Portfolio in

BIOLOGY

Quizon, Nathalie Eryl P.

11- STEM 2
nathalieeryl.quizon@fcpc.com.ph
Lesson 1: Cell Theory
Cell theory
 The scientific theory that all living organisms are made up of cells
as the smallest functional unit.
Cell
 The basic unit of life.
Three Fundamental Tenets of Cell Theory
 The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living
things.
 All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
 Cells arise from other cells through cellular division. (Omnis
cellula a celella)
Scientists Who Discovered Cells
 Robert Hooke
Observation Contribution
: Boxlike compartments in cork, dead : Coined the word “cell” – short for
cells, first one to describe. cellula or “small compartment.

 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

Observation Contribution
: First to observe living cells including : Produced small lenses that could
blood cells, sperm cells, bacteria and magnify objects to almost 300 times
single-celled organisms like algae and their size. Coined the word
protozoa. “animalcules” meaning “small
animals”.
  Robert Brown
Observations Contributions
: Found that every plant cell he looked at : Coined the word “nuclei” that
contained a reduced structure, which he comes from the word kernel.
called a “nucleus”.

 Matthias Schleiden
Observations Contributions
: Study about plant tissues to recognize : Written that cells and their nuclei are
the importance of cells. the essential building blocks of plants,
beginning in the embryo –
“Contributions to Phytogenesis”

 Theodor Schwann
Observations Contributions
: Reported that all animal tissues also : Proposed the two basic postulates of
consist of individual cells. Originally cell theory.
postulated the two basic principles of
cell theory.

 Rudolf Virchow
Observations Contributions
: Added the third postulate of cell : The third pillar of cell theory.
theory, “Omnis cellula e cellula” a
famous line.

Session 1
Let’s Explore
Question: Do you know how scientist discovered cells?
 Robert Hooke discovered the cell by looking through a microscope at a cork.
He used term “cells” from the Latin word “cellula”.

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek, the first to observe living cells and produce small
lenses. He also used the term “animalcules as he observed cells particularly
algae and protozoa.

Robert Brown, found that every plant cell he looked at contained a rounded
structure, which he called a nucleus, a term derived from the Latin word
“Kernel”.

Matthias Schleiden, he proposed that all plants are made up of cell.

Theodor Schwann, proposed the two basic postulates of theory. - The cell
is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
-All organisms are made up of one or more cells.

Rudolf Virchow, he concluded that all cells are arise only from pre-existing
cells, “Omnis cellula e cellula”.

Guide Question: How Rudolf Virchow come up with the tenets of cell theory?
- In 1855, he expanded on his findings by producing the famous phrase
"Omnis cellula e cellula," which became a basis of cell theory. According to
Virchow's hypothesis, cells cannot grow without pre-existent cells, just as
animals cannot arise without previously existing animals.
Lesson 2: Cell Structures
 Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane
- Separates cell from external environment; controls passage of organic
molecules, ions, water, oxygen and wastes into and out of the cell

 Cytoplasm
- Provides structure to cell; site of many metabolic reactions; medium in
which organelles are found

 Nucleolus
- Location of DNA

 Nucleus
- Cell organelle that houses DNA and directs synthesis of ribosomes and
proteins

 Ribosomes
- Use for protein synthesis

 Mitochondria
- ATP production or cellular respiration

 Peroxisomes
- Oxidizes and breaks down fatty acids and amino acids and
detoxifies poisons

 Vesicles and Vacuoles

- Storage and transport; digestive function in plant cells
 Centrosome
- Unspecified role in cell division in animal cells; organizing center
of microtubules in animal cells

 Lysosomes
- Digestion of macromolecules; recycling or worn-out organelles

 Cell wall
- Protection, structural support and maintenance of cell shape

 Chloroplast
- For photosynthesis

 Endoplasmic reticulum
- Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids

 Golgi Apparatus
- Modifies, sorts, tags, packages and distributes lipids and proteins

 Cytoskeleton
- Maintains cell ‘s shape, secure organelles on specific positions,
allows cytoplasm and vesicles to move within the cell, and enables
unicellular organisms to move independently

 Flagella
- Cellular locomotion
  Cilia
- Cellular locomotion, movement of particles along extracellular
surface of plasma membrane, and filtration

Cell Structures of Animal and Plant Cell

Features Plant Cell Animal Cell
Cell Shape Rectangular (fixed shape) Round (irregular
shape)
Cell Wall Present and is formed of Absent
cellulose
Cell Membrane Present and is covered by Present
the cell wall
Nucleus Present Present
Vacuole A large central vacuole One or more small
taking up 90% of the cell vacuoles
volume
Plastids Present Present
Chloroplast Present and make their own Absent
food
Endoplasmic Present Present
Reticulum
Ribosomes Present Present
Mitochondria Present Present

Session 2 - Activities
Objective #1:

Cells and factories are analogous in that they are both integrated systems and

work together. Major cell parts function just like the structures and people who

work together in a factory. These cell structures help each other like different

departments execute specialized duties in a cell, which may be thought of as a

"factory."

Objective #2:
 Lesson 3: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cell fall into one of two broad categories:

 prokaryotic

- is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks a

nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelles

 Eukaryotic

- refers to any multicellular organisms whose cell contains a distinct,

membrane-bound nucleus

- eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells

found in domains Archaea and Bacteria

Bases of Differences PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES

Internal Membrane System  Lacks an endomembrane system Has lipid membrane structures
suspended in the cytoplasm
Number of Chromosomes Plasmids, smaller DNA structures, also Ranges from 10-50 linear
provide additional information. chromosomes in somatic cells.

Packaging of chromosomes Chromosomes of prokaryotes are packed a protein complex called

by the protein Nucleoid Associated Histone. This protein causes the
Protein. chromosomes to become tightly
coiled and densely packed in a
linear manner.

Flagellum- chemical Made up of single fiber of flagellin Made up of 9+2 microtubule

composition protein structure (tubulin)

Flagellum- appearance Moves in a whirling or spinning motion Moves in a wave motion

Asexual Reproduction Binary fission Mitosis

Sexual Reproduction Transduction and conjugation. The fusion of gametes for

genetic recombination.

Structure and Has 70S ribosomes, a combination of two It has 80S ribosomes, a
Composition of ribosomes ribosomal subunits, 50S, and 20S. combination of two ribosomal
subunits, 60S, and 40S.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
contain 70S ribosomes

Extra chromosomal DNA Plasmids DNA in mitochondria,

chloroplast, some centrioles

Cell wall– chemical Mainly composed of a glycoprotein In plants, the cell wall is
composition called peptidoglycan, composed of cellulose micro-
fibrils embedded in the matrix.
Matrix is the gel-like ground
substance that consists of water,
hemicellulose, pectin,
glycoproteins, and lipids

Session 2 - Activities
Objective #1:
Objective #2:

 Various antibiotics, function by attacking bacteria's cell walls. The medications work by
preventing bacteria from generating peptidoglycan, a protein found in the cell wall that gives it
the power it needs to live in the human body.
 Knowing the illnesses caused by gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is important because
you may need this test to detect a bacterial infection. It can also tell you what kind of bacteria is
causing your infection. This test can assist determine the source of a variety of health issues, such
as an infection or disease in the intestines.
Objective #3:
Lesson 4: Cell Types
Tissue
– is a group of the same or similar cells that perform a specific function in the
body.
Plant tissues
Two Major categories of Plant Tissues
1. Meristematic Tissue
A. Apical Meristems
B. Lateral Meristems
2. Permanent Tissue
A. Dermal (Surface Tissue)
B. Fundamental Tissue (Ground Tissue)
C. Vascular Tissue

Meristematic Tissue
 Composed of immature cells and are regions of active cell division.
 Tend to be small, have thin walls and rich cytoplasm.
 Found in the growing tips of the roots and stem.
A. Apical Meristems
 Responsible for increase in length of the plant body.
 Found on root tips and apical buds.
B. Lateral Meristems
 Responsible for increase in girth and diameter
 Ex: Cambium present in woody plants and produce the cork.

Permanent Tissue
A. Dermal (Surface Tissue)
 Forms the protective outer covering of the plant body
1. Epidermis
 Produce cutin to protect plants against loss of water
 Produce root hairs for absorption of water and animals
 Protection in young plants ‘

Characteristics
  Flat cells, often with thick outer walls
 Aerial parts often covered with waxy cuticle
2. Periderm
 Replaces the epidermis
 Constitutes the corky outer bark of old trees
 Forms outer bark in trees
Characteristics
 Waterproof cells with thick cell walls
 Dread at maturity
B. Fundamental (Ground Tissue)
 Used in the production and storage of food and in the support of plants.
 Photosynthesis
1. Parenchyma
 Parenchyma on leaves function for photosynthesis.
 Mechanical strength by maintaining turgidity and also storing waste products.
2. Collenchyma
 Support stems and adapt themselves to the rapid elongation of leaves.
3. Sclerenchyma
 Provides elasticity, flexibility, and rigidity to the plant body forming support.
C. Vascular Tissue
1. Xylem
 Primarily functions for the transport of water and dissolved substances upward in
the plant body.
2. Phloem
 Primary functions in the transport of organic materials such as carbohydrates and
amino acids.

Animal Tissues
 Developed from the primary germ layers of the embryo:
o Ectoderm
o Mesoderm
o Endoderm

There are 4 types of tissues:

 Epithelial tissue
 - Made up of continuous sheets of densely packed cells, with little space or
intercellular material between them.
- A basement membrane is usually present.
Functions
1. Forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both internal and external to
protect cells from mechanical injury and water loss.
2. Some have special functions of absorption, secretion, excretion, sensation and respiration.
 Simple squamous - found in the lens of the eye and inner ear
 Stratified squamous forms the external layer of the skin and lines the mouth and
pharynx
 Cuboidal - mostly found lining small ducts and tubules of the kidney and the
glands
 Simple columnar - found in the trachea, bronchi, digestive tract and secrete
fluids and absorb digestive food

Connective tissue
 Serves as binding substance
 Provides framework
 Has essential role in transport, protection and repair
Classification of Connective Tissue
 Connective Tissue Proper
 Cartilage
 Bone
 Blood (Vascular Tissue)
Very variable but intercellular matrix always contains numerous fibers.
2 Types of Connective Tissue Proper
1. Loose Connective Tissue
 Made up of highly elastic fibers with few scattered thin collagen fibers.
 This tissue fills the space between organs and serves as packing materials
surrounding the elements of other tissues.
 This binds muscle cells together and binds skin to underlying tissues.
• Ex: Adipose tissue and areolar tissue
2. Reticular Connective Tissue
Muscular tissue

- Responsible for movement in higher animals, heat production and maintenance of posture.
Types of Muscle Tissue

a. Striated or Voluntary Muscle (Skeletal Muscle)

 Has cross-striations (A- I bands) and can be controlled at will.
 Consists of myofibrils which contain actomyosin.
 Sarcomere - the functional/structural unit of muscle contraction
b. Smooth or Involuntary Muscle (Visceral Muscle)
 Spindle-shaped cells which are thickened at the middle but tapered towards ends. Without
station and responsible for involuntary movements of internal organs.
c. Cardiac Muscle
 Striated and branched muscle fibers.
 Found exclusively in the heart (myocardium) and is involuntary in movement.

Nervous Tissue

- Highly specialized for the conduction of nerve impulses.

Division of Nervous Tissue

a. Nervous Tissue Proper

 Has specialized conducting cell called neuron, linked together to form pathways.
b. Interstitial Tissue (Neuroglia)
 Supports the neuron.
NEURON
1. Cell body (soma/cyton)
 Enclosed by a membrane, with nucleus, cytoplasm and cellular organelles.
 Produces proteins and energy required for the function of the neuron.
2. Dendrites
 Numerous extensions that is short and branched.
 Receive signals from sensory receptors.
 Connect with other neurons to collect simul and pass these onto the cell body.
3. Axon
 Projections from the cell body that is long and thin.
 Conducts nerve impulses
 Any long axon is also called nerve fiber
 Covered by myelin sheath
4. Terminal Branches/Synaptic Terminals
 Attached to receptors is the body.

Objective 1:
 1. Every type of tissue has its purpose and importance. Epithelium covers the body surface
and lines body cavities. Muscle provides movement. Connective tissue supports and
protects body organs. Nervous tissue provides a means of rapid internal communication
by transmitting electrical impulses.
2. Plant tissues are mostly provided strength and support to the plant, while animal tissues
provide control to all its functions.

Objective #2:

1. I do think that to prevent this kind of circumstances, we need to

buy a shoe that is not based on the design of the shoe but it is on its
purpose. Protecting muscles through exercising regularly.

Objective #3:
Plant tissue Animal Tissue
Cells of plant tissue have cell wall. Cells of animal tissue do not have cell wall.
Growth is restricted to the tips of stem and roots. Growth is uniform all over the body.
They are mainly of two types permanent tissue and They are of four types muscle tissue, epithelial
meristematic tissue. tissue, nervous tissue and connective tissue.
These tissues require less energy and maintenance Due to extensive body mobility these tissues
as plants do not require movement. require more energy and maintenance.
They provide strength and support to the plant. They control all functions.

Session 2:

6 Facets of Understanding

Explanation: All living things, from microorganisms to humans, rely on cells for structure and

function. They are all responsible for energy intake and production, as well as cellular upkeep and
 reproduction. Existence cannot survive without cells, demonstrating the general importance of cell

types in life.

Interpretation: My interpretation is that there is a need to specialize in terms of cells for them to

function and serve their own purpose properly.

Application: As an intelligent FCPCian, I can thoroughly commit to applying my depth of

understanding of the lesson Cell Types (Tissue) in ways of observing my body and other organisms

since cell is the basic unit of life. Ensuring this lesson will be applied to everyday life for excelling.

Perspective: In my own perspective, it is important to know the functions for a specific organism

because it has its own structure, growth, evolution, distribution of function and interact on multiple

organisms’ accordance to its type.

Empathy: If I were given a chance to choose to modify an organism, I would always try to modify

my dogs because they have a different breed of dogs and I will assure that my acquired knowledge

will be observed and applied.

Self-Knowledge: As a student, this acquired knowledge about cell types will help me to reach the

ethical standards by the given rubric, understand the cell and our body since cell support the body's

structure, absorb nutrients from food, transform those nutrients into energy, and perform specific

activities.

Lesson 5: Cell Division

Cell division
- the division of a cell into two daughter cells with the same genetic
material.
Cell Cycle
 - is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that
produces two new daughter cells
Cells on the path to cell division through a series of precisely timed
and carefully regulated:
 Stages of Growth
 DNA Replication
 Division of Identical Cells
The cell cycle has two major phases:
 Interphase
- the cell grows and DNA is replicated
 Mitotic phase
- the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic contents are separated and the
cell divides
The checkpoint is a critical point in the Cell cycle wherein they ‘stop’
and ‘go-ahead’ signals can regulate the cell cycle.
Three major checkpoints are found in:

 G1
- ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough
nutrients are available to support the resulting daughter cells

 G2
- ensures the DNA replication in the S phase has been completed
and it just double check all the chromosomes, cell size so that it
can undergo in Mitosis phase and will divide
 M Phase
Interphase
 - metabolic phase of the cell, in which the cell obtains nutrients and
metabolizes them, grows, replicates its DNA in preparation for mitosis, and
conducts other "normal" cell functions
Prophase

- the first phase of mitosis, chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form,

chromosomal are captured by spindle and nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase

- second phase of mitosis, chromosomes align along the center of the cell,
with one kinetochore facing each pole and mitotic spindle is fully developed
Anaphase

- third phase of mitosis, ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical
set of chromosomes
Telophase

- final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes continue to move until they are
completely separated and two sets of nuclei are formed
Cytokinesis
 Animal Cells – A cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells.
 Plant Cells – A cell plate separates the daughter cells.

Objective #1:
Objective #2:
6 Facets of Understanding

Explanation: I have learned that mitosis is required for the creation of red blood cells, which assists

wound healing and cell regeneration. The impaired skin can complete a perfect repair when the cells

undergo directed mitotic division to repair the wound by natural process.

Interpretation: My interpretation is that mitosis affect our skin in many ways such as it It continues

to create new skin cells to replace those that have died and especially replace damaged cells.

Application: As an altruistic FCPCian, I can apply this lesson appropriately when I have some

wounds. When damaged skin may complete a thorough repair when the cells undergo directed mitotic

division to cure the wound by natural process; otherwise, when the cell division orientation is

random, fiber hyperplasia, inappropriate tissue structure, and finally scar formation will result.

Perspective: If I am a doctor, I would advise that he or she need to drink some medicines that will

help the wound heal. Certain drugs or treatments used in the management of some medical conditions

may interfere with the body's healing process.

Empathy: Whereas the cell membrane must deliver food and oxygen to the components within, cells

are restricted in size. Because the interior of a cell expands at a quicker pace than the exterior, the

outside is unable to keep up with the inside as the cell grows larger.

Self-Knowledge: (In this section, no questions were asked.)

Lesson 6: Meiosis
Meiosis

- a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent
cell by half and produces four gamete cells
First Meiotic Division

- The first meiotic division results in reducing the number of chromosomes or

also known as the reduction division. In most cases, the division is
accompanied by cytokinesis.

Prophase I

- the exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes via a process

called homologous recombination

Metaphase I 

- Homologous chromosomes randomly assemble at the metaphase plate,

where they have been maneuvered into place by the microtubules.

Anaphase I

- Spindle microtubules pull the homologous chromosomes apart. The sister

chromatids are still attached at the centromere.

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

- During telophase I, the chromosomes are enclosed in nuclei. The cell now
undergoes a process called cytokinesis that divides the cytoplasm of the
original cell into two daughter cells. Cytokinesis follows, dividing the
cytoplasm of the two cells.

Prophase II
 - Sister chromatids condense. A new spindle begins to form. The nuclear
envelope starts to fragment.

Metaphase II

- Sister chromatids line up at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase II

- Sister chromatids are pulled apart by the shortening of the kinetochore

microtubules. Non kinetochore microtubules lengthen the cell.

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

- Chromosomes arrive at the poles of the cell and decondense. Nuclear

envelopes surround the four nuclei. Cleavage furrows divide the two cells
into four haploid cells.
6 Facets of Understanding

Explanation: I have acquired knowledge in lesson meiosis. Based on the graph of spores’ formation in

Sordaria, the meiosis indicates for each phase that it is a form of cell division that creates four gamete

cells by half the number of chromosomes in the parent cell.

Interpretation: I have learned that the meiotic prophase is much longer than mitotic prophase. During

prophase I homologous chromosomes make contact with each other called chiasmata and “crossing over”

occurs.

Application: As an altruistic FCPCian, I can apply this lesson appropriately in daily life. Any gene, as

well as chromosome, can be affected by genetic disorders such as learning difficulties, facial features, and

developmental abnormalities. This means that there are several genetic illnesses, each with its own set of

symptoms.

Perspective: In my opinion, changes in the number of chromosomes might cause difficulties with the

growth, development, and function of the body's systems. These alterations can happen during

reproductive cell creation, early fetal development, or in any cell after birth.

Empathy: In the graph, the final result was a cross between two haploid strains of Sordaria produces

spores of different colors. Meiosis occurs within fruiting bodies to form haploid ascospores, spores

contained in special sacs. Then one mitotic division doubles the number of ascospores to eight.

Self-Knowledge: In acquiring my self-knowledge, when Sordaria crosses across, it only becomes

diploid when the mycelia of two distinct strains fuse, resulting in the fusing of two different

kinds of haploid nuclei to produce a diploid nucleus.

Biology (General EAR)

 In order to analyze the contents successfully, I have learned that considering cells are the

foundation of all life, Cell Theory is essential for our knowledge of biology. Continuing with the Cell

Structures, it is claimed that it can be thought to be a "factory," with several departments accomplishing

distinct functions. Proceeding to the two broad categories of cells with their Cell Types: the Prokaryotes

and Eukaryotes. Including the Cell Cycle, the series of events involving cell growth and Cell Division.

Ensuring that knowledge is acquired.

As a student, I can apply my attained knowledge as well as laboratory skills and knowledge to

any current scenario that is feasible regarding the basic building blocks of all living things which are cells

,and showcase its own purpose and importance. Previous and current situations show that learning the

science of life and living organisms can help in applying pieces of information appropriately in society.

The aim of constant striving for improvement and actualization of moral principles as a student with each

individual’s solution with action and purpose of participation throughout any progression.

As an intelligent FCPCian who values and emphasizes the information and knowledge under

Biology, as well as the FCPC's Vision, Mission, Core Values, 21st Century Skills, and Program

Outcomes, I therefore conclude that I accomplished the first grading with a firm knowledge of applying

lectures in Biology in real-life scenarios. These lessons have been beneficial in helping me improve my

principles as a person in society, which means I will apply my knowledge and skills to obtain ethical

standards in any way under the lectures that are tackled throughout the subject of Biology.