 produced PGAL/G3P

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 3

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 6

OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION GLYCOLYSIS

 Series of Proteins in the Mitochondria Helps Transfer
Electrons (e-) from NADH to Oxygen
 Releases a Lot of Energy
 Occurs on Mitochondrial Inner Membrane
SOURCE: https://youtu.be/ZYUdDjyNe3o
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
 Universal energy carrier of the cell
 Active transport
 Reproduction
 Movement
 Muscle contractions
 Protein synthesis
 Location: Cytoplasm
 What happens? Glucose is broken down by ATP, NAD+,
and various enzymes
Steps:
1.) Two ATP & enzymes begin to break down glucose and will
form intermediate molecule
 Another molecule ATP and different enzyme. The
energy from ATP will break the intermediate down
into two molecules labeled PGAL or
Phosphoglyceraldehyde C3H7O6P
2.) Enzymes add P in each of the PGAL
 Converts PGAL into another intermediate
 Hydrolisis of ATP: molecule
Hydro= water 3.) NADH created and enters the mitochondria
Lysis= break down  These molecules begin as NAD+(Nicotinamide
ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi + energy adenine dinucleotide)
 NAD with the help of enzyme will strip off the
hydrogen to create NADH
 NADH- hydrogen carrier that carries hydrogen to
the mitochondria
4.) Four ATP created
 An ADP along with the help of an enzyme will strip
off one of the phosphates to create a molecule of
(scissors= enzyme) ATP and it repeats three more times.
Breaks down the ATP, and the third phosphate tends to be  Once glucose will become 3 molecules of
broken off. Pyruvate

5.) 2 Pyruvate (3C) left over

 4 ATP is created or Net gain 2 ATP

 Energy (heat) What happens next?

drives cellular  There is two possible pathways
processes  Both are going to involve pyruvates
 Pyruvates broken down further

1.) Aerobic pathway: (w/ oxygen)

 Krebs Cycle
 Electron Transport Chain
2.) Anaerobic pathway: (cell lacking with/no oxygen)
 ATP is created through cellular respiration  Fermentation
 Cells need ATP to power their chemical reactions
 Most ATP are produced by the mitochondria
 Glucose (from food) is broken down to make ATP
 3 Stages of Cellular Respiration:
 Glycolisis
 Krebs Cycle (Citric acid cycle)
 Electron transport chain

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 4

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 6
KREBS CYCLE (CITRIC ACID CYCLE)
 2 molecules of pyruvate will migrate into mitochondria
 The Location of the pyruvates: Mitochondrial matrix
Step 1: Pyruvate broken into acetic acid
 NAD+ removes H to create NADH
 When pyruvate is being broken down, NAD will
come and strip off a hydrogen to make NADH
 CO2 waste generated
Step 2: Coenzyme-A – bonds to acetic acid
 Creating Acetyl-CoA (C23H38N7O17P3S)
Step 3: Citric acid is formed when Acetyl-CoA bonds with a 4C
molecule from the previous Krebs Cycle.
 An enzyme will bond the 4C to the Acetyl-CoA and
it will break away and what is left is the Citric Acid.
Step 4: Citric acid (6C) broken into 5C molecule
 NAD+ removes H to make NADH
 CO2 waste released
 The reason why citric acid results from six carbon
to a five carbon molecule
Step 5: 5C broke into 4C molecule
 NAD+ removes H to make NADH
 ADP + P bond to make ATP
 CO2 waste released
Step 6: Enzymes rearranged the 4C molecule
 NADH and FADH2 created
 Acetyl-CoA bonds to 4C molecule to recreate citric
acid. The CoA will break away and what will be left
is the 6C or the citric acid.
Overview: created in Krebs Cycle
 8 NADH –important in electron transport chain
 2 FADH2 – important in electron transport chain
 6 CO2
 2 ATP (left and right pyruvate)
MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Step 1: NADH and FADH2 deliver H+ ions and electrons (e-).
 Enzymes will break down the NADH and now the
couple of electrons are embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane and one of the hydrogen
ions position itself at one of the protein tubes.
 The beginning of the electron transport chain
those electrons are going to start a chain reaction
which is called the electron transport chain.
Step 2: Electrons activate protein channels to pump H+ ions out
of the matrix.
Step 3: H+ ions activate the ATP synthase.
 ATP synthase has ADP attached to it.
 Hydrogen loads itself in ATP synthase as the
hydrogen diffuses through the mechanical forces
brings together ADP and P to create ATP
 H+ ions diffuse through ATP synthase
 ADP + P bond to create ATP
 Happens 34 times
Step 4: Water waste created when O, H+, e- bond together.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATIO
 Kind of cell or tissue
 Young and developing cells (meristematic areas)
usually
 have higher respiration rates
 Developing and ripening fruit and seeds, too
 Older cells and structural cells respire at lower
rates
 Temperature
 Oxygen
 Low O2 can reduce aerobic respiration and
increase anaerobic respiration
 Amount of glucose
 Plant injury
o Injury will increase respiration
o Plant’s growth rate increases in attempt to recover
 Mechanical damage
 Hail
 Mowing, grazing, cultivation, wind
AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 5
 [CANVAS] MODULE 7: PLANT SYSTEMATICS AND NOMENCLATURE

Binomial Nomenclature
OUTLINE  1736: Linnaeus published a system of binomial
nomenclature, still in use today.
I L1: CLASSIFICATION AND SYSTEMATICS
A Kingdom plantae (continuation)  1753: Linnaeus published Species Plantarum,
II L2: TAXONOMY describing and classifying known organisms.
A Nomenclature (ICBN)
Binomial System of Nomenclature
 Genus- to which the organism is assigned; is
CLASSIFICATION AND SYSTEMATICS capitalized
Classification systems are always changing as new information  SPECIFIC EPITHET- descriptive word that
is made available. Modern technologies such as Genetics characterizes the organism
makes it possible to unravel evolutionary relationships to greater  Both are italicized EXAMPLE: White oak Quercus alba
and greater detail. The five-kingdom system was developed by or Quercus rubra
Robert H. Whittaker in 1969 and was built on the work of
previous biologists such as Carolus Linnaeus.

Plant classification is under Plant taxonomy which is a vital

knowledge in studying Botany and once the relationships
between plants and their evolution has been identified, this is
about plant systematics.

Systematics deals with evolutionary, or phylogenetic,

relationships among organisms, whereas taxonomy is more
involved with the classification, naming, and description of
organisms.

Important terms:
Character states - any of the possible distinct conditions or
forms that a character may exhibit.
Clade - a group of taxa that all share an immediate common
ancestor and therefore are more closely related to each other KINGDOM SYSTEM
than any other taxa.
Cladistics - a classification method in which the members of Robert Whittaker
taxa have been grouped together on the basis of phylogenetics,  working in the 1940s-70s, was dissatisfied with the old 2-
i.e., the members of the taxa share a more recent common kingdom systems.
ancestor with each other than with the other members of any
 Developed first a 3-kingdom system (Fungi, Plants,
other group.
Animals) and later a 5-kingdom system
Cladogram - a branching, treelike diagram in which the
2 Kingdom system
endpoints of the branches represent specific taxa of organisms.
 Linnaeus divided all living things into two kingdoms: Plants
With a common bifurcating pattern, it is used to illustrate
and Animals.
phylogenetic relationships and show points at which various
 Up until the 1960’s, textbooks used the 2 Kingdom System
taxa have diverged from common ancestral forms; cladogenesis
= the evolutionary change and diversification resulting from the to describe the living world.
branching off of new taxa from common ancestral  Evolution to three Kingdoms of nature: Plants, Animals,
lineages. Minerals.
Evolution - change in allele frequencies in a population over  Within each Kingdom, organisms are organized into nested
time. hierarchies.
Phylogenetic tree - a diagram representing the evolutionary Changing classifications of Kingdom system
development of related species. Two Three Five Six
Plantae Protista* Monera Archaebacteria
Polynomial Nomenclature Animalia Plantae Protista* Eubacteria
 Ranunculus calycibus, retroflexus, pedulculis falcatis, Animalia Fungi Protista*
caule erecto, folis comopositis *Protista Plantae Fungi
also known Animalia Plantae
 “The buttercup with bent-back sepals, curved flower as Animalia
stalks, erect stems and compound leaves”
Protoctista
 long, descriptive, precise (Unicellular
and form
no tissues)

1
 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 7

PLANTAE
 Multicellular
 Autotrophic
 Eukaryotic
 Cell walls are made of cellulose
 Store food in the form of starch

5 KINGDOM SYSTEM
MONERA
From the Greek word (monḗrēs), "single", "solitary")
 It contains unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell
organization (having no nuclear membrane), such as
bacteria.
 They are single-celled organisms with no true nuclear
membrane (prokaryotic organisms)
 Sap vacuoles do not occur. Instead, gas vacuole may be
present.
 The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive but some
groups are photosynthetic (holophytic) and
chemosynthetic.
 The organisms are non-motile or move by the beating of
simple flagella or by gliding.

FUNGI
Eukaryotic
 Includes yeast, molds, and mushroom
 Heterotrophs
 Has chitin in their cell walls

ANIMALIA
 Also called Metazoa
 This kingdom does not contain prokaryotes or protists
 Multicellular
 Heterotrophs (rely directly or indirectly on other organisms
for noursishment)
PROTISTA
Eukaryotic
 Most are unicellular
 Most are heterotrophs
 In 1969, Robert Whittaker proposed that protists make up a
kingdom called Protista, composed of "organisms which are
unicellular or unicellularcolonial and which form no tissues“
 Habitat: aquatic habitats or moist soil

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 2

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 7

5 KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION  Have separate from their Main DNA. Their main DNA is one
Source: yt vid in canvas circular chromosome.
 Plants  Some can do photosynthesis
 Animals  Root shaped (ex. Lactobacillus bulgaricus) & Spherical
 Fungi shaped (ex. Pneumococcus)
 Protoctists
 Bacteria PHATOGENS
 Any organism that end up causing a disease.
Eukaryotic organisms: Plants, animals, fungi and protocitists.  Could be a fungus e.g. athlete’s foot
 All of their cells have nucleus  Bacteria e.g. cholera
Prokaryotic organism: Bacteria  Protoctists e.g. Plasmodium which causes malaria.
 Cells do not have a nucleus  Virus e.g. influenza
 These pathogens ca often be passed from person to
PLANTS person.
 Multicellular
 Cells contain chloroplasts VIRUSES
 They can carry out photosynthesis making their own food  Are not classified as living things
(Autotrophic).  Not made of cells
 They have cell walls made of cellulose and they store their  Very small, smaller than bacterias
sugar as starch or sucrose.  All parasites- they live and reproduce inside a host and
 Non-flowering plants and flowering plants cause the host harm.
Flowering plants  They can’t reproduce without a host
 Cereal (ex. Maize)  Made of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a
 Herbaceous legume (ex. Pea) protein coat.
 All natural viruses cause disease
ANIMALS  Can infect every type of living organisms
 Multicellular  Ex. Tobacco mosaic virus, HIV, and Influenza.
 They get nutrition from feeding on other organisms.
(Heterotrophic). KINGDOM PLANTAE
 Complex movement- capable of moving from one place to
another
 They have nervous coordination- they do not have a cell
wall or chloroplast.
 They store their carbohydrate as glycogen.
 Invertebrates (Ex. mosquitoes) and Vertebrates (ex.
Humans/mammals)

FUNGI
 Multicellular or unicellular
 Cell wall made out of called chitin.
 Made of network of fibers called Mycelium of hyphae which
have many nuclei.
 They feed using something called Saprophytic nutrition
using extracellular enzymes. – secreting enzyme into their
food and the food breaks down externally and they absorb
by diffusion.
 Store carbohydrate as glycogen
 Single celled (ex. Yeast) and Multicellular fungi (ex. Mucor)

PROTOCTISTS
 Are a strange collection of organisms and they don’t fit into
any other groups
 Known as the ‘dustbin’ kingdom
 Some are like animals some are more like plants
 Mostly single celled
 More plant like (ex. Chlorella) & More animal like (ex.
Amoeba)

BACTERIA
 Small single celled
 Smaller than other cells
 Peptidoglycan cell wall
 Capsule or slime layer
 Has no nucleus
 Some have flagella
 Some contain plasmids- little singular loops of DNA.

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 3

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 7

Principles of Plant nomenclature

Eudicots 1. Botanical nomenclature is independent of Zoological
 Synonyms: Eudicotidae or eudicotyledons and Bacteriological nomenclature.
 These are clade of flowering plants that had been called 2. The application of botanical names is determined by
tricolpates or non-magnoliid dicots means of nomenclatural types.
 Being angiosperms they are seedbearing, vascular plants 3. Botanical nomenclature is based upon priority of
that produce flowers, fruit and pollen. publication.
4. Each taxon of a particular circumscription, position,
 One in five of 20% of plant species are threatened with the and rank can have only one correct name, the earliest
extinction in accordance with the rules.
Plant Classifcation 5. Scientific names are treated as Latin.
 Plants within a group are more closely related to other 6. The rules and regulations of the International Code of
members of their own group than they are to members of Botanical Nomenclature are retroactive.
another group just like we as humans are more closely ICBN Rules (International Code of Botanical Nomenclature)
related to the great apes.  Genus treated a noun; species as adjective
Plant Kingdom  suffixes usually agree in gender
 Can be divided into plants with seeds and without seeds. Male Female Neuter (Neutral)
Seeds No seeds  us  a  um
Non-flowering Flowering plants  Mosses  is  is  re
plants  Ferns  er  ris
Gymnosperms Angiosperms  o
“naked seed”  largest and
 Conifers most diverse  Lactuca hirsut_
(Pine tree) group in plant  Lathyrus hirsut_
 Usually full kingdom  Vaccinium hirsut_
evergreen  Consist of 2
trees groups: NOMENCLATURE (ICBN)
 w/ needle - Monocotolydons Nomenclature
shaped - Dicotyledons  Formal naming of taxa according to standardized system
leaves  International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
 usually o This code is the set of rules and recommendations
found in dry dealing with the formal botanical names given to
places plants.
 Scientific name (Latin)
 A taxon will bear ONLY ONE scientific name
TAXONOMY  Binomial system of naming (Genus and species)
Taxonomy
 Major the science of defining and naming groups of
biological organisms on the basis of shared
characteristics.
 The arts of systematics that includes four components:
o Description
o Classification
o Nomenclature
o Identification
 Taxons – Subjects under study; any group of
organisms

Importance of plant taxonomy

 Naming
o give an organism or a plant a precise scientific
name
o Example: Mimosa pudica
o International Code of Botanical Nomenclature Importance of using Scientific names
(ICBN) 1. It is universal. Ex. Common name: Balbas-pusa, English
 Classifying name: Taheebo, Scientific name: Orthosiphon aristatus
o organize into groups 2. Common names are not consistent. Ex. Chamise or
greasewood: Adenostoma fasciculatum
3. Tells nothing about the rank, scientific names do. Example:
 Identifying Rose
o finding the name of an organism that has 4. Not all organisms have common name. Example: indigenous
already been named and classified plants

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 4

 [BSP1A] Canvas- Module 7

Two reasons for name change

1. Name contrary to the rules (illegitimate).
2. Additional research has changes definition and
delimitation of a taxon.
Examples:
Quercus dumosa Nuttall
 Quercus = genus name (capitalized)
 dumosa = specific epithet (not capitalized)
 Quercus dumosa = species name
 Nuttall = author (not italicized)

Banaba (Lagerstroemia speciosa)

 Underscored or italicized
 Generic name: Always capitalized
 Specific epithet: not capitalized
 Species name: Binomial
 Binomial nomenclature

Common elements of scientific names

 Genus
 A generic term used in the classification of living organisms
or binomial nomenclature.
 This term is a taxonomic rank below the family and above
the species of the biological organism.
 In the contexts of botany, genus is a taxonomic group that
classifies more than one species of plants that are closely
related in characteristics.
Example: Malunggay ( Moringa oleifera )
Moringa is the Genus name

Species
 A distinct types of organism capable of breeding with other
members of its own kind - but not with other species.
 Basic category in biological nomenclature
 It sometimes divided into:
 Form
 Subspecies
 Varieties
Example: Kulantro ( Coriandrum sativum )
Sativum is the species name

The Variety
 A group of plants subordinate to the species; differing from
the species in one or more inheritable characteristics
 Written in lower case and not italicized
 Two acceptable formats:
 Cercis canadensis var. alba –or – Cercis canadensis alba

Author
 Author citation refers to citing the person or group of people
who validly published a botanical name, i.e.
 Who first published the name while fulfilling the formal
requirements as specified by the ICN.
 May abbreviate author names (though not obligatory)
according to a list of standard abbreviations.
 For example, in: Rubus L.
 the abbreviation "L." refers to the famous botanist Carl
Linnaeus who described this genus on p. 492 of his Species
Plantarum in 1753.
What is Authorship?

 Is the name of the person who first VALIDLY published the

name.
 Rosaceae De Jussieu
 Conostylideae Lindley

MADE BY LESTER P. VILLARMINO AUTHOR: MODULES IN CANVAS FOR THIS COURSE 5