PROTEINS and GENETIC MUTATION

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 What’s In ?
● Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics, explained in the year 1865 that traits
are passed on from parent to offspring through "hereditary factors." In the
early 20th century, scientists established that Mendel's "hereditary factors" are
called genes. The gene is the functional unit of heredity. But the individual gene
makes up a bigger whole. All these genes are found in very long genetic material
called the DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, a double-stranded molecule. There is
also another molecule that contains genetic material called Ribonucleic Acid, or
RNA. On the other hand, the "allele" is responsible for gene expression. The
science that deals with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity is
called Genetics
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 What’s new?
● All living things have DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) within
their cells. DNA does more than specify the structure and
function of living things; it also serves as the primary unit of
heredity in organisms of all types. In other words, whenever
organisms reproduce, a portion of the DNA is passed along
to their offspring. This transmission of DNA helps ensure a
certain level of continuity from one generation to the next
while still allowing for slight changes that contribute to the
diversity of life.
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 ● The two main types of nucleic acids are
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA) that carry the genetic information.
Genes specify the kinds of proteins that are
made by the cells, but DNA is not the direct
template for protein synthesis, rather, the RNA
molecules.

The Central Dogma describes the flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to RNA to
protein. It shows that DNA contains instructions for making protein, copied by RNA; RNA then
uses this instruction to make proteins.
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 A. DNA Replication

DNA is the genetic material that defines every cell. Before a cell duplicates and is divided into new daughter
cells either through mitosis or meiosis, biomolecules and organelles must be copied to be distributed among the
cells. DNA found within the nucleus must be replicated in order to ensure that each new cell receives the
correct number of chromosomes. The process of DNA duplication is called DNA replication.

Several steps happen for the DNA to replicate. The following are:

1. Enzymes called helicase split apart base pairs and unwind the double helix to form a pair of replication
forks.

2. Free nucleotides in the cell find their complementary bases along the new strand by
another enzyme DNA polymerase to form a new strand.

3. The sugar-phosphate backbone is assembled to complete the DNA strand. Two new
DNA molecules, each with a parent strand and each with a new strand, are formed.
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 Replication uses a semi-conservative method that results in a double-stranded DNA with one
parental strand and a new daughter strand. The specificity of base pair in DNA, that is, adenine
with thymine and cytosine with guanine, allows DNA to replicate itself with accuracy.
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 Activity 1 : Match me!
Directions: Below are the steps in DNA replication. Study the diagram and match it to the correct step. Write only the number of the
correct sequence.
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 ● How do cells make proteins? Let's find out. Have you ever had to transcribe something? Maybe
someone left a message on your messenger, and you had to write it down quickly and roughly on
paper then rewrite it down on paper neatly? As this example shows, transcription is a process in
which information is rewritten. In biology, it is the process of copying the DNA sequence of a gene
in a similar alphabet of RNA.

The table below summarizes the key differences between DNA and RNA.
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 Ribonucleic acids or RNA
are nucleic acids involved in the translation and transcription of genetic information from DNA. RNA
contains uracil instead of thymine. There are three kinds of RNA involved in the synthesis of proteins.
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 A. Transcription
The next event in building protein is transcription. It is the process of converting the genetic information in DNA to
synthesize protein. RNA polymerase produces a complementary RNA strand called a primary transcript.

CENTRAL DOGMA
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 Transcription (making of mRNA from DNA) involves the
following steps:

1. DNA double helix unwinds to express the nucleotide bases.

2. RNA polymerase identifies the start sequence and unwinds and matches RNA nucleotide bases to DNA, using one
side as a template.
3. The mRNA strand is created. It now compliments the original DNA strand (G-C and A-U). Hence if the sequence
of bases on the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the sequence of bases on the mRNA strand would be GGC AAU
GUA.
4. Ligase helps the strand of DNA to close again.
5. The mRNA strand moves out of the nucleus to ribose, and DNA rejoin
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 The following illustrates the transcription process.
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 B. Translation

The DNA molecule directs the synthesis of protein and determines the formation of mRNA. The
order of bases of mRNA determines the protein synthesized. During translation, the mRNA is
"read" according to the genetic code, which relates the DNA sequence to the amino acid sequence
in proteins. Each group of 3 bases in mRNA constitutes a codon, and each codon specifies a
particular amino acid (hence, it is a triplet code). The mRNA sequence is thus used as a template to
assemble—in order—the chain of amino acids that form a protein. Translation occurs in a structure
called the ribosome, which is a factory for the synthesis of proteins. The ribosome has a small and
a large subunit and is a complex molecule composed of several ribosomal RNA molecules and a
number of proteins.
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 Translation of an mRNA molecule by the ribosome occurs in three stages:
initiation, elongation, and termination .
1.During initiation, the small ribosomal subunit binds to the start of the mRNA sequence. Then a transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecule carrying the amino acid methionine binds to what is called the start codon of the mRNA sequence. The start
codon in all mRNA molecules has the sequence AUG and codes for methionine. Next, the large ribosomal subunit
binds to form the complete initiation complex

2. During the elongation stage, the ribosome continues to translate each codon in turn. Each corresponding amino
acid is added to the growing chain and linked via a bond called a peptide bond. Elongation continues until all of the
codons are read.

3. Lastly, termination occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon (UAA, UAG, and UGA). Since there
are no tRNA molecules that can recognize these codons, the ribosome recognizes that translation is
complete. The new protein is then released, and the translation complex comes apart.
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 The figure below summarizes the translation process.
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 01
We will talk about this
first.
Add a brief introduction of your section here.

Let’s dive in and get to know some interesting facts about

animals!
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 Did you know?
Elephants and storms.

Did you know that elephants can sense storms?

Elephants may be able to detect a thunderstorm

from hundreds of miles away, and will head
towards it, looking for water.
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 Did you know?
A man's best friend...
Did you know that dogs can smell your
feelings?
Dogs can pick up on subtle changes in
your scent, which can help him figure out
how you are feeling, such as by smelling
your perspiration when you become
nervous or fearful.
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Mmm, can I fit in?...
Did you know that a cat uses its whiskers
as feelers to determine if a space is too
small to squeeze through?
Also, cats love to sleep. A fifteen-year-old
cat has probably spent ten years of its life
sleeping.
 “ Clearly, animals know more than we
think, and think a great deal more than
we know.
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― Irene M. Pepperberg
 Did you know?

Pandas don’t hibernate.

When winter approaches, they head lower down their mountain homes to warmer
temperatures, where they continue to chomp away on bamboo!

There are more kangaroos than humans in Australia.

It is estimated that more than 50 million kangaroos live there. They are Australia’s
national symbol and appear on postage stamps, coins, and airplanes.

Koalas are even more lazy than cats.

Koalas don’t have much energy and, when not feasting on leaves, they spend their
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time dozing in the branches. Believe it or not, they can sleep for up to 18 hours a day!
 Very interesting facts!
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