Parte2 Netting Mat

66 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
2.3.2.2 Elongation
The determination of the change of length of a netting yarn caused by
the application of a stressing force is also carried out with a tensile testing
machine (68a). The netting yarn sample without knot of a certain length is
fastened to the clamps of the machine, and extended under increasing force
until half of its respective knot breaking strength is reached. For elongation
tests, preference should be given to machines with constant rate of elongation
and equipped with electronic force meter and also autographic recorder for
the load-elongation curve. Such type of machine is indispensable for more
sophisticated elongation property tests such as elongation by permanent
loading, at repeated loading and unloading (hysteresis effect) and deter-
mination of total elongation in relation to elastic and permanent elongation
under different conditions (90). A simple method of testing the elasticity
will be described hereafter.
FIGURE 19.-(a) and (b) The two forms of the weaver's knot (English knot)
recommended by ISO for testing the knot breaking strength of netting yarns,
(c) Arrangement for testing the mesh breaking strength. The clamps of the
tensile testing machine are replaced by pins of stainless material, over which the
mesh b mounted.
2.3*2.3 Knot Mobility
(No international standard yet) One possibility for testing this property
isto fasten only three of the four ends of the two netting yarns forming the
kaot in the clamps of a tensile testing machine as is shown in Figure 20.
NETTING YARNS 67
FIGURE 20. One possibility of testing

the knot stability. Only three of the four
ends of the weaver's knot are fastened in
I I the clamps.
Knots which have not under increasing force. The

sufficient stability will slip
amount of the force at which slipping occurs as a measure of knot-
may serve
slip resistance. Slippage can be either continuous or interrupted as can be
observed very well when a load-elongation curve is recorded during testing.
Unlike a normal elongation curve, the curve of a slipping knot shows
irregularities (spikes or teeth, see Figure 21).
Another similar test would be to stretch a mesh mounted over the holding
devices which are used for mesh breaking strength test (see Figure 19c), There
are several other possibilities of testing knot stability which do not need to
be discussed here.
10 tt 12 IJ 14 tS 1$ r? t * 20 2) 22 2) 24
FIGURE 21 .Load-elongation curve of a slipping weaver'* knot la this case the

knotstarts to slip at a certain force and continues slipping In a jerking manner
with increasing force.
6
NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
FIGURE 22. Apparatus for measuring the length of netting yarn, also used for
determining the change of length after immersion in water. The pre-tension
during measuring should correspond to the weight of 250m of the netting yarn
to be tested.
(ace. to Klust, 1968)
2.3.2 A Change of length in water
The apparatus for measuring the length of netting yarn (Figure 22) should
be used. It should allow a measuring length of at least 100 cm and the free
application of a fixed pretension. The netting yarn sample with a marked
length of about 100 cm is measured on the apparatus first in dry condition
and then, after immersion in water for a fixed time, in wet condition (66).
This apparatus is also convenient for measurements of lengths for other
purposes, e.g. determination of the fineness of netting yarn.
2.3.2.5 Diameter
(No international standard yet) The diameter can be determined by

means of a special gauge (Figure 23). Results of sufficient accuracy for
practical use are obtained with netting yarns of circular cross-section, but
not with very soft netting yarns (as wet netting yarns made of PA
staple
fibre) or normally braided netting yarns without or with only a small core
(74). The diameter can be determined more accurately by optical measure-
ment with a calibrate^ micrometer scale and a normal microscope. The
netting yarn sample is placed without any tension on the micrometer under
the microscope objective and the diameter read directly from the micrometer
calc. Other methods for measuring the diameter are described in (18).
NETTING YARNS
FIGURE 23. Gauge for measuring the diameter of

netting yarns.
The specimen is placed between the two circular
flat metal plates AI and AI- By pressing lightly on
key B the pointer is actuated and indicates the
diameter on the scale to the nearest 1/100 mm.
Height of the apparatus about 13 cm.
2.3.2.6 Flexural stiffness
Figure 24 illustrates a non-standardized testing method. It is applicable

to netting yarnsmade of continuous filaments or staple fibres, but the results
may become somewhat inaccurate when testing netting yarns of great
stiffness, e.g. heavy netting yams made of split fibres or of wire-like mono-
filaments. (Other methods are described in (IS).)
FIGURE 24. Apparatus for measuring

the flexural stiffness of netting yarns.
A piece of netting yarn 20 cm in length
is fixed inthe metal clamp 3 in such a
way that forms a loop. A light plastic
it
hooked into the loop. Water
vessel 2 is
isdropped from a burette into the vessel
until the widest opening of the loop
A-B has decreased to 5 mm. The weight
of the vessel plus the quantity of water
(cubic centimetres) give the measure in
grains of the nexural stniness (schema-
Height of the apparatus about 95 cm.

(ace, to v. Brandt, 9a)
NETTING YARNS 71
2.3.2.7 Abrasion resistance
Due to the complex and varying fishing conditions, it is virtually im-

possible to simulate in laboratory tests the real wear and tear fishing nets are
subjected to during fishing. Many methods and devices for testing the abra-
sion resistance of textiles have been developed. Since they differ in important
testing conditions such as the type of the abrasive material, e.g. shot-blasted
Dural cylinder, hardened carbide steel bar, oil-stone, carborundum bar,
emery paper, and the pressure or stress applied to the specimen during
testing, the results are not comparable. Unfortunately, it is not possible to
decide (nor generally agree) which of the proposed methods is the best. A
more recent type of testing machine (Figure 25) comes relatively close to the
fishing conditions as it allows the testing of knots under water.
The measure for the abrasion resistance is the remaining knot breaking
strength of the specimen after chafing by a certain number of double frictions.
Figure 25 gives full details of this testing machine and method.
2.3.3 BREAKING STRENGTH AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH OF NETTING YARN

Tables 10 to 20 give a rather comprehensive review of the fineness
(number), the diameter, the dry breaking strength (straight) and the wet knot
breaking strength of netting yarns made of polyamide (PA) continuous
filament, twisted and braided, polyamide (PA) staple fibre, polyester (PES)
continuous filament, polypropylene (PP) continuous filament, twisted and
braided, polypropylene (PP) split fibre, polyethylene (PE) wire, twisted and
braided, polyvinyl alcohol (PVAA) staple fibre and of single polyamide (PA)
monofilaments. Netting yarns made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and poly-
vinylidene chloride (PVD) are not represented because they are not of
importance for most fishing countries. For instance, in Europe only PA, PE,
PP and PES are used for fishing nets. The size range listed in Tables 10 to
20 covers the most common netting yarns so that the data may serve as a
useful guide for selecting suitable material for any type of fishing net.
When comparing the values of breaking strength tests of a netting yarn,
dry, straight (unknottedj, with those of the same netting yarn, wet, knotted,
it must be kept in mind that according to ISO standard (62) the breaking
strength wet knotted is actually tested with two netting yarns while the dry,
straight (unknotted) breaking strength refers to one netting yarn only. Conse-
quently the test values for wet, knotted breaking strength are higher in spite
of the actual reduction of breaking strength of the netting yarn by knot and
the two test values are not directly comparable. For more realistic comparison
the test values for wet knotted may be divided by two and these half values
have therefore been added in brackets in the last column of Tables 10 to 20.
2.3.3,1 Fineness
The fineness of the netting yarns in these tables is specified by the resultant
tex (fctex g/lOOOm) and by the runnage in m/kg. These values fdftr to
72 NETTING MATERIALS POT. FISHING GEAR
FIGURE 25. Apparatus for testing the abrasion resistance.

MPE = Small cupboard (erecting table) containing the drive motor, the com-
pressed air pump and the electric switching elements.
W Weights which compensate the weight of the tank with water and exert a
pressure on the specimen during testing.
Gear with three drive pulleys of different size for selecting the required
abrasion speed.
S Switches for compressed air pump and drive motor.
C 2 Counters, one for setting the total number of double frictions at
which testing is to be finished, and the other one for the continuous
counting of the number of abrasion movements.
WT Metal tank with water (for testing the wet abrasion resistance). The
tank, to the bottom of which the emery paper is attached, is moving
back and forth in one direction with a certain speed and repetition rate.
EP Emery paper of special graining.
CP Pneumatic ctampmg device with knotted netting yarn sample (K). The
damping device Is attached to a swivelling arm (SA) which is turned
cover to u idft during testing to such a way that the specimen touches the
emety paper in the tank. The damping device with the specimen can also
perform reciprocating motions but in opposite direction to the motions
of the tank containing the abrasive paper. The motion of the clamping
device can be stopped if charing in only one direction is desired.
, valve id coasting tube of the compre^
'
tviiibk.)
Width o?the ar*fc aboot 90cm*
NETTING YARNS 73
TABLE 10. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYAMIDE (PA) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
With regard to the description in column "a" of heavier netting yarns, see 2.2.3.1 and
Table 5.
normal medium twist or tightness of braid respectively. Greater deviations

from these values may occur due to differences in the fineness and/or con-
struction of the single yarns or to additional treatment of the final products.
The figures in Table 10 are particularly reliable for netting yarns of PA
continuous fiUunent with single yarns of 23 tex (= 210 denier) or a multiple
of it (e.g. 1 to 19). Common single yarns for PP continuous filament
Ncwu
netting have' 21 tex (
yams 190 denier) and for PES continuous filament
netting yarns 28 tex ( 250 denier) (Tables 14 and 15).
The complicated process for manufacturing fine continuous filaments
to a small number of
(muhifilarnents) has in general restricted this product
and split fibres, of PE and PP,
big chemical works. Moaofilaments especially
TABLE 12. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYAMIDE (PA) STAPLE FIBRES
NETTING YARNS 75
require much less complicated and expensive processes and equipment and
are therefore produced by a very large number of smaller factories. Conse-
quently the continuous filament materials produced by a few are much more
uniform than the monofilaments and split fibres of PE and PP produced by
many. With the latter, finenessand other properties of single yarns and
finished netting yarns may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer due to
differences in factors such as quality of the basic substance, pigments in-
corporated into the polymer for spin-dyeing (see 1.2.5.2), method and
machinery for extrusion, degree of drawing (stretching) the material during
manufacture, size and form of the cross-section of monofilaments or thickness
and width of the film tapes and, finally, details in the construction of the
finalproduct.
Ithas to be mentioned that Rtex and runnage in Tables 10 to 20 are
rounded off average values and, therefore, the multiplication of Rtex by the
corresponding manage does not always exactly give the figure 1 000000.
NETTING MATERIALS FOR HOMING GEAR
TABLE 14. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYESTER (PES) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
With regard to the description in column "a" of heavier netting yarns see 2.2.3.1 and
Table 5.
2.3.3.2 Breaking strength of straight netting yarns

In the majority of tables published by netting manufacturers usually the
dry breaking strength of straight (unknotted) netting yarns is given. This
property is therefore also listed in Tables 10 to 20, although netting yarns
in fishing nets are not straight but tied in knots or other joints, and the netting
is operated in water and not in dry condition. Dry breaking strength of
straight netting yarns is therefore of rather limited significance in the case of

fishing nets, particularly as the strength of knots or joints is always con-
siderably below the strength of the straight netting yarn.
For ropes made of vegetable and synthetic fibres international standards
(ISO) already exist from which the purchaser may take mass, breaking
strength and construction data for ropes of all practical diameters (56), (57),
(59), (60), (67). It is to be hoped that these ISO standards will lead to more
uniformity of constructions and properties of ropes, thus facilitating selection.
For netting yarns such international standards do not exist yet. The
values of breaking strength and knot breaking strength given in Tables 10
to 20 are therefore not standardized requirements but rounded off average
values based on tests of a large number of netting yarns of good quality from
various countries and manufacturer*. Since they are average and not peak
values it i* possible that some materials will be found better, but probably,
NETTING YARNS 77
TABLE 15. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
TABLE 16. BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) CONTINUOUS FILAMENTS
TABLE 17. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYPROPYLENE (PP) SPLIT FIBRES
TABLE 18. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF FOLDED POLYETHYLENE (PE) MONOFILAMENTS
(WIRES)
NETTING YARNS 79
TABLE 19. BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF FOLDED POLYETHYLENE (PE) MONQFILAMENTS
(WIRES) FOR HEAVY TRAWLNETS
more frequently, actual material will not reach these values, particularly as
regards heavy netting yarns.
PVAA material is represented here only as staple fibre netting yarns
(Table 20) because it is mainly used in this form and almost exclusively in
the Japanese fishery. A
recent trend is that PVAA staple fibre is being
replaced by continuous filament which has a considerably higher breaking
strength. With the same kind of fibre material netting yarns of continuous
filament are always stronger than those of staple fibre.
TABLE 20. TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF POLYVINYL ALCOHOL (PVAA) STAPLE FIBRES
B CDC b
AS ABA
C D C D
FIGURE 26. Types of knots:

(a) Overhand knots, sometimes used for testing the knot breaking strength (not
used for making netting).
(b) Weaver's knots (English knots. Sheet Bends) are the most common knots for
making netting. They should therefore be used for testing the knot breaking
strength (sec also Figures 19a and b)*
(c) Reef knots (Square knots) used in Japan for making netting.
(d) Double Weaver's knots used for netting in order to prevent knot slippage (61).
Netting yams made of PVC and PVD (Saran), which are not listed in the
tables have a stilllower breaking strength than PVAA netting yarns. PVC,
which was utilized mainly because of its low price, is gradually disappearing
froan fisheries. It is being replaced mainly by PE mid PP which probably are
'
the cheapest fibres and have also better properties than PVC.
NETTING YARNS 81
- dirtct ion
FIGURE 27. Direction in knotted net-

ting.
T-direction (Twinewise or transverse
direction) the direction parallel to the
is
general course of the netting yarn.

N-direction (Normal direction) is the
direction at right angles to the general
course of the netting yarn.
(ace. to ISO Standard 1974 (54))
PVD (Saran) is mainly used in mixed netting yarns, i.e. in combination

with other materials. Such netting yarns of dissimilar components mostly
consist of two kinds of fibres (see end of 1.2.3) and are meant to combine
the desirable properties of both materials. For instance, mixed nylon (PA)
and Saran (PVD) netting yarns combine the high breaking strength of nylon
with the high specific gravity of Saran resulting in an end product of reasqn-
able strength and high mass (sinking speed) which is of advantage e.g. for
purse seines and deep sea gillnets. The breaking strength of such combined
netting yarns lies in general between that of their components and depends
on the share of each kind of fibre in the final product
In Japan more than ten different mixed netting yarns are produced
representing about 5 percent of the total production of all synthetic nets (70).
2.3.3.3 Weaver's knot breaking strength
The values of the wet knot breaking strength in Tables 10 to 20 have been
obtained by tests with the weaver's knot (Figures 19a and b and 26b). The
two pieces of netting yarn in this knot each form a loop of which the simpler
one is hatched in Figures 19a and b and indicated by AB in Figure 26b. The
other somewhat more complicated loop is white in Figures 19a and b and
indicated by CD in Figure 26b. For the knot breaking strength tests presented
in Tables 10 to 20 the ends A and B of the knot were fixed in one clamp
of the tensile testing machine and the ends C and D in the other clamp.
This testing arrangement is considered to be particularly appropriate because
it is closest to themost common position of the netting yarn and the knots
in fishing nets where the meshes are subjected to the main stress in N (normal)-
direction (Figure 27).
The performance of netting in a fishing gear does not only depend on the
strength of the netting yarn it is made of, but just as much on the construction
of the gear. Fishing gear which is subject to considerable stretch or pressure,
such as trawlnets or river stow nets, should be constructed in such a manner
that the stress is equally distributed over the largest possible netting area.
If in a badly constructed net a large share of the total stress is concentrated
PVA (A I staple
PE. monof.
PR split fibre
PR contfll, mort than R 500 tx
PP, cont.fiU under R 500 tex
PES, cont fii.
PA. single monof, mort than 250 ttx

PA. sinoU monof, undr 250 Ux
PA, stapU
PA, cont. fit, mof+than R 4000 tx I i
PA. cant, fit, R 1000 ttx to R 4000 ttx I
PA. com tit.. undtr R I OOP ttx
f
dry, without knot
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 ISO

per c*nt.
Ftouw28.~4lel*tkKh^
iad wot, knotted of different land* of netting yam.
(btock)
e judfnit tee 2.3.3 ad Tfcfeta ID to 20.
NETTING YARNS 83
on a few meshes only (e.g. bosom quarters), they will break even when
made of strong netting yarn.
The breaking strength of the weaver's knot tested in T (twinewisc or
transverse-direction (Figure 27) by fixing the ends and A C
in one clamp
and the ends B and D
in the other clamp of a tensile tester (Figure 26b) will
mostly, but not always, be lower than in N-direction.
The different kinds of netting yarns react differently to knotting and
wetting. Also for this reason wet knot breaking strength tests are much more
significant for fishing gear than dry, straight (unknotted) breaking strength
tests. In Figure 28 the relationship between the dry, straight breaking strength
and the wet knotted breaking strength of netting yarns of different material
demonstrates the combined influences of knotting and of water. With PA
and PP continuous filament netting yarns and with single PA monofilaments
the loss in breaking strength by knotting depends somewhat on the fineness
(Rtex) of the netting yarn: the finer the netting yarn the lower the loss. The
high loss in strength with PVA(A) netting yarn is caused not only by knotting
but also by the effect of water. PE folded monofilament (wire) netting yarns
have a relatively low dry breaking strength, but this disadvantage is partially
compensated by the fact that they are not affected by water and that their
loss in strength by knotting is lower and this material therefore comes out
best (140 percent) in this comparative test (see 2.3.3).
For practical purposes netting yarns should be selected according to the
absolute values of wet knot breaking strength listed in Tables 10 to 20. The
different reactions of the various net materials to knotting and wetting can
then be ignored.
In the codends of trawlnets and also in the selvedges of some other
fishing gears netting braided of double netting yarn is frequently used. An
example for the resulting knot is shown in Figure 33. This doubling of
netting yarn will mostly not give double the knot breaking strength. Examples
for some kinds of netting yarn are given in Table 21.
TABLE 21. BREAKING STRENGTH WET KNOTTED OF DOUBLE NETTING YARNS IN PERCENTAGE
OF SINGLE NETTING YARN (100%)
Kinds of netting yam Breaking strength, wet, knotted

Fibre Rtex %
The edges of netting in fishing gear are also frequently strengthened by

meshes made of stronger netting yarn. The width of such selvedges varies
widely according to the purpose and they may be found on the lower edge
only, on both lower and upper edge, or all around a certain piece of netting.
In machine-manufactured netting sheets netting yarns with only small
differences in thickness can be directly combined during the braiding process.
Also complex selvedges consisting of several strips with increasing thickness
selvedge
FIGURE 29. Netting with selvedge made of
thicker netting yam. The row of knots, marked by
man circka and by an arrow, consists of "mixed'*
knots which are made of one fine and one thicker
netting yam.
NETTING YARNS 85
of netting yarn from the inside outwards can be machine braided. For
instance, some types of big trap nets have the bulk of the netting made of
nylon 23tex x 18 and a selvedge braided simultaneously consisting of three
each three meshes deep. The strips are of decreasing twine size, e.g.
strips,
23tex x 27, 23tex x 24 and 23tex x 21. Icelandic herring purse seines have
such selvedges of even up to 10 strips of different netting yarn size, e.g.
from 23tex x 144 down to 23tex x 15 (131).
Between strips of different netting yarn size there is one row of "mixed"
knots which are tied from a finer and a thicker netting yarn (Figure 29).
Table 22 gives examples for the knot breaking strength of such knots con-
sisting of two different netting yarn sizes in percentage of the knot breaking
strength of the finer netting yarn. From this the following conclusions can
be drawn:
If two netting yarns of different fineness are combined in a weaver's
knot, the breaking strength of this "mixed" knot is always larger than
that of the finer of the two netting yarns only.
Mixed weaver's knots, the simple loop (AB) of which is made of the
thinner netting yarn and the more complicated loop (CD) of the
thicker one, are stronger than knots where AB consists of the thicker
and CD of the thinner netting yarn.
The greater the differences in the fineness of the two netting yarns,
the greater the increase in the knot breaking strength, as compared
to that of the finer netting yarn (see Table 22, groups 6, 8, 9 and 10).
The mesh breaking strength ofknotted netting which can be deter-

all
mined only on meshes with non-slipping knots (see 2.3.2.1 and Figure 19c)
is 10 to 25 percent lower than the knot breaking strength (tested as shown
in Figures 19a and b) because the strength of a mesh is determined by the

weakest of its four knots.
2.3.3.4 Other knots

Of other knots used for fish netting the reef knot or square knot is used
only in Japan (Figure 26c).
The single weaver's knot is the most common knot type for fishing nets.
With netting yarn of a rough surface (vegetable fibres, synthetic staple
fibres,and split fibres), this knot will pro vide sufficient knot stability (resistance
to slippage). Netting yarns made of continuous filaments and monofilaments
have a very smooth surface, especially when twisted, and the knots therefore
tend to dip which leads to meshes of unstable and unequal shape and size.
This is most undesirable for gillnets where the catch depends on a certain
"opening of mesh" (54) (see Figure 59). Knot stability is also necessary for
many other gears such as trawls to maintain the correct hanging of netting
to lines, a particular designed shape and the proper distribution of the
stress in the netting to prevent local overloading which may lead to damage.
TABLE 22. BREAKING STRENGTH OF WEAVER'S KNOTS MADE OF NETTING YARNS OF DIFFERENT
FINENESS (89)
Regarding the terms "Loop AB" and "Loop CD'* see Figure 26b. The first example in each
group gives the knot breaking strength of the finest netting yarn of the group (100%).
Fibre Loop AB Loop CD Knot breaking strength

in percent
Finally,knot slippage may cause additional wear of the netting yarns rubbing
against each other leading to reduced lifetime.
For these reasons manufacturers try to improve the resistance against
knot slippage either ty suitable treatment of the netting or by using the
dofcbte weaver's knot (Figure 26d). This knot, which can be machine braided,
grvw the netting sufficient toot stability even with difficult material such
NETTING YARNS 87
as thick monofilaments. Compared to the normal single weaver's knot, the

double weaver's knot has the disadvantage of larger weight and bulkiness.
Some examples showing the differences of the knot weights (not of the
weight of the netting!) are given below:
An example for the different dimensions of the two types of knot is given
in Figure 30. With thin netting yarn and larger mesh size the differences in
mass and size of the knots will be of little significance for the netting and
can be ignored, but with increasing diameter of netting yarn and decreasing
meshsize, mass and bulk of the knots may need to be considered. If it is
at all possible to obtain sufficient knot stability by treatment of the netting,
the single weaver's knot should be given preference to the double knot. For
FIGURE 30. Single weaver's knot and double weaver's knot

made of the same netting yarn.
g8 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
fine gillncts made of transparent PA single monofilaments, which owe their

high catching efficiency to their relative invisibility in water, the single knot
is less visible than the double knot.
In general, the breaking strength of a knot decreases with the angle into
which the loops of the netting yarns are forced by the knot and it increases
with the number of loops in the knot. Accordingly, the overhand knot and
the reef knot have a somewhat lower breaking strength than the single
weaver's knot and the double weaver's knot is the strongest.
2.3.4 DIAMETER, RTEX, AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH

Thevalues of diameter given in Tables 10 to 20 refer only to twisted
netting yarns. In most cases it will be impossible to measure accurately
with simple methods the diameter of braided netting yarns without core as
are commonly used for netting, because this material is rather soft and has
an irregular, non-circular cross-section. The diameters of braided netting
yarns (except braids with thick core) given by manufacturers are usually
nothing more than denotations of trade articles and frequently do not
correspond to the actual thickness. The same applies to the determination
of the diameter of the netting yarns in knotless netting of the Raschel and
the braided type (see 2.3.2.5).
The diameter values in the tables refer to dry netting yarns. In general
PA netting yarns become somewhat thinner in wet condition, whereas the
diameter of netting yarns made of PES, PE, PP and PVC (continuous
filament and monofilaments) remains practically unchanged. The diameter
of PVA(A) staple netting yarns increases in water by about 7 to 12 percent.
This indifference of netting yarns made of continuous filament and mono-
filament to water is one of the great advantages of synthetic as compared
with vegetable net materials which become considerably thicker by swelling.
The following average increases of diameter in water have been found,
expressed in percent of the initial dry diameter (74) :
cotton netting yarn + 10 %

hemp netting yatn +20%
manila netting yarn + 33 %
sisal netting yarn +34%
In addition to the numerical diameter values given in column "d" of Table 10
and in Table 12, the photographs in Figures 31a and 31b give an impression
of the thickness of practically all common siies of twisted netting yarns made
lie diameter of netting yarn is a major factor for the resistance of

fishing gear to water flow and therefore also for the power required or the
fpeed obtained in towing a certain gear: the thinner the the
netting yam
lower tfce resistance, low resistance is in most instances also advantageous
NETTING YARNS 89
860
950
1030
1200
1280
U30
1570
2000
2800
ftouiw 3Ia.~Most common sorts of twisted PA

continuous filament netting yirm, i Hated in
TMe 10, in natural stae.
1800
2120
FIGURE 3 lb. Twisted PA staple fibre netting

yarns, as listed in Table 12, in natural size.
for the catching efficiency because, due to reduced water stow or turbulences,
the frightening effect on fish will also be reduced.
When comparing different types of netting yarn, the Rtex values, being
the mass in grams of 1000 m, may serve as a relative measure for the mass of
netting. Lower Rtex, i.e. lower mass of the netting, may facilitate handling of
the gear. For the same kind of fibre lower Rtex usually means lower price,
since netting and netting yarns are commonly sold on a mass basis.
The most important practical property of net material is the wet knot
breaking strength (or mesh breaking strength or the breaking strength of the
joints in knotless netting) because it indicates the ability (and limitations) of
the netting for withstanding stress during fishing. Therefore, this property is
decisive for the selection of netting yarns, but it must always be considered
together with diameter and fineness (Rtex) which often are also of high
significance for the efficiency of fishing gear. The interrelationship between
these three properties for various kinds of net material are discussed below.
2.3.4. 1 Diameter and knot breaking strength
Apart from the construction of netting yarn, the relationship between

diameter and knot breaking strength is determined by two factors density :
(specific gravity) and strength of the fibre material, (see Tables 2a and 2e
NETTING YARNS 91
and 1.2.5.3). With equal mass per unit of length, the diameter of the netting
yarn increases with decreasing density. With equal or almost equal fibre
strength, for a given knot breaking strength the netting yarn made of material
with lower density will be thicker. Finally, with approximately equal density
but different fibre strength, for equal knot breaking strength the netting yarn
made of the weaker fibres will be thicker. The differences in diameter of
netting yarns will obviously increase with the differences in one or both
factors.
For instance, in Figure 32 two pieces of netting with equal wet knot
breaking strength are compared: one is made of cotton fibres the other of PA
continuous filament. Though cotton has a greater density than PA (see
Table 2a), the cotton netting yarn is much thicker because of its inferior
fibre strength. The different size of the knots is particularly noteworthy.
The differences in knot size between the PE netting yarn and the two PA
netting yarns in Figure 33 are due to the accumulating effects of lower density
and inferior strength of the PE fibres, although the differences in strength
between PA and PE are much smaller than between PA and cotton (all three
knots were tightened by a force of 100 kgf).
A more precise comparison of the relationship between diameter and
wet knot breaking strength of different kinds of netting yarn is enabled to be
made by Figure 34 which shows graphically the average values listed in
Cotton PA 'cont'fftf.
FIGURE 32, Netting samples of cotton and PA continuous filament made of

netting yarns of equal wet knot breaking strength.
-100mm 2
I
I 1 1 J
208mm 2 340mm 2 U6,5mm 2
a b c
FIGURE 33. Netting yarns with equal wet knot
breaking strength, made of:
(a) PA continuous filaments, twisted;
(b) PE monofilaments, braided;
(c) PA continuous filaments, braided.
The diagram under the photo shows the different
size of the areas covered by the knots.
NETTING YARNS 93
Tables 10, 14, 1 5, 17, 18 and 20. The following numerical values were extracted
from the curves of this figure :
Twnttd netting yarns mad* of
1
Polyamide cool filaments
2 Polypropylene conl Moments
3 Polyethylene monofilaments (wires)
4 Polyit*r cont filaments
5 Potyamid* tapl tibrt
Polypropylene split fibres
(average values )
Knot breaking load, wet

and Diameter
""so I
TO ' So" -t- 110 '
^0 -t- ISO
I
170
-f 190 fI
210 '
230 2SO ]
270 290
300
to to too 120 UO ItO 200 220 2tO 2tO 2tO
Knt wet breaking (Md m kgf

FIGURE 34. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and diameter of
twisted netting yarns made of different kinds of fibre.
(1) Polyamide continuous filaments, (2) polypropylene continuous filaments*

polyethylene monofilaments (wires), (4) polyester continuous
(3) filaments.
(5) polyamidc staple fibres and polypropylene split fibres (average values).
With equal wet knot breaking strength, PP continuous filament netting yarns
are by 25 to 29 percent and PE folded monofilament netting yarns by 24 to 29
percent thicker than PA continuous filament netting yarns, whereas PES
continuous filament netting yarns are slightly (2 to 5 percent) thinner.
2.3.4.2 Wet knot breaking strength and Rtex
Even more significant is the relationship between wet knot breaking

strength and Rtex, which is shown for twisted netting yarns in Figure 35 and
by numerical values in Table 23a and for some heavy braided netting yarns
in Table 23b (page 98).
Twisted ntttrng yarns made of
120
1
Polyamide contm filomtnts
2 Polypropylene contm fllamtnts
3 Polyethylene monofllamtnti (wires)
A Polyester contm filaments
5 Poly vinyl alcohol Staple fibres
Knot breaking load, wet

and R tex
i
* Braided FA netting yarns (average values I
'
i
Cotton netting yarns (single values )
600 MO 1000 ttOO 1400 IfOO WO 2000 2200 2400 2100 2800 3000
700 900 MOO l00 t00 1700 (00 2100 2300 2500 2700 2WO
R ten
FIGURE 35. Relationship between wet knot breaking strength and Rtex of twisted
netting yams made of different kinds of fibre. (1) polyamide continuous filaments,
(2) polypropyplene continuous filaments, (3) polyethylene monofilaments folded,
(4) polyester continuous filaments, (5) polyvinyl alcohol staple fibres.
NETTING YARNS 95
The relative netting yarn mass (Table 23a) needed to obtain a certain
equal knot breaking strength may be expressed approximately by the follow-
ing ratio :
PA c.f. : PA st. : PP c.f. : PE mon. : PES c.f. : PVAA st. =

100 : 200 : 110 : 120 : 130 :
300,
and for the heavy braided netting yarns (Table 23b):
PA c.f. : PP c.f. : PE mon. - 100 : 107 : 120.
In Figure 35 some average values of braided PA continuous filament netting

yarns are inserted to demonstrate that this is the strongest of all netting
materials dealt with in this manual. This is further supported by Figure 33
where the braided PA specimen forms a considerably smaller knot than the
twisted PA specimen with equal knot breaking strength.
2.3.4.3 Diameter and mass

Manufacturers of PP and PE sometimes refer to the relationship between
diameter and mass of netting yarn (Rtex or runnage, respectively), which
is represented in Figure 36. With equal diameter the mass of netting yarn
obviously decreases or increases with the density of the fibre material of

which it is made. The following numerical examples are taken from the
curves of Figure 36 :
With equal diameter PP continuous filament netting yarns are about 30

percent lighter and PES continuous filament netting yarns more than 30
percent heavier in mass than PA continuous filament netting yarns. On the
other hand, PP netting yarns of the same diameter have about 30 to 37 per-
cent lower breaking strength than PA netting yarns. Though the thickness
of netting yarns cannot be neglected for many fishing gear types, adequate
strength is mostly more important and consequently net material will more
often have to be selected according to the knot breaking strength and not
the diameter of netting yarns.
96 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING OEAR
2.3.5 FLEXURAL STIFFNESS
The flexural stiffness is and

the resistance of a netting yarn to lateral
bending deformation and Figure 24). The numerical
(see 2.3.1.22, 2.3.2.6
values in columns d and e of Table 24 give the mass in grammes which
is required to reduce the widest opening of a loop formed by a 20 cm piece
of netting yarn down to exactly 5 mm (Table 24 on page 100).

Netting yarns and netting made of soft continuous filament or staple
fibre are frequently treated with bonding agents which change the stiffness
of netting materials (see 2.3.5.7). Because of the great number of various
agents and concentrations used by manufacturers of netting materials or by
fishermen, it is not possible to clearly define their stiffening efficiency. The
following remarks, therefore, exclude treatment with agents but include
heat setting.
The examples of netting yarns of different fibre material and construction
in Table 24 cover the common range of flexural stiffness found in practice.
This property depends on kind, basic form (see 1.2.4) and fineness of the
fibre material and on the construction and the thickness of the netting yarn.
2.3.5.1 PA single monofilaments
The PA single monofilaments Table 24, Group I, are relatively

listed in
flexible, to facilitate mechanical manufacture of netting. Their flexural

stiffness increases with increasing diameter. The finest monofilaments, e.g.
0.10 and 0.20 mm, used for fine gillnets, have a very low stiffness. In water
the stiffness of all PA monofilaments is reduced. They are then considerably
softer than in dry condition.
2.3.5.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filament (Groups II and III in

Table 24) have a very low flexural stiffness unless treated with stiffening
agents. They are the softest materials used for fishing nets, especially when
braided and wet. Because of their extremely low stiffness, PA netting yarns
finer than Nos. 7 and 8 cannot accurately be tested any more by the method
used, especially when wet. The amount of twist influences the stiffness of
dry PA netting yarns. A higher coefficient of twist causes higher stiffness,
NETTING YARNS 97
Twisted netting yarns made of
1
Poly amide contin filaments
2 Polypropylene contin filaments
3 Polyester contin filaments
i Polyamide staple fibres
* Polyethylene monotilaments (average values)
SCO 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 <
2500 I
2700 I 2900 '
3)00
600 MO 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2tOO 2tOO 3000 3200
FIGURE 36. Relationship between Rtex and diameter of twisted netting yarns
made of different kinds of fibre. (1) polyamide continuous filaments, (2) poly-
propylene continuous filaments, (3) polyester continuous filaments, (4) polyamide
*
staple fibres, folded polyethylene monofilaments (average values).
as can be seen by comparing e.g. specimens 7 and 8, or lOa and lOb, res-
pectively, but in wet condition these differences decrease. Like mono- PA
filaments also all PA
netting yarns become considerably softer in wet
condition.
Heat-setting makes the material somewhat stiffer, as can be seen by
comparing samples 9a and 9b, or lla and lib, respectively. The fineness
of the single continuous filaments composing the netting yarn has also a
remarkable influence on the stiffness. The braided specimen 15, consisting
of filaments of 2.2 tex, has about double the stiffness of specimens 12 to
14 which have almost equal Rtex but are made of the much finer filaments
of 0.68 tex.
2.3.5.3 PA folded monofilaments netting yarns

Netting yarns made of PA monofilaments (Group IV of Table 24)
to the stiffest netting materials and their increase in stiffness is much
belong
more clearly related to increasing Rtex than with PA continuous filament
netting yarns. The stiffness of PA netting yarns of comparable construction
TABLE 23a. WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH (KGF) AND CORRESPONDING RTEX VALUES OF
TWISTED NETTING YARNS MADE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIBRE
kgf Rtex values of netting yarns made of
PA c.f. PA st. PP c.f. PE mon. PES c.f. PVA (A) st.
TABLE 23b. WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH (KGF) AND CORRESPONDING RTEX VALUES OF
HEAVY BRAIDED NETTING YARNS MADE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FIBRE
kgf Rtex values of netting yarns made of
PA c.f. PP c.f. PE mon.

NETTING YARNS 99
made of folded monofilaments of equal diameter and equal chemical structure

is directly proportional to Rtex, i.e. it is doubled when the Rtex is doubled
(see below).
No. Rtex Flex, stiffness
The fineness (thickness) of the single monofilaments composing the netting

yarn has an even greater influence than the Rtex, as can be seen by comparing
specimens 17, 18 and 19 which have almost equal Rtex. By doubling the
diameter of the monofilaments the stiffness value of the netting yarn increases
by a factor of about three.
Netting yarns of PE monofilaments have similar characteristics. For
instance, the specimen 46b made of 0.20 mm diameter monofilaments is
much stiffer than the even heavier specimen 46a which is made of 0.15 mm
diameter monofilaments.
Manufacturers of netting yarn are therefore able to vary the stiffness of
netting yarns made of folded monofilaments (synthetic wires) and of split
fibres by varying the fineness (diameter) and the number of the individual
elementary threads. Another possibility of influencing the stiffness of this

coarse material available to the fibre producers consists in adding special
softening agents (plasticisers) of different efficiency and in different quantity
to the polymer during the manufacture of the monofilaments.
2.3.5.4 PES and PP continuous filament netting yarns
Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments (Group V) and PP

continuous filaments (Group VI) are somewhat stiffer than those made of
PA continuous filaments and, unlike PA, dry and wet stiffness are practically
equal. By mixing the soft continuous filament material
with split fibres or
monofilaments, an increase in stiffness can be obtained. There exists, of
course, a very great number of possibilities for variations in this type of
combined netting yarns. Some examples are given in Group VIII of Table 24.
2.3.5.5 PP split fibre and PE folded monofilament netting yarns

Also with netting yarns made from PP split fibres or PE monofilaments
many variations in stiffness may be obtained according to diameter and
kind of the components. Some examples are given in Groups VII and IX,
respectively.Both types of netting yarn belong to the stiffest and hardest
material used for fishing nets.
8
TABLE 24. FLEXURAL STIFFNESS OF NETTING YARNS

The term "treated" indicates heat setting of the netting yarn.
NETTING YARNS 101
2.3.5.6 Vegetable fibre netting yarns

For the comparison of synthetic and vegetable fibre netting yarns some
data are given in the following, referring to netting yarns with equal diameter.
In dry condition manila netting yarn is very stiff, similar to synthetic

folded monofilament netting yarn. In water all vegetable fibres swell and they
become softer. In netting yarns of simple construction (only one twisting
operation, see 2.1.1.4) and with a low amount of twists, the fibres can freely
expand and the stiffness of the netting yarn decreases as well. This is the
case with the manila and hemp netting yarns listed above. The cotton sample
is a cabled netting twine of the construction 50 tex x 15 x 3. Due to the
relatively (single yarns and folded yarns) and

hard twist of the components
of the product, the swelling cotton fibres become tightly compressed
final
and the stiffness of this netting yarn in wet condition is consequently
increased.
2.3.5.7 Stiffening agents
For
stiffening netting materials consisting of soft continuous filaments
or staple fibres a large variety of stiffening agents is available, mainly
produced by the chemical industry. The choice varies in different countries
and frequently new substitutes come up. Since it is not intended to go
deeper into this subject or to make an evaluation, in the following only a
few agents are discussed. Other products than the examples mentioned here
may be equally or even more effective and the selection for a specific purpose
will depend mainly on local availability and economic considerations.
Some of the more common stiffening agents are :
Tar, such as coal-tar or wood-tar.

Other coal-derivates, like carbolineum.
"Black varnish" which mainly consists of pitch and benzene (benzol)
as a solvent or diluting agent in different concentration.
Bitumen, a natural or artificial derivate of mineral oils.

NETTING YARNS 103
These four agents are mostly black and colour the netting accordingly.
Copper naphtenate (e.g. "Cuprinol") has a green colour.

Synthetic rubber solutions.
Synthetic resins.
Polyvinyl acetate emulsions.
Some of these agents do not change the natural colour of the netting but
many of them must be applied at rather high temperature.
For the application and selection of stiffening agents it must be taken
into account that they do not only influence the flexural stiffness but usually
also most other properties of netting material either in a favourable or an
unfavourable way.
Mass and diameter will always increase. Some agents, e.g. tar or black
varnish, improve the sinking speed, the resistance to light, the abrasion
resistance, the knot stability and even the wet knot breaking strength.
Furthermore, length or meshsize (shrinkage, e.g. due to hot application
of the agent), extensibility and colour may be changed. Therefore, it is
recommended to first test the effect of unknown stiffening agents on the
various properties of the netting material with a small piece of netting before
the whole net is treated (see also 1.2.5.4). The following examples are meant
to give an idea of what effects can occur.
Netting made of PP continuous filament netting yarn:
Treated with
coal-tar black varnish
Immersion in the agent 30 min 30 min

Temperature about 65C about 30C
Increase in weight after 4 weeks
air-drying +130% +64%
Increase in wet knot breaking strength +25 % +24 %
Meshsize dry unchanged unchanged
Meshsize wet -5.8% -1.6%
Black varnish dries quicker than coal-tar. Both agents do not damage
the fibre substance of PP and PA except tar that contains a substantial
percentage of phenol.
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments and PA staple fibres,

treated with black varnish at room temperature, not diluted and diluted
with equal amount of benzene :
PA cont.fil. PA staple
not diluted diluted not diluted diluted
Immersion in the agent 20 min 20 min 20 min 20 min

Increase in weight after
2 weeks air-drying 46% 21% 108% about 65%
Change in length by
treatment (dry) 0.0% -1% _IQO/
j.y /o __ 35/
J.J/Q
Increase in wet knot
breaking strength + 14.3% +17.2% +11.4% +16.3%
Decrease in extensibility -0.06%
Flexural stiffness, un-
treated 17 5-8
Flexural stiffness, treated 51 59 16-22 23-25
The main purposes of stiffening netting or netting yarns is to facilitate

the handling, cleaning and repair of fishing gears and to improve the knot
stability. There of course, fishing gears for which high flexural stiffness
are,
is undesirable, e.g. tine gillnets, because their catching efficiency would be
affected.
2.3.6 CHANGE IN LENGTH IN WATER

The amount of the change in length of netting yarn between dry and wet
(in water) is of practical interest (66), (73), (91) because of its possible effect on
the meshsize. Different materials react differently to wetting and subsequent
drying. For the test results listed in Table 25, dry condition refers to standard
atmosphere. The direction of changes in length in normal water at room
temperature (about 20C) expressed in percent of the length in dry condition
(column b) is indicated by ( ) for shrinkage and (+) for lengthening.
Immersion in hot or boiling water, as may be required for dyeing or other
treatment of nets, will always cause a shrinkage, the amount of which
should be determined before treating larger amounts of netting or whole
gears (see also 1.2.5.4). The greatest part of the changes in length, also in
cold water, occurs within a few minutes after immersion. The length measure-
ments were carried out with a pre-tension on the specimens corresponding
to the mass of 250 m
of the respective netting yarn. Such a pre-tension is
necessary to straighten the specimens, but it should be kept in mind that
even the comparatively low force used in these tests has already an influence
on the length because a great part of the changes in length caused by wetting
are not resistant even against this low force (see also 2.3.7).
NETTING YARNS 105
It may be mentioned that changes in meshsize are caused also by factors

other than water. For example, a shortening may be brought about by sand
or other particles penetrating the structure of the netting yarn during fishing
or by a heavy shock load (see below, Figure 58).
2.3.6.1 Netting yarns made ofPES, PE and PP

Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments, PE folded mono-
filaments, PP continuous filaments and PP split fibres remain practically
unaffected by water and subsequent drying of the wet specimens has also no
significant influence on the length (Table 25, Nos. 30 to 45).
2.3.6.2 PA continuous filament netting yarns
PA
continuous filament netting yarns react differently in water. Most
either shrink or lengthen and only few types remain unchanged. The
extent of change in length depends on the construction and treatment. The
examples given in Table 25 are all PA netting yarns made of high tenacity
continuous filament yarns which were subjected to strong stretching during
manufacture.
Finer PA netting yarns with medium twist which have not been treated
by heat-setting (Nos. 1 to 6) shrink in water by about 2 percent. On the other
hand, hard twisted PA netting yarns (Nos. 7 to 12) will mostly lengthen
somewhat in water. The amount of lengthening increases with increasing
twist and if combined with a more complicated construction (Nos. 13 and
14) reaches up to about 5 percent.
Intensive heat-setting (Nos. 23 to 29) gives the material a high resistance
against dimensional changes in water. Untreated PA netting yarns of similar
type shrink by about 4 to 6 percent (Nos. 15 to 22). Intensive heat-
setting means that the specimens are very much stretched during the heating.
A criterion of such "genuine" heat-setting is the decrease in mass per unit
length and in extensibility of the netting yarn, provided that the specimen
has not been treated with a bonding or stiffening agent.
Immersion in boiling water only without a simultaneous strong stretching,
as is frequently employed by net manufacturers to stabilize the knots or to
adjust a certain meshsize, has the opposite effect of intensive heat setting,
i.e. nettings or netting yarns shrink and the mass per unit length and the
extensibility increase. Netting yarns treated in this way lengthen in water
of room temperature under a small pre-tension.
Compared to their length in wet condition, air-drying makes PA netting
yarns shrink, mostly by about 2 percent. Intensive heat-setting reduces
the differences between wet and redried condition. Repeated wetting and
drying has no significant effect on PA netting yarns in addition to the first
wetting and drying.
NETTING YARNS 107
TABLE 25 continued
2.3.6.3 Vegetable fibre netting yarns
Netting yarns of vegetable fibres always shrink in water. The following

average values can be quoted:
Material Shrinkage in % of dry length

Cotton -6 to -10
Hemp, thin netting yarns up to 3
Hemp, heavy netting yarns -6 to -8
Manila -3.5 to -6
Sisal netting yarns react similarly as manila netting yarns. After wetting,
netting yarns made of vegetable fibres regain only part of their original
length upon drying.
2.3.6.4 Change ofmeshsize in water
The changes in length of netting discussed above give an idea of the

reaction in water of the different kinds of netting yarns, but the numerical
values should not directly be applied to the change of meshsize.
The values for mesh opening shown in Table 26 were measured with a
special gauge ("Scottish gauge," (17)) using a pressure of only 1 kgf through-
out.
As is to be expected, the influence of water on the meshsize is in principle
the same as on the length of netting yarns (Table 25). There are none or only
small changes with PP and PE netting, only a small change with PA netting
made of netting yarns treated with intensive heat-setting, and comparatively
larger changes with netting made of untreated PA netting yarn.
= PA single monofi lament 0.15mm

---- PA single monofilament 0.20mm
* PA cont. til. netting yarn R25t?x
W wetting ,
Or* Drying
FIGURE 37. Changes in meshsize due to wetting
and drying of netting made of the finest PA material
as used for fine gillnets. The measurements were
taken with a special gauge for finest gillnets and
not with individual meshes but with a piece of
netting, five meshes long by five meshes deep. The
load of 1 kgf is applied as a pre-tension to all five
rows of meshes, 100 gf to each thread. The O-line
indicates the initial meshsize of the dry netting (80).
The reaction of very fine PA netting as used for light gillnets made of
monofilament and finest continuous filament netting yarn is illustrated in
Figure 37.
While for synthetic materials the differences in changes in length between
netting yarn and meshsize are small, they are rather high between netting
yarns and netting made of vegetable fibres. The swelling of the fibres causes
not only shrinkage but also a considerable increase in diameter of the netting
yarn (see 2.3.4). In addition to the shrinkage of the bars of the mesh, the
knots consequently become significantly thicker and thereby the mesh
opening is even more reduced. The effect of wetting on the meshsize of
manila netting is illustrated in Table 27. In this case the mesh opening was
measured with a special gauge recommended by the International Council
for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) for the accurate determination of the
mesh opening in trawl codends with a pressure of 4 kgf (17).
From Table 27 the following conclusions can be drawn. The thicker the
manila netting yarn, the more the mesh opening is reduced (swelling of
knots); the smaller the initial mesh opening, the higher the reduction in
NETTING YARNS 109
ro so os r^ oo
o o o
is is
1+1o
*-<' r-'
-
+1 I
+1 -f I I
o oo' oo os
77
r-
r^
o o o ' r-;
+ +1 + -f I +
s
*
?4
4
^^ i
I
So
Iio **a
jz
52
cs
** -5
t^
;
8
I I
f II
>v II II
iA aoo
C C
1~ |.s
ne-
set
sf si | If
t2wo
I
o wo
S Z3 2 32 22
11 ii >.,
2 O
3*-
"
1
o*^
*- P?
p
4^ uble
o stretc
O Q Q Q Q
I 1
1
C CJ' C2
no NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
percent (size relation between bar and knot); with double braided manila
netting the mesh opening is reduced in size much more than with single
braided netting (size of knots).
TABLE 27. CHANGES OF THE MESH OPENING OF MANILA NETTING IN WATER (10), (11)
2.3.7 EXTENSIBILITY
Prior to the introduction of synthetic fibres into fishing, it was common

practice to judge a netting material only by its breaking strength. Today the
breaking strength alone is considered insufficient as criterion for the efficiency
and suitability of a netting material because, with the higher requirements
for progressive fishing gear and the new synthetic materials which enable
a much wider range of choice to satisfy them, the extensibility has for many
purposes gained similar significance as the wet knot breaking strength. For
example, gillnets of different type usually require small to medium, bottom
trawls in general medium and rnidwater trawls high extensibility. The main
advantageous features of extensibility are the ability to absorb shock loads
and to better distribute the total load over the netting of a fishing gear.
The term "extensibility", meaning the ability of a netting material to
change its dimension under a tensile force, refers to a complex property
NETTING YARNS 111
which involves a considerable number of different factors and aspects

such as:
Amount of elongation immediately after application of a specific

tension, e.g. the breaking strength, or the knot breaking strength. In
this case the specimen is loaded only once.
Reaction ot netting yarn to a gradually increasing force showing the
relationship between the magnitude of stress and the change in
length by means of a load-elongation curve (see 2.3.1.18), or by
determination of the elongation at different degrees of loading.
Influence of the kind of fibre and the construction and treatment of
the netting yarn on its extensibility.
Reaction under sustained load over longer periods of time.
Elongation caused by a very high shock load.
Reaction of netting yarns to repeated loading and unloading (Hys-
teresis effect), with different forces and different periods of time (26a,
92a, 121).
Elasticity properties which include the total elongation, elastic
elongation, permanent elongation and the degree of elasticity under
different conditions of amount and duration of loading.
"Creep," especially for PP and PE material.

Properties of energy absorption (toughness).
Not all of these properties have yet been sufficiently investigated with regard
to netting material, partly because the testing of some of them requires
highly specialized equipment and techniques.
Apart from the magnitude of stress or pressure, the extensibility depends
on the capability to stretch of the fibre material, as well as the construction
and the after-treatment of the final product (netting yarn or netting).
TABLE 28. AVERAGE VALUES OF ELONGATION ( %) AT HALF WET KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH OF
NETTING YARNS OF HIGH TENACITY MATERIAL AND MEDIUM TWIST OR MEDIUM (NORMAL)
TIGHTNESS OF BRAID, n = NUMBER OF SORTS OF NETTING YARN TESTED
2.3.7.1 Elongation at half knot breaking strength

Manufacturers mostly quote the elongation at a specific force such as the
breaking strength of the straight netting yarn in dry condition. This is a con-
dition which is of no relevance for fishing nets. Therefore, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) has recommended to test and to
quote instead the elongation of netting yarn, dry or wet, at half the value
of the corresponding breaking strength of the weaver's knot (see 2.3.2.2 and
(90)). The data in Table 28 were measured in accordance with the above
ISO Standard (68a). The elongation is expressed in percent increase of the
initial length of the specimens. As regards the construction of the
netting yarns tested, it should be pointed out that the term "medium twist"
covers a relatively wide range of levels of twist. The elongation of netting
yarns is influenced significantly even by small increases or decreases of
twist and this is the main reason for the deviation of the values from the
average (see maximum and minimum values). For PE monofilament and

PP split fibre, the differences may also be partly due to the different texture of
the fibre material. Since most synthetic fibres are hydrophobic, in general
wet and dry elongation are nearly identical with the exception of PA which
can absorb sufficient moisture to affect not only the breaking strength but
also the elongation. As shown by the following examples, the elongation of
PA in wet condition is some percent higher than in dry condition (see also
Figure 47):
There are considerable differencesin the extensibility of netting yarns

made of different fibres (see average values in Table 28). Netting yarns
with still higher elongation like those made of PA
staple fibres, which are
not represented in Table 28, are dealt with below (see Figure 40).
The different vegetable fibre net materials provide a similar range of
wet elongation at half wet knot breaking strength. Manila netting yarns extend
by about 8 to 10 percent, hemp netting yarns by about 12 to 15 percent and
the thicker sorts of cotton netting yarn by 25 to 30 percent and more.
2.3.7.2 Load-elongation curves

The elongation value at half wet knot breaking strength, which rarely
NETTING YARNS 113
kgf
72-
68-
64-
Continuous filament
60-
1 23 te 9; R 240 ttx
56'
2. 23 ( 12, R 320 ttx
52-
3. 23 te 15/R 400 ttx
46- 4 23 tt 18, R 470 ttx
S. 23 tt .
27, R 650 ttx
44-
6 23 tt 48, R 1300 ttx
40
7. 23 t
60, R 1560 ttx
36 8 23 tt 96, R 2500 ttx
32-
28-
24--
20
16
12"
8--
9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 23
Elongation in ptr ctnt
FIGURE 38. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of PA

continuous filaments.
occurs in fishing nets, does not suffice to give an adequate idea of the exten-
sibility propertiesof netting materials. The practical aspects of the relationship
between stress and elongation can much better be judged by means of load-
elongation curves.
Figures 38 to 45 give examples of such curves for various kinds of netting
yarn. The increasing force expressed in kgf is plotted on the ordinate, and the
increasing elongation in percent on the absciss. The maximum force corre-
sponds to the half wet knot breaking strength of the respective netting yarn,
but the actual tests were conducted with individual netting yarns, unknotted,
in wet condition. All samples are of medium twist or braid. The curves were
recorded autographically by the testing device shown in Figure 18. Each
of Figures 38 to 45 refers to netting yarns of different fineness (different
Rtex values) made of one specific kind of fibre. All curves are drawn accord-
ing to the same elongation scale to facilitate comparison, whereas the scale
of force is different according to the breaking strength range of the respective
kgf
264
252
240"
228-
216-
204-
Continuous filament
192 Polyamid* nttting yarns
9. R 3000 ttx S
iao
10 R 4100 ttx S
168
11. R 4000 ttx S
156- 12. R II 000 ttx S
--
144
132-
120"
108
96
84 -
72"
60
48
-
36
24
12
h- I h-
8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2:
Elongation in ptr ctnt
FIGURE 39. Load-elongation curves of heavy twisted netting yarns (wet) made
of PA continuous filaments.
netting yarns. It should be emphasized that many types of fishing gear have
never to withstand great stress and that, even with large gear, net material
is in the majority of cases subjected during fishing only to relatively small
forces. However, in rough weather or with large catches, and then in parti-
cular during certain phases of operation (e.g. hauling, course changes during
towing or "fasteners"), the mechanical stress on fishing gears such as purse
seines, trawls, liftnets, gillnets will largely exceed the normal values up to
and even past the breaking point leading to respectively high elongation. It
is,therefore, advantageous to know the elongation of netting yarn over a

wider range of tension. This is provided by the load-elongation test curves
which allow for the determination of the relationship between force and
NETTING YARNS 115
ss
o
FIGURE 41. Load-elongation curves

of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of
PES continuous filaments.
PC 1 1
y ester netting yorns
(braided )
1 R 945 tex
2 R 1960 tex
3 R 2980 tex
4 R 3000 tex
5 R 3890 tex
1 234567 in per cent

Elongation
FIGURE 42. Load-elongation curves of

braided netting yarns (wet) made of 234 567
PES continuous filaments. Elongation in ptr ctnt
elongation over the whole range or any section or for a specific value which
may be of particular interest.
For the following evaluation and discussion of the load-elongation
curves in Figures 38 to 45, section 2.3.7.1 should also be considered.
Each kind of fibre has not only a specific degree of elongation but also a
typical form of load-elongation curve which can be used to assist in the
NETTING YARNS 117
Polyethylene netting yarns
1 R 660 tex
2 R 1010 tex
3. R 1350 tex
4 R 1640 tex
5 R 2010 tex
6. R 3500 tex
7 R 4160 tex
1 2 34 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Elongation in per cent
FIGURE 43. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of PE

folded monofilaments.
identification of fibre materials. As regards the amount of wet elongation,

the main synthetic netting materials can be placed in the following order:
polyester, with the smallest degree of elongation ;
polypropylene;
polyethylene;
polyamide, with the highest elongation.
Continuous filament
yams
Polypropylene netting
R 210 tex
R 290 tex
R 520 tex
R 640 tex
5. R 730 tex
6. R 1190 tex
7 R 1UO tex
R 1515 tex
R 3500 tex
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 U 15
FIGURE 44. Load-elongation curves of twisted

netting yarns (wet) made of PP continuous
filaments.
Furthermore, two main types of load-elongation curves can be distin-

guished (Figures 38 to 45). The first type refers to netting yarns made of
PES (Figures 41 and 42), PE (Figure 43) and PP (Figure 44). It is an almost
straight line indicating that these materials have a comparatively strong
resistance against stretching. The other type refers to PA
(Figures 38 to 40)
and PVAA (Figure 45). These materials have relatively more elongation at
low loads than at higher loads. The curves therefore have a somewhat
parabolic form and are in general ''softer" or more yielding than the first
type.
With equal kinds of fibre, netting yarns made of staple fibres have not only
a lower breaking strength but also a considerably higher extensibility than
NETTING YARNS 119
U
Polyvfnyl alcohol (staple) ncttina yarns
12
1. 30 t 6, R 200 tx
10 2. 30 U 9, R 310 Ux
3 30 15, R 520 Ux
8 4 301 18; R 620 tx
5 30 t 24, R 830 tx
6 6 30 t 30, R 1040 Ux
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 21
Elongation in pr ctnt
FIGURE 45. Load-elongation curves of twisted netting yarns (wet) made of

PVAA staple fibres.
those made of continuous filaments. This is illustrated for PA by the

comparison of Figures 38 and 39 with Figure 40.
At equal loads the elongation of netting yarns naturally increases with
decreasing size or diameter, i.e. Rtex value. In other words the heavier
(thicker) the netting yarn, the more force (or load) is required to obtain
elongation.
The relationship between the amounts of force and elongation, and
between the force and the fineness of netting yarns is of great importance
for the efficiency of net materials for various fishing gear as well as for
international meshsize regulations and related measuring methods aiming
at the protection and management of fish stocks. For the latter elongation
at low loads is of particular interest. The respective tests (Figure 46 and
Table 29) were therefore started without any pre-tension and these load-
elongation curves begin at zero load. Table 29 provides additional infor-
mation to Figure 46, i.e. the values of gf per tex, percentage of knot breaking
strength, and percentage of elongation corresponding to the loads of 1,2,3,4,6,
8 and 10 kgf. It is important to note that the eight netting yarns differ consider-
ably in fineness. As an example the following wet elongation values were
obtained for a force of 2 kgf (see Table 29).
1 .
PA, R 976tex, medium twist 6.7 % elongation
2. PA, R 242 Itex, hard twist 5.8% elongation
3. PA, R 2513tex, medium twist 3.0 % elongation
4. PA. R 5808tex, medium twist 2.2 % elongation
5. PA, R 6487tex, hard twist 4.2 % elongation
6. PE, R6386tex, braided 0.9 % elongation
7. PA, R11876tex, braided 2. 3% elongation
8. PA, R17148tex, braided 1 .6 % elongation
The force of 2 kgf on a single netting yarn would be equivalent to the

pressure of 4 kgf for the measurements
of the mesh opening. This pressure
ge~
c w-2
S JS ed
*-J=
w
Sfl
"8*8
till
2 2*3-5
NETTING YARNS 121
g I
I ".
.1
u
o>
<
mrst-î-o-^rofs
I I
s 1
te
'go
2? i
N <N ^ d O O O*
^ P
/^ c *
"
a
li ,*
11 i :!
^ O d O O
E 1
-.
* ss
d <N *^
s
I
riddddddd
1
f
.OOOOOOO
^ d d d d d d d
lia
has been adopted for the calibrated pressure gauge which is recommended
by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) for all
studies requiring an accurate measurement of the mesh opening in the
codend of trawls (see also (17)).
This ICES Recommendation does not take into account the strong
dependence of elongation on the fineness and the consequent difference in
the influence of the measurement on the measured value for different yarns.
The pressure or force applied to textile samples for the purpose of length
measurements should always be in comparable relation to their fineness
or their breaking strength. For mesh measurements in the codends of large
bottom trawls which are made of very heavy net materials, this pressure
should be relatively small, e.g. 0.1 gf per tex (= the weight of 100 m of the
netting yarn) only.
As already mentioned (section 2.3.7.1) dry and wet elongation of netting
yarns made of PES, PE and PP are nearly identical. This applies also to the
form of the load-elongation curves of these materials. Similarly the form of
the load-elongation curves of dry PA netting yarns differ from those for
wet condition, as is the case for the elongation of this material. These dif-
ferences occur mainly in the lowest range of loading, where the curves of
dry netting yarns, contrary to those for wet netting yarns, are inclining
towards the ordinate (the load axis) (Figure 47).
comparison of net materials of different fineness or different
If direct
kind of fibre is required, it is advantageous to show in the load-elongation
curves the increasing test load as percentages of breaking strength or half wet
knot breaking strength (e.g. 5 percent, 10 percent, 20 percent ... up to 100
percent) rather than in actual kgf. Another possibility is to express the test
loads in values of tenacity (gf/tex) or tensile stress (kgf/mm 2 (see 2.3.1.3b).
In Figure 48 the load is given in percentage of the wet breaking strength
(unknotted). To convey an idea of the elongation characteristics over the
full range different from the foregoing load-elongation curves (Figures 38
to 47), those of Figure 48 reach up to the full wet breaking strength of the
straight netting yarns. The curves give average values for several individual
netting yarns, and therefore allow a direct comparison of the extensibility
of different materials and kinds of netting yarn even with different fineness.
The curve of PP netting yarn would lie between that of PES (No. 1) and
that of PE (No. 2). Vegetable net materials are represented by cotton netting
yarn which has a high elongation in wet condition, particularly at low loads.
As regards the amount of elongation the load-elongation curves of wet
manila netting yarns are similar to those of PE but they have a "parabolic"
form with relatively high elongation at low load.
2.3.7.3 Toughness
Since the load represents a force and the elongation a movement caused
by this force, the product of load and elongation is the amount of work
NETTING YARNS 123
R
fi
>fiM U| pDOl \i-

qo > * <N O OD (O s <N
100
:5
-
90
1 Polyester cont. fil
2 Polyethylene monot
3 Polyamide cont. fil.
4 Polyvinyt alcohol staple
5 Cotton
6 Polyamide staple
2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 *2 44 46 4* 50
FIGURE 48. Load-elongation curves of wet netting yarns made of different kinds
of fibres. The curves arc average curves and reach up to the breaking strength of
the wet straight netting yarns.
NETTING YARNS 125
involved in stretching the material. With reference to netting yarns this

work is commonly called "toughness". If both factors, strength and elonga-
tion, are high the material has a respectively high capability of doing work,
e.g. in terms of absorbing energy and to withstand shock loads. Such netting
material would therefore be particularly suitable for fishing gear which is
subjected to this type of mechanical stress or pressure. As already mentioned
(section 2.3.1.21), toughness may be quantitatively measured by plani-
metering the area under the load-elongation diagram. Examples are given
in Figure 49 for three main types of toughness with netting yarns of approxi-
mately the same fineness (about R 1300 tex). The PA netting yarn represents
a type of netting material with great strength and great elongation, the
PP netting yarn a type with great strength and small elongation, and the
PVA(A) netting yarn a type with small strength and great elongation. If the
amounts of strength and elongation are known, toughness can be calculated
by the formula :
Toughness =
load x elongation x Q
For designating the toughness of netting yarns the elongation at half
20 K~B o o
FIGURE 49. Characteristic examples for the toughness of wet netting yarns,
represented by the hatched area under the load-elongation curves
which are
drawn up to a force (F*) corresponding to the half wet knot breaking strength. All
three netting yarns have approximately the same fineness of about R
1 300 tex. If
for these netting yarns the area of PA is taken as 100 percent, that of PP is 57 per-
cent and that of PVA(A) 37 percent.
(a) PA contin. fil. netting yarn with high strength and high elongation.
(b) PP contin. fil. netting yarn with high strength and low elongation.
(c) PVA(A) staple fibre netting yarn with low strength and high elongation.
the wet knot breaking strength should be chosen. Q is the quotient of the area
of OF BO
k divided by the area of the rectangle OAFk BO (see Figure 49).
The following numerical values of Q can be applied to wet netting yarns:
PA continuous filaments 0.33

PA staple fibres 0.36
PES continuous filaments 0.48
PP continuous filaments 0.47
PE monofilaments 0.54
PVA staple fibres 0.35
It must be stressed that these values for Q refer to wet netting yarns with
normal twist and to load-elongation curves reaching up to the half wet
knot breaking strength. This applies also to the following values of average
relative toughness which are based on the load-elongation curves of Figures
38 to 45 (for reference PA continuous filament netting yarn is set at 100
percent).
PAcontin. fil. 100%
PA staple fibre 110%
PES contin. fil. 46%
PPcontin. fil. 76%
PEmonofil. 106%
PVA(A) staple fibre 35%
The elongation features discussed so far are not sufficient to fully char-
acterize this complicated property, and they may even be misleading if not
supplemented by information on and the influence of sustained
elasticity
and repeated loading. This refers especially to polyethylene.
2.3.7.4 Elasticity
This the property of a netting yarn to recover its original length after
is
the removal of a stretching force. Of the different possibilities of applying

stress to a material for actuating this property, the tensile stress only is
discussed here. for instance, a netting yarn has a high elasticity, i.e. it
If,
regains length completely or with only a small remaining portion

its initial
of irreversible elongation, it guarantees not only a constant meshsize but

also the conservation of its toughness. The more the elasticity decreases
by the first or by repeated applications of load, the more also the capacity
to perform work decreases. Netting yarns in which high elongation is coupled
with high elasticity can absorb severe shock loads like a spring. In returning
to original length such highly elastic netting material is capable of doing
its
as much work
as was done in stretching it. This energy stored in the material
should be taken into account when handling stretched heavy nettings or
ropes.
The values of elasticity listed in Table 30 and illustrated in Figures 50
to 53 have been obtained by using the following simple testing method:
NETTING YARNS 127
<v c
O)
"~*o
c >sC
7^ O
d
/t
ui uoijoS uojg
0,15mm -16-8
medium braid (220/m)
5 per cent
[Netting yarns
10 per cent
made
20 per cent
of
30 per cent
PE monofilamentsl
J
50 per cent
28 -------------------- - _ - - __ . .
26
24 .
B . . _ . . . . . . . . ...
0,15 mm 16 "
8
hard braid ( 315/m )
5 per cent 10 per cent 20 per cent 30 per cent 50 per cent
FIGURE 51. Elasticity of braided PE netting yarns made of equal kind and
number of monofilaments but with different tightness of braid (A with 220
picks per 1 m, B with 315 picks per 1 m). Both types loaded for one hour with 5,
10, 20, 30 or 50 percent, respectively, of their breaking strength, wet, unknotted.
Elongation (percentage) measured :
a = immediately after loading;

b loaded for one hour;
c = immediately after removal of load;
d = one hour after removal of load ;
e = permanent elongation.
Note the different amount and percentage of permanent elongation with regard
to the tightness of braid and the amount of load.
NETTING YARNS 129
5 6 7 8 9 10
Wet elongation m per cent
FIGURE 52. Load-elongation curves of braided PA and PP continuous filament

netting yarns, wet, with approximately the same wet knot breaking strength and
construction. The retrograde curves (with arrows) do not quite return to the
starting point after removal of the load.
A piece of wet netting yarn, about 100 cm in length, is hung up and loaded
with a pre-tension of 0.25 g per tex at the lower end. A length of exactly
50 cm is marked and the specimen is then stressed by a certain load for a
certain period. Care should be taken that the twist cannot
change. The
specimen is kept wet by spraying it frequently with water. The length is
measured under pre-tension before application of the test load, immediately
after loading, when loaded for one hour (or more) and immediately after
removal of the load. The measurements after removal of the load are repeated
periodically under pre-tension until the readings are constant. During the
intervals between these measurements the specimen is kept in water. These
tests, which can be carried out by anybody without complicated equipment,
give a reasonably good idea of the elongation and elasticity properties.
In most tests discussed here, the test load was equal to 30 percent of
the wet breaking strength of the straight netting yarn. This test load was
chosen at random. It is smaller than the half wet knot breaking strength
recommended for elongation tests, but well within the range frequently
occurring in fishing operations. The usual period of loading was one hour
which allows drawing of some conclusions on the influence of sustained
loadings.
For the evaluation of extensibility properties it must be distinguished
between the total elongation at the end of the loading period, the permanent
or irreversible elongation which is measured when the specimen has relaxed
after removal of load and has regained equilibrium, and the elastic elongation
which is the calculated difference between total elongation and permanent

elongation. If permanent elongation is nil which means that the specimen
has regained its original length the netting yarn is completely elastic and
its degree of elasticity (Table 30) is 100 percent.
Normally twisted or braided netting yarns made of high tenacity PA and
PES continuous filaments have a high degree of elasticity and frequently
may be completely elastic, even when loaded for one hour with the relatively
heavy load of 30 percent of the breaking strength. However, due to the
differences in the amount of elongation, PA has greater values of actual
elastic elongation than PES. Compared to PA and PES, PP continuous fila-
FIGURE 53. Elasticity of dry PA and PP continuous filament netting yarns

loaded for 24 hours with 30 percent of tteir breaking strength, dry, unknotted.
Elongation in percentage:
a = immediately after loading;
b loaded for one
c = loaded for threehour;
hours;
d ~ loaded for 24 hours;
e = immediately after removal of load;
f = one hour after removal of load;
g permanent elongation, measured four days after removal of load.
NETTING YARNS 131
ment netting yarns have a significantly smaller degree of elasticity. PP split

fibre netting yarn may reach similar values as PA netting yarn (e.g. No. 17 in
Table 30) but because of the great variations in the quality of split fibre
products this statement cannot be generalized. The degree of elasticity of PE is
relatively low and similar to that of netting yarns of vegetable fibres. Com-
parison with the examples for manila (Figure 50) and for manila, hemp and
cotton (Table 30) demonstrate the superiority of synthetic over vegetable
fibres also with regard to elasticity. The extremely high total elongation and
permanent elongation of wet cotton netting yarn (No. 25 in Table 30) should
be noted.
None of the materials available for fishing nets is truly elastic in the
sense that it completely regains its orginal length immediately after the
removal of a load. This does not occur even when the load is removed
immediately after a certain amount of loading is reached. The load-elon-
gation curves in Figure 52, drawn by the tensile tester, show that even then
a permanent elongation remains which is higher with PP than with PA,
though the latter had been much more extended. Elastic elongation com-
prises a share of immediate recovery and of delayed recovery so that the
time factor has to be taken into account. In Figures 50 and 51 the immediate
recovery is illustrated by the straight lines from b to c, and the delayed
recovery by the distances from c to d to e. In spite of the high total elongation
of PA, the extent of its immediate recovery is very great thus demonstrating
the good elastic property of this material. With netting yarns made of PP and,
above all, of PE and manila, the relationship between total elongation and
immediate recovery is much less favourable than with PA (see Figure 50).
In general, to attain the definite final length after removal of a load which
usually does not correspond to the initial length, a longer recovery period
of mostly some days is required. The duration of this period depends on
the kind of fibre, the construction of the netting yarn and the amount of load.
The magnitude of the load applied to a netting yarn has naturally the
same effect on the degree of elasticity as on the extent of elongation. This is
demonstrated by the example of two PE netting yarns in Figure 51 where
different loading (5, 10, 20, 30 or 50 percent of the breaking strength) causes
different total and permanent elongations. The calculated degrees of elasticity
for both netting yarns at the different levels of loading are as follows:
Load in percent Degree of elasticity ( %)

of breaking strength A (medium) B (hard)
of netting yarns, hard

As regards the influence of the construction
132 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING OEAR
.
I -. -
ill
OOO oo
11$ ^00 C3N 8S8
*- db
2 C
so oq p
CN oq oq fS vq p
o
JgjO
^ en av vo so* r> od >O
00
vo TJ- so sooq rf <N p q CN
q
O O* O <N +' +1 O oq
rn O -*' ^ <N
<NNvooqoqoq
N O O OO OO (N i
O oq oq fs O O cs <N '^
>
~O O f> |
4-1 -I I
*-^^t O
^q q r^ vp
CA <N rr oo r~ s
^' o G>
^,* ^*
q rr oq q
'
ri q
so Tf
<-4 rj-'
<N <N
CN so
so
*-I
<N rs so oq oq oq
in ^t ON od so* />
<s vo <N so' ts rt r*ôq

od oo
q
O
2'
S S S 8 S *
"
1
2=2
NETTING YARNS 133
q<sr-
rn XSO
00 SO SO
cs oo
I
fSON
SO 00
en rn
SO <N OO
. "t
so
fS fN O
q
cs
q q vq
' '
braiding and also hard twisting result in an increase of permanent elongation

which is not desirable for fishing nets. The amount of this increase depends
on the level of twist or tightness of braid respectively (see Figure 51 and
Table 30, No. 4, as compared with Nos 1-6). If high elongation is attempted
through very hard twisting or braiding, it must be considered that the
permanent elongation will increase and the toughness decrease more and
more with extended use.
Medium twisted or braided netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments
obtain their final total elongation approximately 15 minutes after application
of load. Prolonged loading up to 24 hours does usually not change the
amount of elongation of PA any more (see Figure 53). In this regard PA
and PES continuous filaments differ favourably from PP and PE which
undergo a considerably higher additional stretching called "creep" or "cold
flow" when subjected to a comparatively heavy load for a longer period of
time. This is already noticeable within a loading period of only one hour,
as is clearly demonstrated by the steepness of the lines a to b in Figures 50
and 53, as compared to PA. In the latter figure it will be noted that, different
from PA, the creep of PP netting yarn increases with increasing period of
loading. PE netting yarns have a still greater creep than PP netting yarns.
The creep of PE material increases with load (see Figure 51) and also with
increasing temperature. It is of practical interest that the creep is a permanent
elongation which is not reversible after the release of stress. It is mainly for
this reason that PE netting yarns have a low degree of elasticity, as well as a
poor dimensional stability.
2.3.8 ABRASION RESISTANCE
Although abrasion resistance is certainly an important property of

netting materials, before the introduction of synthetic fibre fishermen did not
pay much attention to this property because fishing nets of vegetable fibres
were mostly destroyed by rotting rather than by abrasive wear.
Synthetic netting materials do not rot. Consequently the gradual decay
of synthetic fishing nets is mainly due to abrasion and the resistance to
abrasion is an important measure for the durability of this material and
thus for its operational and economic value. In general the smaller the fishery
the more significant is the investment in nets for its profitability and the more
essential therefore the use of nets with strong resistance against wear and
tear.
Among the great variety of fishing gears there are, of course, also types
such as fyke nets or trap nets used in stagnant water of lakes which are not
'
subject to considerable abrasive wear nor to strong stress. If made of syn-

thetic fibres and protected against sunlight these nets may have a durability
lasting over decades. On the other hand there are others such as trawls
which are exposed to particularly intensive wear and tear. With knotted
netting the knots are primarily exposed to damage and trawler fishermen
know very well the symptoms of damage as demonstrated in Figure 54.
NETTING YARNS 135
FIGURE 54. Knots damaged by abrasion in the netting of a large midwater

trawl operated by a stern trawler with chute.
During fishing and during handling on land and on board the nets come
into contact with abrasing surfaces of different kinds, ranging from polished
metal or wood, over unpolished or rusty metal, hauling rollers, mechanically
driven blocks, sharp edges, nails, bolt heads, rivets and others ashore or on
the vessel, to sand, gravel, shells, sponges, rocks and other obstacles in the
water. For instance the damage to the knots in the netting of a midwater
trawl (Figure 54) is mainly attributed to the chafing of the full net when
it ishauled up over the ramp of a stern trawler,
Internal abrasion, caused by the friction of fibres against each other as
can be observed with ropes, rarely occurs with the comparatively thin netting
yarns. Also the rubbing of netting yarns against one another in a netting is
of hardly any practical interest.
2.3.8. 1 Criticism of testing methods
In view of the great practical importance of the abrasion resistance of

to which a net is
netting materials, it is very unfortunate that the abrasion
subjected in fishing operations cannot be simulated adequately for laboratory
tests. It has already been mentioned (section 2.3.2.7) that the present testing
methods differ not only in minor details but also in important features of the
testing machine and technique which have a significant influence on the

results such as different types and shape of abrasive material against which
the specimen is abraded and different movements, pressure or stress during
abrasion testing. The result of abrasion resistance tests is mostly expressed
by the number of frictions the specimen is subjected to. One method is to
chafe the netting yarn to the breaking point, and another to apply a certain
number of frictions and subsequently determine the remaining breaking
strength with a tensile strength tester.
Naturally testing methods differing to such a degree do not give comparable
results and consequently data or statements found in technical literature
may even be contradictory. This refers not only to the qualities of netting
yarn materials but also to the influence of netting yarn construction, i.e.
amount of twist or tightness of braid.
It is a further drawback that the results of abrasion resistance tests cannot
be specified by absolute numerical values as is possible for other properties

such as breaking strength, elongation, diameter, or fineness. The effect of the
number of frictions is dependent on the testing apparatus used and cannot
serve as direct absolute measure for the abrasion resistance of materials.
Therefore, relative values are commonly quoted, which refer to the qualities
of one sample or specimen with which the others are compared. Such
comparative tests are feasible only for groups of netting yarns of either the
same diameter, the same fineness, or the same breaking strength.
It has to be accepted that results of laboratory tests cannot be taken as
conclusive for judging the abrasion resistance of net materials and that the
FIGURE 55. Netting yarns made of manila (M) and of PA continuous h'laments
(P) after the same number of frictions in wet condition. The test of the breaking
strength showed a 62 percent loss for the manila netting yarn compared with only
19 percent loss for thePA braided netting yarn.
NETTING YARNS 137
test of this important property is actual endurance in commercial

only reliable
However, in spite of these reservations certain general conclusions
fishing.
can and have been drawn from laboratory tests which are confirmed by
practical experience.
2.3.8.2 Vegetable fibre netting materials
Netting yarns made of vegetable fibres such as cotton, flax, hemp,

manila, sisal, have in wet condition a considerably lower resistance to abrasion
than netting yarns made of synthetic continuous filaments or monofilaments.
Furthermore, the abrasion resistance decreases along with the loss in breaking
strength caused by rotting in water. The following table gives examples for
netting yarns made of hemp and manila in wet condition:
At the beginning of the fifties there was a large difference in price between
PA and the conventional vegetable fibre materials. In spite of this, PA
material was very quickly adopted by the commerical fisheries because of its
superiority in two important properties, i.e. rot-proofness and abrasion
resistance.Both properties together are the reason why, for instance, PA
bottom trawlnets have about ten times (or more) longer useful lifespan than
manila trawlnets. Figure 55 demonstrates the large difference in resistance
to abrasion of these two net materials.
2.3.8.3 Synthetic netting materials

For the same kind of synthetic fibre material, netting yarns made of
to those made of continuous filaments and the
staple fibre are inferior
latter are inferior to folded monofilament netting yarns. In general it can be
stated that the coarser the fibre the higher the resistance to abrasion.
PA monofilaments or netting yarns made of monofilaments have a higher
abrasion resistance than comparable monofilaments (of the same diameter)
or monofilament netting yarns made of PP, PE or PVD, and the same applies
also to continuous filament netting yarns. According to some laboratory
investigations PP netting yarns were supposed to have similar or even better
abrasion resistance than PA netting yarns, but this could not be confirmed in
commercial fishing. The useful life of PA (cont. fil.) trawlnets is considerably
longer than that of PP (cont. fil.) trawlnets.
With PE netting yarns the abrasion resistance varies due to the diversity
of this material. Netting yarns of the same fineness made of PE monofilaments
of different flexibility or brittleness may have a different abrasion resistance.
Tests with straight PE netting yarn may give much higher values than for
PA continuous filament netting yarn. However, when the firmly tightened
FIGURE 56. PA codline of a large bottom trawl.

A: New condition; B to D: Different degrees of abrasion.
Sample D seems to be completely destroyed, but testing showed that it still had
40 percent of its initial breaking strength.
NETTING YARNS 139
FIGURE 57. Section of a river stow net with distorted meshes. The loose bars are
roughened by the water flow and their resistance to abrasion is diminished.
knots are tested (see Figure 25) usually PE will not be found superior and
thiscorresponds with the experiences in trawl fishing.
12. 3 8 .4
.
Influence of treatment and construction
Treatment with tar or tar products increases the abrasion resistance

considerably and this effect can also be obtained by treatment with synthetic
resins. The amount of protection against abrasion is dependent on the
thickness of the coating and on the solubility of the agent in water. On the
influence of the construction of netting yarns on the abrasion resistance there
is no uniformity of opinions yet. It may, however, be stated here that in the
knots the resistance to abrasion increases with increasing twist up to a certain

limit afterwhich it decreases again. Braided netting yarn is in general more
resistant than twisted netting yarn. As regards knotless netting reference is
made to section 2.1.4.4.
2.3.8.5 Roughening of netting material

The gradual decay of the surface due to abrasion is illustrated by Fig.
56, an example of PA codline of a trawlnet. The more the fibres of the rope
are chafed, the more the surface becomes roughened. The outside appearance
FIGURE 58. Section of the codend of a large

bottom trawl which was caught in the propeller of
the vessel and overstretched. On release, part of
the single yarns and filaments sprang from the
netting yarn causing a considerable reduction of
the original mesh opening of 100 mm to the values
shown in each mesh.
(ace. to v. Brandt)
NETTING YARNS 141
of a badly chafed rope or netting yarn may be misleading. For example, the
rope sample D (Figure 56) seems to be completely destroyed but it actually
still has 40 percent of the initial breaking strength.
The surface or structure of netting yarn may also be roughened by other

causes than abrasion. For instance, in river stow nets or trawls the distortion
of meshes leads to unequal length of bars. The loose bars flutter in the water
current and by this movement the structure of braided netting yarns is
loosened (Figure 57). The loops of single yarns and single filaments which
protrude from the netting yarns are much more subject to abrasion, and the
abrasion resistance and the breaking strength of the netting yarn is affected.
Another example is the section of a trawl codend which was caught in the
propeller of the vessel and suddenly stretched to such an extent that a con-
siderable part of the fibres "sprang" from the netting yarn (Figure 58). This
damage caused a remarkable reduction in meshsize and had naturally also

other adverse effects, e.g. on the breaking strength and the abrasion resistance
of the netting.
CHAPTER 3
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR
Because of the great variety of types of fishing gear and fishing conditions
and their interrelation with geographic, nationalistic, economic, sociological
and other aspects, it is virtually impossible to give detailed and compre-
hensive instructions for the selection of netting materials. In general the
choice depends on the type and size of the fishing gear to be made, the species
of fish to be caught, the fishing ground and the fishing conditions under
which the gear is to be operated, the type, size and engine power of the
vessel, the type of operation and the auxiliaries employed as well as on the
habits and traditions of the fishermen and the local availability and price
of netting materials. The following guidelines on the selection of netting
materials, their proper specification for purchase and the more detailed
advice with regard to some important types of fishing gear are meant to
assist in taking best advantage of given conditions.
3.1 General remarks
3.1.1
Natural (vegetable) fibre material is not considered here because it rots

in water and is therefore considered unfit for fishing gear. Because of their
superiority in this and also other respects, synthetic fibres are considered
the only suitable textile raw materials for fishing nets.
3.1.2
Though some of the synthetic net materials have already reached a high
degree of perfection, the ideal material with properties satisfying all the
diverse and partly contradictory requirements of fishing does not exist.
The problem is therefore to select the best available material for a specific
purpose. The precondition for this is adequate knowledge of the properties
of the available materials and the essential requirements of the fishing gear
and method in question. Information on the properties of netting materials
is given in Chapter 2 of this Manual. The requirements of the gear and
method have to be determined on the basis of practical experience, preferably
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR 143
complemented by rational experimentation of fishing technologists, fishermen

and netmakers.
3.1.3
When new synthetic fibres are put on the market, manufacturers almost
always claim that these fibres are exceptionally well qualified for fishing
nets. This can safely be accepted in comparison with natural fibres for the
reason of rot-proofness alone. With the widespread availability of synthetic
materials, this is not sufficient and the question for the customer should
be whether the new material is techno/economically more efficient for the
gear to be made than other already existing synthetic materials and in
particular the most widely used and best known synthetic material in
fisheries, i.e. PA continuous filament (nylon). The arguments of manu-
facturers are not always based on exact testing and controlled experiments,
but are sometimes somewhat speculative. Some groups of synthetic fibres
have been introduced into fishery by means of energetic publicity campaigns
but, after some time of unfavourable practical experience, application has
decreased after the first boom or they have even disappeared. Manufacturers
advertising claims should be considered with caution.
3.1.4
The actual selection of netting material will sometimes depend not so

much on technical suitability as on local availability and comparative price.
The price is particularly important for small fisheries where the expenses for
the nets often represent the major part of the total investment for fishing
equipment. The price of the netting material has also seriously to be con-
sidered for fisheries with a high wear and tear and/or a high risk of total
loss of gear, e.g. bottom trawling on rough grounds, and when the absolute
cost of the fishing gear is very high, e.g. large purse seines.
For such reasons the material actually used in fishing nets is not always
that which ought to be used from a technical point of view. This is probably
true also for some of the examples listed in Tables 31 to 33.
3.1.5
If at all possible the choice of material should not be based on one

property only which may be of particular importance for the fishing gear
under consideration (e.g. sinking speed for purse seines) but other important
properties should also duly be taken into account, such as high breaking
strength which is desirable for most fishing gear. As rarely one
material will
meet all main requirements, the best compromise must be sought.
3.2 Specification of netting yarn

and netting for purchase
When net-trader or manufacturer netting yarn or

placing an order to a
netting must be clearly specified. Some of the specifications discussed below

can be expressed in different ways. Here the terms and definitions recom-
mended by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) are
preferred (54, 61). Comprehensive designations as recommended here may
not be always necessary but, if widely adopted, will facilitate exchange of
information between purchasers and suppliers of different nationalities and
avoid misunderstandings and inquiries.
3.2.1 NETTING YARN
3.2.1.1 Fibre
Kind and type of fibre
Examples:
Netting yarn made of PA continuous filaments (nylon multifilaments),

Netting yarn made of PVAA staple fibres,
Netting yarn made of PE folded monofilaments (wires),
Netting yarn made of PP split (film) fibres,
Single PA monofilament (not netting twine consisting of a number
of fibres or monofilaments).
Trade names of fibres may be used if there is no possibility of a misunder-

standing (see Table 1).
3.2.1.2 Size
Size (fineness, number) of netting yarn, according to the tex system as

defined in section 2.2.2, either as complete designation or, if this is not
known, in a simplified manner but so that the fineness is unequivocally
specified:
Examples:
23 tex x 4 x 3, R 310 tex; or
23 tex x 12; or
R 3 10 tex.
It must be emphasized that the Rtex values in Tables 10 to 20 refer to

medium twisted netting yarns; they are higher for hard twisted netting yarns.
Deviating from this standard, single monofilaments may also be designated
by the diameter in millimetres. Examples :
0.15 mm (for finest gillnets)

0.60 mm (for small fyke nets).
Nominal diameters of the most usual PA monofilaments and the respective
tex values are listed in Table 13.
3.2. 1 .3 Twisted or braided netting yarn
Braided construction is more frequently used for heavy netting yarns.
3.2. 1 .4 Degree of twist or of tightness of braid
Degree of twist or of tightness of braid soft, medium, hard, very (extra)

:
hard. For example, soft twist is used for certain types of gillnets, medium
twist for bottom trawls, purse seines and most other gear
types, and hard
twist (or even very hard) for midwater trawls. By these terms the
degree of
twist is not exactly defined but they are sufficient for practical fishing purposes.
(For exact designation of the level of twist or the tightness of braid see
2.1.1.9, 2.1.2.5, and 2.1.3.3.)
3.2.1.5 Direction offinal t wist
S or Z, as shown in Figure 8a. In most cases this item can be neglected.
3.2.1.6 Core
For braided netting yarn it should be stated whether it should have a core
or not.
3.2.1.7 Weight
The weight (mass) of the required quantities of netting yarn should be
stated in kilograms.
3.2.2 NETTING
As already mentioned, the term "netting" is defined by ISO as "a
meshed structure of indefinite shape and size" (54). Netting is also called
"webbing" or "web." The three terms are used to refer to the fabric knotted
into meshes only, without cordage and other accessories. If the netting has
been connected to ropes (hanging, mounting) and fitted with floats (corks),
sinkers (leads) and other accessories, it has become a complete fishing gear
and this finished product is customarily called "net", "fishing net" or
"fishing gear".
netting the netting yarn must also be specified according
For ordering to
3.1.2. In addition the following specifications should be given.
3.2.2. 1 Knotted or knotless
If knotted netting is required, and the purchaser has a preference for a
particular type of knot, he should state this in his order.
Examples of the principle types of knots:

Weaver's knot, also called English knot or sheet bend (see 2.3.3.3
and Figure 26b);
Double weaver's knot (see 2.3.3.4 and Figure 26d);
Reef knot or square knot (see Figure 26c).
The single and double weaver's knots are made by most manufacturers,
while the reef knot is much less common and mechanically manufactured
only by few suppliers.
If knotless netting is required, the type should be stated (see 2.1.4), i.e. :
Japanese twisted netting;

Raschel netting;
braided knotless netting.
Sometimes the additional specification of the joints may be desirable.
a
a
b
:
:
Length of
Length of mesh
be mesh side
c :
Opening of mesh
FIGURE 59. Designation of size of mesh (54) :
(a) length of mesh side the distance between

two sequential knots or joints, measured from
centre to centre when the netting yarn between
those points is fully extended.
(b) length of mesh = the distance between the
centres of two opposite knots in the same mesh
when fully extended in the N-direction (see
Figure 27).
(c) opening of mesh = the inside distance be-
tween two opposite knots in the same mesh
when fully extended in the N-direction.
3.2.2.2 Size of mesh
This should be indicated in millimetres according to one of the three

methods of measuring meshsize (Figure 59).
Examples:
length ofmesh side 25 mm (bar)
length ofmesh 50 mm (extended mesh)
opening of mesh 48 mm (inside distance of the extended mesh).
Buyer and seller should make sure that they are specifying the meshsize
the same way.
Where high accuracy of meshsize is required, e.g. for gillnets or for
trawls used on fishing grounds for which strict meshsize regulations apply,
the meshsize should be indicated as opening of mesh (inside distance),
measured in wet condition and under a specific low pressure or tension in
relation to the fineness of the netting yarn of which the netting is made,
e.g. corresponding to its weight per 100 m. For knotless netting "the opening
of mesh is the inside distance between the opposite joints in the same mesh
when fully extended along its longest possible axis" (54).
3.2.2.3 Size of netting
Size of netting (length and depth) should preferably be specified by the

number of meshes in both the T- and N-directions (see Figure 27). The values
are joined by the multiplication sign x If the size of netting is indicated in
.
a unit of length (e.g. metre) in one or both directions, length must naturally
refer to fully extended netting.
Examples:
1000 T x 100 N
1000 T x 5m
10m X200N.
3.2.2.4 Selvedges
If special edge meshes are required for joining or mounting purposes or

for reinforcement, this must separately be stated giving:
fineness of the netting yarns to be used for selvedges,
single or double netting yarn,

side or sides of the netting which are to be furnished with selvedges,
meshsize according to 3.2.2.2,
width of the selvedges in number of meshes.

3.2.2.5 Direction of stretching
Direction of stretching N
or T in which the netting is to be stretched
and stabilized to be stated. Stretching and stabilizing are the
may need
processes for tightening the knots and for conferring a permanent shape to
the netting by thermal and/or other means.
3 .2.2.6 After-treatment
If any special finishing process is required it should be specified, e.g.

dyeing with or without impregnation or other treatment.
Examples :
Dyed green, blue, red or any other colour (to diminish the visibility
of gillnets);
dyed black or brown or any other colour (to increase the resistance
against light, 1.2.5.2);
treatment with tar or other coal-derivatives (to increase sinking speed,
abrasion resistance and stiffness of purse seines, 2.3.5.7).
3.2.2.7 Type of gear

In order to enable the manufacturer to offer the most suitable netting,
the ultimate use of the netting, i.e. type and size of fishing gear and in
some cases also size and/or power of vessel, should be indicated, e.g.
Anchoveta purse seine, 330 fm long, 45 fm deep, 80 ft vessel

Tuna purse seine, 900 m long, 80 m deep, 38 m vessel
Cod bottom trawl, 1800 hp vessel

Two-boat herring bottom trawl, 2 x 1 50 hp
Sprat mid water trawl, 300 hp vessel
Two-boat mackerel mid water trawl, 2 X 600 hp
Salmon drift net, 100 GT vessel
Perch gillnet, 6 m row boat
Eel fyke net.
3.3 Choice of netting material for bottom trawlnets
Bottom trawls have particularly high demands on the netting material which
should primarily have high wet knot breaking strength, high extensibility,
small diameter and high abrasion resistance. The larger the nets and the
rougher the fishing conditions, the more care is needed for choosing the
material. The requirements for handling and operation on board must also
be taken into account. The following discussion of breaking strength,
extensibilityand diameter is not restricted to bottom trawls but can

analogously be applied to other types of fishing gear.
3.3.1. HIGH BREAKING STRENGTH

Fibres of high quality provide reliability of operation. They enable a
and that means a reduction in the total mass
lighter netting yarn to be used
of net. Lower mass facilitates handling during shooting and hauling
operations, may reduce the bulk (storing), and eventually also the price.
For the same breaking strength netting yarn made of strong fibres can be
thinner than those made of weaker fibres. The thinner the netting yarn, the
lower the resistance to water flow. For trawlnets lower towing resistance
allows either a reduction of towing power with consequent savings in fuel,
or increased towing speed, or the use of a larger net by which the catching
may be increased. Low water resistance usually means also reduced
efficiency
water stow and turbulence which makes the net less perceptible to fish. In
general lighter nets fish better.
For comparison of the wet knot breaking strength of the various kinds of
netting yarn in relation to the Rtex, reference is made to Table 23a and b,
and to Figure 35. PA continuous filament netting yarns have the highest
wet knot breaking strength, followed by PP, PE and PES, while PVAA, PVC
and PVD are too poor in this respect to be eligible for bottom trawls.
3.3.2 HIGH EXTENSIBILITY AND TOUGHNESS

The extensibility of the netting yarns used for trawl nets should be
relatively high.High elongation combined with high elasticity and high wet
knot breaking strength result in a high toughness, which enables the net to
withstand rough treatment during fishing and to safely haul in larger catches.
For comparison of the elongation of various kinds of netting yarns Table 28
and Figure 48 refer. For netting yarns of soft and medium twist (not hard
order:
twist) wet elongation decreases in the following
PA staple fibre (highest elongation)

PVAA staple fibre (similar to wet cotton netting yarn)
PA continuous filament (nylon multifilament)
PE monofilament, folded
PP continuous filament
PP split (film) fibre
PES continuous filament (lowest elongation).
In general the elongation of PA staple fibre netting yarns is considered

too high and that of medium twisted PP and PES netting yarns too low for
in Table 29 and
trawls. Examples for elasticity and for toughness are given
Figures 49 to 53.
3.3.3 SMALL DIAMETER

The significance of the wet knot breaking strength for the diameter of
netting yarns has already been discussed (see 3.3.1). The second factor
determining the diameter of netting yarns is the fibre density (specific gravity).
High density and high breaking strength both favour thin netting yarns. The
relationship for different materials (with different density) between diameter
and wet knot breaking strength is shown in Figure 34 and in the small table
in section 2.3.4.1 (page 93).
With the same wet knot breaking strength, PES continuous filament
netting yarns have the smallest diameter, immediately followed by those
made of PA continuous filament. Netting yarns made of PP continuous
filament, PE folded monofilament and PP split fibre are significantly thicker
but they are surpassed in thickness by netting yarns made of PA staple fibre
and even more by those made of PVAA staple fibre.
3 3.4 HIGH ABRASION RESISTANCE

This property is of particular importance for bottom trawls because of
allfishing gears they suffer the most wear and tear on the bottom during
towing as well as on board when being dragged over the rail or the ramp
of the trawler. With some reservation (section 2.3.8) it can be stated that
PA is superior to all other fibre materials. As
regards the form of fibre,
netting yarns made of monofilaments are superior to those made of con-
tinuous filaments, and netting yarns made of staple fibres have the poorest
abrasion resistance. The influence of the form of the fibre is thus that certain
netting yarns made of PE monofilaments may have a better resistance to

wear and tear than netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments.
3.3.5 POLYAMIDE AND POLYETHYLENE
Netting yarns made of these two fibres, PA in the form of continuous

filaments and PE in the form of monofilaments (wires), are at present most
common for bottom trawls because, although not ideal, they have technical
and economic advantages when compared with the other available netting
materials.
3.3.5.1 Arguments in favour of polyamide
Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments have all physical

properties required for trawls, certainly not in perfection, but still in a com-
bination and to an extent as no other available material: highest wet knot
breaking strength, very favourable degree of extensibility coupled with high
small diameter and high abrasion resistance.
elasticity,
The columns "PAcf" and "PE mon." in Table 23a enable a comparison
of the Rtex (mass of 1000 m) of the two kinds of netting yarn. With the same
wet knot breaking strength and the same length, netting yarns made of
PE folded monofilaments are about 20 percent heavier than PA cont. filament

netting yarns. PE netting yarns are also about 25 percent thicker than PA
netting yarns of the same wet knot breaking strength. For the thickness of the
knots the difference becomes even greater. In the case of the braided netting
yarns of Figure 33 the area covered by the knot of PE is about 130 percent
larger than that of the PA knot.
The mass of the and the thickness of the netting yarns are of great
net
importance for the handling of the trawl and for its towing resistance. In
both respects PA is superior to PE. Nets made of PA cont. filaments are
also less bulky than PE nets and therefore need less room for storage.
3.3.5.2 Arguments in favour of polyethylene

The lower price is the main argument in favour of netting yarns made of
PE folded monofilaments and probably the main reason for the widely spread
use of this material for trawlnets. In most countries it belongs to the cheapest
of all synthetic fibre products. It has the additional advantage that it can be
manufactured by relatively simple and inexpensive processing techniques
suitable also for non-industrialized countries. In contrast to this, and PA
PES continuous filaments belong to the most expensive fibres, and their
production is restricted to highly developed chemical industries.
PE trawls are said to be easier to handle or to clean from rubbish

and
spiny do
fish not become entangled so much primarily because they are
stiffer than PA trawls. This is also the reason why PE trawlnets do not
tend so much to catch on small obstructions on deck and to make turns
during hauling as soft nylon trawls do. Treatment by stiffening agents (see
2.3.5.7) can reduce this drawback of PA but requires additional work and
costs. PE netting yarns do not change their length in water as PA netting
yarns do (see Tables 25 and 26). On rough ground the PE net may be less
subject to damage because of the low specific gravity of the PE fibre which
favours floating. The buoyancy of PE may also allow a reduction in the
number of floats and thus a respective reduction in drag.
3.3.6 SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
The size (fineness) of the netting yarn should be selected with particular
regard to the fishing conditions, the type of operation (e.g. side, stern or
fish to be caught, the mesh-
pair trawling), the size of net and vessel, the
size and the position and function of the net section under consideration.
The relation between meshsize and strength of netting is not necessarily
directly proportional because the strength of the netting yarn
is often in
excess of the stress during towing in order to meet the higher strength
requirements for the handling on board. As regards the
function and position
in trawlnets, codends, in spite of having the smallest meshsize, often are
made of the strongest netting yarn in the trawlnets to better withstand the
wear and tear on the bottom and on board under rough working conditions
S.5G 1
"
*"" o
o - c
i 'I .8.8 e L 1 1 I
tC
s o .^-~ ffl:
S o w m
i* ii> > i
2 I (2 3S > Q > >
n
Os
X
oo sOQ m o
x
fl! X x S ^fS x X
in
.*
8 9- s - Q 1 oo O ^
SS "* p | *^ ^" ^ "^ vo
s-^
^ w .
x
in <N
O <N X en
'
OS
s3g>
x JQ X ^ X X
X
*! g g 2 g |SxS
2.s5 a n
at
J!
is?e s ts
<<<
n
ll
=5
0U CU CU
*l-8
3
m V
OD .
O
!?| I
"^ *C *C *C
.1 2 S .1
S
S , .
II
a
-a -i -s 111 -r:
111 II
"SJ ;
'$
Il
Jiff
e
c .
e n
Sfl6 oC m
oo ^ ^
.
ff>
o fiesse
I- oo 7.
* 22!t^^ ô ..
R5? Si R RS
2 J* .X JK .S
I
ill
Ifll i^
n
co H
a 5 5 S IB
Jo S
w iia i
OJQ
S25? 8 s il i i
CHOICE OF NETTINO MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR 153
'
^ so S
*
^^
S ~ ^ S S
?a ?
,
- - -r
" ?sj
.- c* S? ?
<S!c |2 .s r ~ JB j$ a ^Jlg J!
S .S .s o2
.S
W 3
*
3
^
S 8)
.Sfi
S u
SS
w
g
.S2
5
Ill
w Z w
1
Z
q
o
oo - ? ^:
;
X
x X
Sl? O i
co ^^
^ '
-a'M s
gC R
<^ co co
<o r-
O O 58 E S
2 a x tf X X co 'O ^
*
co *-* O, Is X *** *
! O - W^, K O ro ^
S
SS5 x xg x
co
O r*-
OS l|sf
R x *-
o .. T. 7. x ><~ x
X X
Eg X X
^^-âirowuw*^
4^ **
^ <- *^ -ta^ - rf 8
ff^
2 S a: a:
S*tS*o'oto o 6*0 u"^ you *- <*- t-i
OH
<<<<<<<>
OH CU O-O. OH OH CU OH OH 1 OH ^
^ OH OH
C
w< <
O O
0.0. OH OH OH OH OH
CO 0S CO CO* <S fS CO CO ^ ^ ro i * r-4 CO CO
S Ipjj q
i cd
^ ^T "I J
O I g g
w> *=
q j 3 ?
cd
&
1 1 ill 1 1 till
a! 5
L^ ^
I
q
d o
d tf o
,
I c
1
I I I
<N
X
HI
la-a
8"
X
x X
111 ocT
S
<S x
OS ^S
ON CN
i
x X xxx x XXX
-o.S
s Xj
^ X x
S w
all ? *- X *-
r^
c-i
m
<N
;
E tJ "8
I -Si
as ss ss I
<M CM <N *^ rn
S .12
^
O
3O
W)
g>
"E
.111
11 1 ^2 ^2
si!
*
on
"^66
* * ? ?
ks
ilr
fill
XXX
<N| <S
X
CS
X
XXX
I I
H ^8
^889 9 8 ^ ^ *-<
and with heavy catches. The different parts of a trawl (e.g. top wings, lower
wings, square, belly, tunnel, flapper, codend) are naturally subjected to
different stress during fishing and have different meshsize. The
requirements
for netting yarn strength differ accordingly. The more the
strength of the
netting yarns is adjusted to these different requirements the more the number
of different sizes of netting yarns in a trawl will increase. A perfect
adjustment
of netting yarn sizes would result in the lightest net possible. For a number
of obvious practical reasons, most trawlnets are actually composed of
only
one to three sizes of netting yarn, particularly if constructed from machine-
made netting. Table 31 gives examples of existing bottom trawlnets of
different type, size and construction which were selected from the technical
literature. It has to be cautioned that not all of the examples listed are
worthy
of imitation. The selection is also not representative for the extent to which
the materials are actually used in the fisheries of the world. Doubtless the
share of PE is actually much greater than shown. There are countries, like
Canada, Iceland, Japan, where PE monofilament netting yarn is the most
common material for trawlnets. In some other countries PES, PP or PVAA
(the latter for small trawls only, and treated by tar) are preferred. PP should be
used in the form of split fibres (film tapes) or folded monofilaments. These
materials are low-priced and they have a higher breaking strength and lower
creep (higher elasticity) than PE.
3.4 Choice of netting material for midwater trawlnets
The midwater trawl is the most important gear for bulk fishing pelagic
species in the large free water area between the near bottom range of
the bottom trawl and the near surface range of gillnets and encircling nets
(e.g.purse seines). The success of this modern gear depends to a large extent
on the high quality synthetic net material.
3.4.1 REQUIREMENTS
Most of the properties required for bottom trawls (3.3) are also needed
for midwater trawls (also called "pelagic trawls" or "floating trawls"), but
midwater trawls have additional requirements which are basically due to
the reaction of the fish to be caught. From a bottom trawl fish can escape
only to the sides and upward, while with midwater trawls escape downwards,
which is for most fish the main direction of flight, is also possible. The
chances for the fish to escape a midwater trawl are therefore considerably
better than with bottom trawls. This feature of midwater trawling is, of
course, particularly serious with active fish schools, such as non-spawning
herring, sardinella or mackerels. The problem is to prevent the fish getting
before are
deep enough
seriously frightened by the approaching gear they
in the net. This may be achieved by increasing the size of the net and by
providing best possible filtering efficiency to reduce water stow and dis-
s^s:
f
S S wfill!
w $ DC
1 %
HIP
I !
s S"
I 3
X
sis x ;
O'S
rn x =4 S * *:
A * A !n - S x x S
.. .. x
!
x " x " x<* p

SS^SS2S^S^S -^ x
.-S?
5^ Ki 8-I-* I
** K
ftl
*G tS *S 6
< < < w
CU OH OH OH
00 00
c c
q
M 11
CO
JS J= M 00 00 tC 00
f s s -c
c c 9 c g 2 ff 3
I II 1111 1111
s
a i= s
c | E
5 B -
4 vq S x> 1 1 ? ? 5
| S S d j
"
K ^ X
I i||||
1 | ^ i 2 ||MMM
1 S 2 2 &
K
jllll
M
l"x
K, xxx
x x
3îîii @2 S S
r2 &G& ^ ~
4 S X 3 222
o g S o c-c-c
s .r
-
S I
O v C' O
HI
jj
S tl
I * I2 -S .s .s A 1 8 -fi
t:
S 5 S S <
I i
SB ,3 C/2 CO C/3 Is
T3 T3 *Q
> O O Q
^ P ? P
I
^ XXX
s
o '8
S? -- --
ON s*
X SQ
<N
5 S .2 a 9 ?
R x x a |o" x x x
~* *^
l
>
>
A
3 8 S 8
x x
"ft M o "O
>
X ^
X X
W -5
** g
W 5 Wm 83
vo
*^ - ^
- S 8 8
*^ sA ^**
s s s s a 2 2 2
555
< <
OH CL, O,
^
y #
C^ OH 2
5
222
"S -S
11
s
8-
ed
00 00 00 3 00 00
c c c
& I .1 1 .= H B
11 1 1 1
acke
ll 1
8 S 3 S S S
00
X X
S I
turbance. For a given towing power and towing speed, these measures
require largest possible meshsize and material for the netting yarns
of highest
possible breaking strength and toughness to obtain smallest possible diameter
for minimum towing resistance.
3.4.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
For the above reasons the best material for mid water trawls is PA
continuous filaments. Compared to the material for bottom trawls the
netting yarns for midwater trawls, in spite of their larger dimensions and
partly larger meshsize, have to be finer. The inevitably lower breaking
strength has to be counter-balanced by selecting netting yarns with high
extensibility for absorbing shock loads due to movements of trawl and trawler
in heavy sea and for better distributions of unequal loads on the netting.
Extensibility can be increased by hard twist instead of medium twist for
the netting yarns. Some characteristics of such netting yarns are discussed
below. Examples for the actual choice of netting yarns are listed in Table 32.
The fine netting yarns needed for satisfactory catching efficiency of midwater
trawls are usually not able to withstand excessive forces on the net occurring
under rough weather conditions, sharp course changes, or during hauling
of large catches on board. This is particularly true for large stern trawlers
with a ramp which have to haul up the total catch in one go. Therefore such
a net, and particularly its codend part, must be strengthened by a framework
of strengthening ropes which takes part of the load. Most of these strengthen-
ing ropes must have similar elongation characteristics as the netting material
and should therefore also be made of PA. Usually the codend is covered
by one or two hauling bags with large meshes made of heavy netting yarns
which for large stern trawler nets reach R 18000 tex (double taken) or even
more. This material is not included in Table 32.
3.4.3 HARD TWISTED PA NETTING YARNS
The information on the properties of netting yarns (Chapter 2) refer
mainly to netting yarns of medium twist. The values in Table 10 and
Figures 38 and 39 are therefore not directly applicable to hard twisted PA
material. When considering hard twisted netting yarns made of PA continuous
filaments, it should be kept in mind that the level of twist has a strong
influence not only on the extensibility but also on other important properties.
The following changes of properties occur if the twist level is increased :
The mass per unit length (Rtex) is increased and the runnage is
decreased;
The price for a given area of netting is increased;
The stiffness or hardness is increased;
The diameter is increased ;
The breaking strength (unknotted and knotted) is decreased;

The abrasion resistance may be increased to a certain degree;
The total elongation is increased, particularly at low loads.
The permanent elongation is increased and the degree of elasticity is

decreased. Decrease in breaking strength and elasticity and increase in mass
are disadvantages which have to be accepted if high extensibility is required.
The actual amount of the changes in these properties depends on the
degree of the coefficient of twist (see 2.1.1.9 and 2.1.2.5). There are no
standards for normal or hard twist. If the purchaser does not clearly state
600 I 800 I 1000 I 1200 '

KOO I
1600 I 1500 I 2000 l
ft
700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100

R tex
of
FIGURE 60. Influence of the level of twist on the wet knot breaking strength
netting yarns made ot PA continuous filaments. With
the same Rtex, hard
twisted netting yarns have lower breaking strength than medium twisted netting
yams.
the exact coefficient of twist desired, the decision is left to the manufacturer.
For hard twisted netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments it should
be higher than 200. (See 2.1.2.5).
3.4.3.1
Examples showing the influence of the level of twist on the fineness

(Rtex) are given in Tables 5 and 8. As already mentioned the Rtex values
of Table 10 are not applicable to hard twisted PA material.
3.4.3.2
Figure 60 illustrates the remarkable differences in the wet knot breaking

strength of medium and hard twisted PA netting yarn. With the same Rtex,
hard twisted netting yarns are weaker than medium twisted; with the same
wet knot breaking strength hard twisted netting yarns are heavier than
medium twisted.
3.4.3.3
The increase of extensibility by hard twisting can be seen from the load-
elongation curves of Figure 61. Similar comparisons, but for low loads only,
are given in Figure 46.
12 U 16 10 20 22 24 2 28 30 32 34 3ft 3 40 42 i4 46
Wt alongotion in pr etnt
FIGURE 61. Load-elongation curves of PA netting yarns showing the great

influence of the level of twist on the extensibility.
Specimens (a) and (b) are cabled netting twines made of the same number of
single yarns with the same fineness, (a) is medium twisted and used for bottom
trawls; (b) is hard twisted and used for midwater trawls.
Specimen (c) is not only very hard twisted but has also the construction of a
cabled netting twine of second order.
CHOICE OF NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING OEAR 161
Whilst the elongation of medium twisted netting yarns at a tension corre-

sponding to the half wet knot breaking strength reaches on average approxi-
mately 22 percent, the elongation of hard twisted netting yarns will mostly
exceed 30 percent. Much higher elongation values may be obtained by further
increase of twist and/or by using complicated constructions (specimen c in
Figure 61 refers to the very hard twisted cabled netting twine of second
order, listed as number 16 in Table 5). However, it is doubtful whether such
excessive extensibility has technical advantages for midwater trawls. It should
also be recalled that hard twist and complicated construction reduce the
degree of elasticity (2.3.7.4).
3.5 Choice of netting material for purse seine nets
In terms of amount of catch the purse seine is the most important fishing
gear. Purse seines are particularly efficient for bulk fishing of schooling
pelagic fish such as anchoveta, capelin, sardine, sardinella, sprat, herring,
mackerel, horse mackerel, salmon, bonito, tuna. The fishing range extends
from the surface down to about 1 50 m depth depending on size and con-
struction of the net. Large purse seines may have a length of about 2000 m
and contain more than 10 tons of netting. They are the largest and most
expensive fishing gear.
3.5.1. REQUIREMENTS
The requirements regarding the netting material are determined by the
operational characteristics of the gear as a surrounding net and by its com-
paratively enormous size. The main demands are great sinking speed, high
:
breaking strength, low resistance to water flow and, finally, low price. The
catching efficiency largely depends on the speed by which the fish school
can be encircled, the long net wall sinks down and the net can be closed
by pursing. For all three highest possible speed is desired to prevent active
fish schools from escaping and to reduce the influences of wind drift and
water current on the operation.
The sinking speed is influenced by the kind of netting material as well as
by the construction of the gear, including meshsize, hanging ratio of netting,
weight of leadline and also net impregnation. With regard to netting material,
high density (specific gravity) of fibre, smooth surface and small diam'eter
of netting yarn accelerate the sinking speed of the net and the latter two reduce
resistance to water flow.
3.5.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARN
It is impossible to find an optimum combination of all characteristics
required for purse seines in one kind of netting material.

As regards sinking
reference is made to section 1.2.5.3. PVD (Saran) has the highest
speed,
specific gravity and therefore the highest sinking speed, but the lowest
breaking strength and is therefore not suitable for larger purse seines.
Cheap materials, like PE monofilament or PP split fibre have sufficient
breaking strength but low specific gravity so that they float in water and
cannot contribute to the sinking speed at all. Combination netting yarns
made of Saran +nylon ("Kyokurin", "Livlon") are produced in Japan
particularly for the use in purse seines and deep-sea gillnets. They are meant
to combine the high density of saran with the high breaking strength of
nylon, but they are not easily available in most countries outside Japan.
Netting yarns made of PVAA staple fibre are relatively cheap but, due to
their rough surface, have a low sinking speed and, above all, a low breaking
strength.
Considering the whole, the most suitable materials for purse seines are
probably netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments and of PES con-
tinuous filaments. PES has a reasonably high specific gravity and accordingly
a favourable sinking speed. PA has a lower specific gravity and sinking
speed but a higher breaking strength and therefore the smallest netting yarn
diameter. The sinking speed may be increased by dipping the net into tar
or similar products. The originally soft netting is stiffened by this process
which improves the handling characteristics and protection against light is
provided as well.
Table 33 gives examples of the sizes of (mainly PA) netting yarns used in
different types and sizes of purse seines. As with other fishing gear, the fine-
ness of netting yarns in purse seines depends on the size of the gear, on the
position and function of the netting in the gear, on the meshsize and on the
species offish to be caught. Purse seines consist of a number of netting panels
or strips which may have different meshsize and are subjected to different
stress. Accordingly, several sizes of netting yarn are used. The main body of
the net is usually made of fine netting yarns. The landing bags or bunts,
in which the fish is concentrated ("dried up") after pursing and hauling
most of the net, are subject to much more stress and are therefore made of
heavier netting yarn. The same applies to the border strips or the selvedges
which at the same time usually are made of larger meshsize. A recommend-
able way to reduce mass, water resistance and cost of a purse seine is to
have the main body of the net with the exception of the bunt and eventually
the selvedges made of knotless netting (see 2.1.4).
3*6 Choice of netting material for gillnets
This simple type of fishing gear is widely used in several types, such as
bottom set net, anchored floating and also encircling net.
gillnet, drift net
As regards netting material, the loosely hung entangling nets may also be
included in this group of gear. The introduction of high quality synthetic
netting materials has very much promoted the extended use of this gear
type. This is due mainly to the considerably better catching efficiency which
is two to twelve times higher in particular for transparent PA
monofila-
ment as compared with the natural fibre material (e.g. cotton, flax, ramie)
used before.
3.6.1 REQUIREMENTS
Gillnets belong to the passive fishing gears which are placed in the way
of the moving fish or fish schools. Good catching efficiency requires low
perceptibility of the gear by sight or the organ of the fish before
lateral line
being gilled or entangled in the netting. Gillnets must be adjusted to the

behaviour of fish even better than trawls and purse seines.
Materials of gillnets should have lowest possible visibility in water,
particularly for daytime fishing in clear water. The netting yarns should also
be as fine and soft as possible to reduce the perceptibility by the side line
organ. Thinner netting yarn is also less visible. On the other hand, the
material should be strong enough to withstand the forces of the caught fish
in its fight for freedom. The material should, furthermore, have appropriate
extensibility and elasticity to hold the gilled or entangled fish securely while
the gear is in catching position and during hauling, but not so strongly that
the fish cannot easily be shaken or taken out of the net. Material with high
low-load elongation cannot meet this demand. As the size of the fish to be
caught by gilling depends on the meshsize, the netting should have good
knot stability and the meshsize should not be affected by water. The original
meshsize should be recovered after removal of loads or after the fish has
been taken out of the mesh.
3.6.2 KIND AND SIZE OF NETTING YARNS
Some of the requirements listed above are contradictory. For instance,

due to their transparency and to the similarity of their light refractive index,
uncoloured PA single monofilaments are almost invisible in water but they
are reasonably soft only up to a diameter of about 0.20 to 0.25 mm. Such
fine monofilaments have naturally a rather low breaking strength which is
not sufficient for heavy duty gillnets. With increasing diameter the stiffness
increases considerably and the net becomes more and more bulky (see
Table 24 and 2.3.5), which is an operational disadvantage.
In order to combine the transparency and softness of the thin PA mono-
filaments with a higher strength, three to five very fine PA monofilaments are
twisted together by a very loose twist with only a few turns per metre (see
2.1.2.2) (ace. to Institut f. Fangtechnik, Hamburg, 1981).
Example: four PA monofilaments of a diameter of 0.17 mm
each, form a
very loosely twisted twine of R 158 tex with a breaking strength of about
10 kgf, a diameter of 0.38 mm
and a knot breaking elongation of 13 percent.
This folded PA monofilament yarn, corresponding to the construction shown
in Figure 8c, is much softer than a single monofilament of 0.4 or 0.45 mm
diameter which would have approximately the same breaking strength.
12
I r *> "> G S
sUl
B gal S s -a
II
'!I
x x
I
.x x
s? 2 x
v <2J rT
S
^ O. .
vx f"> <
S 8 8
X x P* x x x
jn P ^g-
a g
x
x
. . . .
oo
x*
O X*
O ~^
*%
g|gg| 4)
s
M>
g g
i^
^^
ej
g So S<3T5t3<37! <3o O O O O O
o
^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ 0U 22 ZS 2
m r> rt so o <<t ^>r> so voxo
1 - 1 .1 .2 .1 .1 I g g .
g
!
i 8 & S c S S S
3 1
S 2
i ^Si
a S S P
ft
Ji
2*3 .
s s e a a" s? S"S 2"
e
o
2S
n ** I 1 I
I
I f !
44)
ii S
"-' -I
0> f^>
?
'S *- e,
o
5 * i
CO *-
:g
i*
CO I f
II 1 I
0)
s a a EZ DC ;
Bobzin O
p:"
X X X
a" S"S o ,
S'xî S
x x - s: X X X ~ X X f*%
î
O
sS
x X . o
S "*
2 os
*! ~
2-
oo" 0000
-3 rf
ooV
-o
x x X X X x X x
x S
s ;xg
io"so rTof "
"0*00 -3 g
XX a"J x
.
x x ,rfg
XX XX x ^ x x r x x
X
rirs* rf vo* irT
oC ^
sfs X X X 00 XX XX X XX x x X X X
"^ -^ x x i K .=*
vo "' V s0
;5m *-S
g<^ ^ o> 4> <u <UV - 2s P 5S
ax S R S
^^^S
o ^ m
.2
I I
"
oo *
a 22
OX -4
OO OO OO OO
1
f^
2
ON
PA continuous filamentis the softest of all synthetic materials in wet
condition, but natural shiny white colour is far too visible in clear water.
its
It should be dyed just as other kinds of white material made of continuous

filaments or staple fibres (e.g. PES, PP, PVAA). Since there is no uniformity
of opinion and since the efficiency depends on the fishing conditions, the
sought and eventually even on the time of the day and the year,
fish species
no recommendations on the selection of colour can be offered. Green, blue,
grey and brownish colours appear to be most common in present commercial
fisheries.
Netting yarns made of the very strong PA continuous filaments should
have soft twist. Hard and even medium twisted PA netting yarns are not
recommended because of their high elongation at low loads which is
undesirable for the function of gillnetting.
Because of the large variety of gillnets with regard to size, meshsize,
fish sought, operational patterns, fishing conditions, etc., it is not possible
to offer comprehensive recommendations for the selection of net materials.
Therefore only several characteristic examples are given. All Rtex values are
nominal and refer to non-dyed and non-treated netting yarns. By dyeing
and/or stiffening the Rtex values increase. The stronger netting yarns often
used for selvedges are not included.
3.6.2.1 Salmon gillnets
Opening of mesh: 120 mm to 160 mm

(a) Netting yarns made of PES continuous filaments:
28tex x 12; R 370 tex

28 tex x 15; R 460 tex
(b) Netting yarns made of PA continuous filaments:
23 tex x 12; R 290 tex to R 310 tex

23 tex x 15; R 370 tex to R 390 tex
(c) Single PA monofilaments (transparent) :
0.6 mm diameter; 330 tex

0.7 mm diameter; 480 tex
(d) Netting yarns made of PP continuous filaments :
21 tex x 12; R 285 tex

21 tex x 15; R 355 tex
21 tex x 18; R 420 tex
3.6.2.2 Codgillnets
Opening of mesh: 180mm to 200mm. The same sizes of netting yarn

may be used as for salmon.
For small cod, with mesh opening of 110mm to 120mm, finer netting
yarns may be used, for instance :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 4; R 100 tex

PA single monofilament: 0.3 mm diameter, 90 tex.
PA folded monofilaments, loosely twisted: 0.17 mm x 3 or 0.17 mm
X 4 (sec 3.6.2).
3.6.2.3 Mackerel gillnets
Opening of mesh: 50 mm to 80 mm (and more)

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 6; R 180 tex
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 6; R 155 tex
PA single monofilament 0.4 : mm to 0.45 mm diameter
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 6; R 140 tex
3.6.2.4 Gill (drift) nets for herring and sardine
Opening of mesh for herring: 55 mm to 65 mm

sardine: 30 mm to 50 mm
With regard to breaking strength very fine netting yarns would be
sufficient, such as :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 2, or 23 tex x 3, or 23 tex x 4;

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 3
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 3, or 21 tex x 4.
These fine and smooth netting yarns are, however, not fully suitable for
these "soft" fishes because they are too "sharp" or cutting and can damage
the gilled fish so that it may be decapitated when shaken out. For this reason
netting yarns for soft fish gillnets should have a larger diameter than required
for the breaking strength. The cotton netting yarns previously used for
herring drift nets had a diameter of 0.6 to 0.8 mm. This approximately
corresponds to :
PA continuous filament: 23 tex x 12 (or x 15)

PES continuous filament: 28 tex x 12 (or x 15)
PP continuous filament: 21 tex x 9 (or x 12)
The degree of not decisive for herring and sardine because
visibility is
fishing mainly during

is the night and these species of fish do not rely so
much on their visual sense as do the fishes mentioned below. Because of
these specific requirements, netting material of low breaking strength and
greater diameter such as PVAA
staple fibre is well suited for herring or sardine
gillnets. Examples for suitable netting yarn size made of staple are: PVAA
Sardine gillnet PVAA 30 tex x 4
Herring gillnet PVAA 30 tex x 15
Herring gillnet PVAA 50 tex x 9
A preparation with stiffening agents is recommended for gillnets and

driftnets made of continuous filament or staple fibre material if the nets
are used for catching soft fish (see 2.3.5.7).
There is also a gillnet fishery for small herring (opening of mesh about
40mm) with nets made of transparent PA single monofilaments with
diameters from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm.
3.6.2.5 Very fine gillnets

Gillnets made of very fine netting materials are required for fish which
mainly rely on their visual sense, such as trout, coregones (Coregonus spp.),
brock, smelt (Osmerus spp.), roach (Rutilus sp.), bleak (Alburnus sp.), perch
(Perca spp.), ruff (Acerina sp.). Such gears are predominantly used in lakes
and coastal waters. Transparent single PA monofilaments are the most suitable
for such gillnets, for which low visibility is the main requirement.
Examples:
Coregone gillnets, opening of mesh between 36 mm and 100 mm (the
smaller the mesh, the thinner the netting yarn):
PA single monofilament: 0.10mm, 11 tex

PA single monofilament: 0.12 mm, 16 tex
PA continuous filament netting yarn 8 tex x: 3 R25 tex
;
PA continuous filament netting yarn: 23 tex x 2; R50 tex

PA continuous filament netting yarn: 23 tex x 3; R75 tex.
Roach gillnets, opening of mesh 52 mm to 90 mm.

PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 2; R50 tex
PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 3; R75 tex
PES continuous filament netting yarn 14 tex x 3; R45 tex
Perch gillnets, opening of mesh 40 mm to 90 mm.

For gillnets for pike (Esox spp.), pike-perch (Lucioperca sp.), perch,
trout,and char (Salvelinus spp.) in Swedish lakes the following relations
between meshsize and diameter of the single PA monofilaments are
recommended:
With regard to the netting material, the inner walls of trammel nets have
similar requirements. The inner netting of a trammel net for flatfish may
consist ofPA single monofilament of 0.20 to 0.25 mm PA
diameter or of
continuous filament 23 tex x 3. The two outer walls with wide meshes may,
for instance, be made of PA continuous filament netting yarn 23 tex x 9.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
1. AKAOKA, T.: The purse seine fishery in Japan. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III,
161-164, London, 1971.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials: ASTM DesignationD 123-64.
3. American Society for Testing and Materials: Designation D 276-62T, Tentative
Methods for Identification of Fibres in Textiles, 1962.
4. ARZANO, R.: Man-made fibres. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World 7, 13-18, London,
1959.
5. BLAXTER, J.H.S. and PARRISH, B.B.: The reaction of marine fish to moving netting
and other devices in tanks. Marine Research, Aberdeen, No. 1, 1966.
6. BOBZIN, W., FINNERN, D., and Rusch, H.: Fischereifangtechnik, Fangtechnologie .
(DDR), 1966.
Berlin
7. BOBZIN, W.: Ergebnisse vom erstmaligen Einsatz geflochtener Netze in der
Hochseefischerei. Seemrtschaft, 2, 884-888, 1970.
8. BOHL, H. Trawl mesh selection experiments on cod off Bear Island. Ber. Dt. Wiss.
:
Komm. Meeresforsch., 20, 1969.

9. BONNET, M.: Les techniques de peche a la sardine et au thon sur les cotes franchises
de Mediterran6e. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World ///, 167-173, London, 1971.
9a. V.BRANDT, A.: Arbeitsmethoden der Netzforschung.SchriftenreihederReichsanstalt
fur Fischerei Bd.2. Schweizerbartsche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart 1947.
10. v. BRANDT, A. Untersuchungen Uber die Maschengrosse unter besonderer Beriicksich-
:
tigung der Nordseekonvention. Protokolle z. Fischereitechnik, 2, H.3, 1951.

11. V.BRANDT, A. Zur Maschenmessung bei Schleppnetzen. Protokolle z. Fischereitechnik,
:
4, 45-69, 1956.
12. V.BRANDT, A. Tests on knotless Raschel netting. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World II,
:
88-95, London, 1964.

13. V.BRANDT, A.: Fish catching methods of the world. London, 1964.
14. V.BRANDT, A.: Fanggerate der Kutter- und Kiistenfischerei. AID, Nr. 113, 1966.
15. V.BRANDT, A.: Application of observations on fish behaviour for fishing methods
and gear construction. FAO Fish. Report No. 62, R/8 (1967), 1969.
16. V.BRANDT, A.: Comparative calculations of the properties of net materials used for
making trawls. ICNAF/ICES Working Group, 1969.
17. V.BRANDT, A. and BOHL, H.J.: Working Paper No. 10, ICES, C.M. 1959, Compara-
tive Fishing Committee.
18. V.BRANDT, A. and CARROTHERS, P.J.G.: Test methods for fishing gear materials.
Mod. Fishing Gear of the World II, 9-49, London, 1964.
19. V.BRANDT, A. and GERTENBACH, L.P.D.: Classification, Definition and Codification
of Fishing Gear Statistics. FAO Fish. Circular No. 258, FIES/C 258, 1970.
20. V.BRANDT, A. and KLUST, G.: Synthetic net materials for bottom and midwater
trawls. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 318-327, London, 1971.
21. V.BRANDT, A., SCHARFE, J., and STEINBERG, R.: Gezielte Fischerei mit dem Einschiff-
Schwimmschleppnetz. Informat.f.d. Fischwirtschaft, 7, 1960.
22. BREITENSTEIN, W.: Betriebswirtschaftlicher Ratgeber fur die Binnenfischerei. Berlin
(DDR), 1960.
23. CARROTHERS, P.J.G.: Experimental synthetic fibre drum seines. Fish. Res. Board of
Canada, Indust. Memorial No. 18, 1956.
24. CARROTHERS, P.J.G.: The selection and care of nylon gillnets for salmon. Fish. Res.
Board of Canada, Indust. Memorial No. 19, 1957.
25. CARROTHERS, P.J.G.: The physical properties of netting and twines suitable for use
in commercial fishing gear. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World /, 69-74, London, 1959.
26. CARTER, C.L.B. and WEST, K.: Use of "Ulstron"-polypropylene in fishing. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World //, 57-63, London, 1964.
26a. DAHM,E. : Investigations on the strain of netting yam after repeated loading and
after application of stress in different magnitude. Intern. Council f.th.Explor. of
the Sea. CM
B: 2, 1978.
27. DAMIANI, M.: Knotless fishing nets on Raschel equipment in Italy. Mod. Fishing Gear
of the World 11, 97-100, London, 1964.
28. Deutsche Rhodiaceta A.G.: Chemiefasern aufdem Weltmarkt. 7, Aufl., 1969.
29. DICKSON, W. Some comparative fishing experiments in trawl design. Mod. Fishing
:
Gear of the World II, 181-190, London, 1964.

30. DICKSON, W.: Trawl gear selection, design and construction in relation to fish
behaviour, vessel power and fishing conditions. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III,
336-347, London, 1971.
31. DIEUZEIDE, R. et NOVELLA, M.: Le materiel de peche maritime utilise' en Algerie.
Alger, 1953.
32. DYKHUIZEN, R. and ZEI, fisheries in the tropical Eastern Atlantic. Mod.
M.: Clupeid
Fishing Gear of the World 174-181, London, 1971.
III,
33. VAN ECK, TH. and BOTHA, L. The selectivity of synthetic fibre codends for the capture
:
of South African hake. S. Afr. Shipp. News Fish. Ind. Review, 1968.
34. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations: FAO Catalogue of
Small Scale Fishing Gear. Edited by C. Nedelec. Fishing News (Books) Ltd., West
Byfleet, Surrey, England, 1975.
34a. FAO: FAOCatalogue of Fishing Gear Designs. Edited by J. Schftrfe. Fishing News
Books Ltd., Farnham, Surrey, England, Edition 1978.
35. GARNER, J.: How to make and set nets, London, 1968.
36. GLANVILLE, A. The design and operation of the wing trawl. World Fishing, 10, 1961.
:
37. GLANVILLE, A.: The Larsen mid-water trawl. FAO Fish. Bull. IX, No. 3, 1956.
38. GREEN, R.E., JURKOVICH, I.E. and PETRICH, B. Development and testing of the hybrid
:
tuna purse seine. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World HI, 264-273, London, 1971.
39. HAMRE, J. and NAKKEN, O. Technological aspects of the modern Norwegian purse
:
seine fisheries. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 225-231, London, 1971.
40. HAMURO, CH. and ISHII, K.: Study of the midwater trawl fishing gears and their
telemeters. Fish. Boat Labor., Tokyo, Scient. Report No. 3, 1962.
41. HAMURO, CH.: Development of an improved otter trawl gear. Mod. Fishing Gear of
the World 11, 191-198, London, 1964.
42. HAMURO, CH.: Towing power, towing speed and size of bull trawl. Mod. Fishing
43. HAYASHI, J.: Brief survey of technical problems in fisheries. FAO/USSR Seminar,
TIF/66/11, 1966.
44. HELLEVANG, N.: Recent developments in the Peruvian anchoveta fishery. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World III, 237-245, London, 1971.
45. HIMMELFARB, D. The Technology of Cordage Fibres and Ropes, London, 1957.
:
46. ICES: Report of the Gear and Behaviour Committee, 1967 (Report of Okonski
and Strzyzewski).
47. IITAKA, Y. Studies on the mechanical characters of purse seine in relation to its
:
fishing efficiency. Memoirs of the Faculty of Agriculture of Kuiki Univ., No. 2, 1965.
48. IITAKA, Y.: Fishing gear, 1967.
49. IITAKA, Y.: Purse seine design and construction in relation to fish behaviour and
fishing conditions. Mod.
50.
Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.: Terylene polyester fibre and its relations to the
fishing industries. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World I, 43-54, London, 1959.
51. Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd.: Production of fishing gear from ICI Synthetic
fibres. ICI Fibres Techn. Inform., TD
3/2, 1969.
52 to 68a. International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
52. ISO: TextilesDesignation of the direction of twist in yarns and related products.
International Standard 2, 1973.
53. ISO: Fishing Nets Designation of netting yarns in the Tex system. Int. Stand. 858,
1973.
54. ISO: Fishing Nets Netting Basic terms and definitions. Int. Stand. 1107, 1974.
55. ISO: Textiles Designation of yarns. Int. Stand. 1139, 1973.
56. ISO: Three-strand polyamide multifiiament ropes. Int. Stand. 1140, 1975.
57. ISO: Three-strand polyester multifiiament ropes. Int. Stand. 1141, 1975.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 173
58. ISO: TextilesUniversal System for designating linear density (Tex system). Int.
Stand. 1144, 1973.
59. ISO: Three- or four-strand manila and sisal ropes. Int. Stand. 1181, 1973.
60. ISO: Three-strand and eight-strand (plaited) polypropylene monofilament or film
ropes Required characteristics. Int. Stand. 1346, 1975.
61. ISO: Fishing Nets Description and designation of knotted netting. Int. Stand. 1530,
62. ISO: Fishing Nets Determination of breaking load and knot breaking load of
netting yarns. Int. Stand. 1805, 1973.
63. ISO: Fishing Nets Determination of mesh breaking load of netting. Int. Stand. 1806,
1973.
64. ISO: Textiles Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing. Int. Stand. 139,
1973.
65. ISO: Textiles Determination of twist in yarns Direct counting method. Int. Stand.
2061, 1972.
66. ISO: Netting yarns Determination of change in length after immersion in water.
Int. Stand. 3090, 1974.
67. ISO: Three-strand polyethylene monofilament ropes. Int. Stand. 1969, 1976.
68. ISO: Textiles Yarn from packages Method for determination of breaking load and
elongation at the breaking load of single strands. Int. Stand. 2062, 1972.
68a. ISO: Fishing Nets Determination of elongation of netting yarns. Int. Stand. 3790,
1976.
69. JAKOBSSON, J.: Recent developments in Icelandic
herring purse seining. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World II, 294-305, London, 1964.
70. Japan Chemicaf Fibres Assoc. Synthetic fibres used in Japan for purse seines and
:
trawls. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World HI, 258-260, London, 1971.
71. JURKOVICH, J.E.: Are universal trawls effective? World Fishing, 17, No. 6, 1968.
72. KLUST, G.: Perlon-Netze und -Tauwerk in der Ringwadenfischerei. Allg. Fischwirtsch.
Ztg., H.8, 1956.
73. KLUST, G. Change of length of net twines by water. Intern. Council Exploration of the
:
Sea, C.M. 1956, No. 68, 1956.

74. KLUST, G. Changes in the diameter of net twines in water. Intern. Council Exploration
:
of the Sea, C.M. 1956, No. 69, 1956.

75. KLUST, G.: Perlonschnure, ihre Hers tell ung und Eigenschaften unter Beriicksichtigung
ihrer Verwendung in der Fischerei. Ulm, 1957
76. KLUST, G.: Ring nets made of synthetic fibres. FAO, GFCM
Stud. Rev., 4, 1958.
77. KLUST, G.: Das Netzmaterial. Protok. z. Fischereitechnik 5, 20-94, 1958.
78. KLUST, G.: The efficiency of synthetic fibres in fishing especially in Germany. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World I, 139-146, London, 1959.
79. KLUST, G.: Synthetisches Netzmaterial fur die Kutter- und Kustenfischerei. AID,
191, 1960.
80. KLUST, G.: Synthetisches Netzmaterial fur feine Kiemennetze. Schweizer. Fischerei-
Ztg., 68, H.2, 1960.
81. KLUST, G.: Typen der Grosshamen und ihr Netzmaterial. Allg. Fisch. Ztg., 85,
Nr. 16, 1960.
82. KLUST, G. Net materials for
: trawlnets. Intern. Council for the Exploration of the Sea,
Comp. Fish. Comm., No. 87, 1961.
83. KLUST, G.: Netzmaterial fur Schwimmschleppnetze der Hochseefischerei. Allg.
Fischwirtsch. Ztg. 15, Nr. 30, 1963.
84. KLUST, G. Netting twines of polypropylene and polyamide compared. Mod. Fishing
:

85. KLUST, G.: Standardization of Terminology and Numbering systems for Netting
Twines. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World II, 3-8, London, 1964.
86. KLUST, G.: 10 Jahre Polyamid-Schleppnetze der Hochseefischerei ein RUckblick.
AFZ, 18, Nr. 12, 1966.
87. KLUST, G. Versuche mit Kutter-Scherschleppnetzen, Krabbcnkurren und Grosshamen
:
aus endlosem Polypropylen. Protok. z. Fischereitechnik, 10, 1966.

88. KLUST, G.: Polypropylen und Polyathylen als Netzmaterial von Scherbretthamen.
Informal, f.d. Fischwirtschaft, 14, Nr. 2, 1967.
89. KLUST, G.: Untersuchungen zur Knoten-Reisskraft und Maschenreisskraft von
Fischnetzmaterial. Protok. z. Fischereitechnik, XI Nr.
t 51, 149-251, 1968.
90. KLUST, G.: Method of determining the elongation of netting yarn. ISO/TC 38/SC
9/WG 1, 1969.
91 .
KLUST, G. Der Einfluss der Wasserung auf die Lange von Fischnetzgarnen. Protok.
: z.
Fischereitechnik, XII, Nr. 58, 1971.

92. KLUST, G.: Uber Netzmaterial von Ringwaden und Schleppnetzen. Protok. z.
Fischereitechnik, XII, 1971.

92a. KLUST, G.: Fibre ropes for fishing gear. FAO
Fishing Manuals (In preparation).
92b. KLUST, G. Untersuchungen an knotenlosenNetztuchen in Flechttechnik. Protok. z.
:
Fischereitechnik , XIII, No. 59, 1972.

93. KURIYAN, G.K. New fishing gears and methods required. Indian Farming, December
:
1969.
94. LONSDALE, J.E.: Nylon in fishing nets. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World I, 30-33,
London, 1959.
95. MARGETTS, A.R. Gear and Behaviour Committee, 1970. Int. Council for the Explora-
:
tion of the Sea,C.M. 1971/B 1. :
96. MAUCORPS, A. et PORTIER, M. Le chalutage semi-pelagique pour la peche du hareng.

:
Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III. 467-471, London, 1971.

97. MCNEELY, R.L.: Recent developments in midwater trawling in the Pacific north-
west of the United States of America. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 443-447,
London, 1971.
98. MELTZER, O.S.: Instructions for ordering fish netting and nets. (Chicago).
99. MIYAZAKI, C, TAW ARE, Y., and YOKOI, T. Comparative efficiency of nylon monofila-
:
ment and polyethylene monofilament netting for small otter trawls. Mod. Fishing
Gear of the World III, 327-329, London, 1971.
100. MOHR, H.: Monofile Treibnetze in der pazifischen Lachsfischerei. Fischerblatt, Nr. 9,
1966.
101. NAKAMURA, M.: Purse seine materials in Japan. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III,
257-258, London, 19.71.
102. NAKAMURA, M. Trawling gear : in Japan. Mod. Fishing Gear oj the World HI, 456-462,
London, 1971.
103. NEDELEC, C. et LIBERT, L.: Etude du chalut. Revue des travaux de ri.S.T.P.M., 23
Paris, 1959.
104. Du chalut de fond & grande ouverture verticale au chalut flottant.
NEDELEC, C.:
Science et Peche, Nr. 95, 1961.
105. NEDELEC, C.: Un chalut de fond & grande ouverture pour la peche c6tiere. Mod.
106. NOMURA, M.: Studies on gillnets, I/I1. Bull. Tokai Reg. Fish. Res. Labor., No. 30,
1961.
107. K., OSAWA, Y. and HAYAMA, Y.: Study on behaviour of purse
NOMURA, M., MORI,
Tokai Reg. Fish. Res. Labor., No. 49, 1967.
seine, I-V. Bull.
108. PORTIER, M.: Choix du chalut semi-pelagique et de son gr6ement selon la puissance
du navire, le comportement des especes recherchees et la nature du fond. Mod.
109. PRESS, J.J.: Man-made Textile Encyclopedia. New York, 1959.
110. RICHARDSON, J.D.: Synthetic drift nets. World Fishing, 8, No. 4, 1959.
111. SCHARFE, J.: Uber Messungen an Schleppnetzen. Arch. Fischereiwiss., 6, 1955.
112. SCHARFE, J.: Mediterranean Trawling (II-IV). FAO, Stud. Rev. GFCM 6/10,
1959/1960
113. SCHARFE, J.: A new method for aimed one-boat trawling in midwater and on the
bottom. FAO, GFCM
Stud. Rev. 13, 1960
114. SCHARFE, J. Improvements and trends of developments in marine fishing methods and
:
gear. Instit. of Biology, London, 1963.

115. SCHARFE, J.: One-boat midwater trawling from Germany. Mod. Fishing Gear of the
World II, 221-228, London, 1964.
116. SCHARFE, J.: The German one-boat midwater trawl. Protok. z. Fischereitechnik, XII,
1969.
117. SCHARFE, J.: The German one-boat midwater trawl. Fishing News Internal., 1969.
118. SCOFIELD, W.L.: Purse seines and other roundhaul nets in California. Calif. Fish.
Bull, No. 81, 1951.
119. SHIMOZAKI, J.: Characteristics of synthetic twines used for fishing nets and ropes in
Japan. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World /, 19-29, London, 1959.
120. SHIMOZAKI, J.: Production and characteristics of synthetic nets and ropes in Japan.
Mod. Fishing Gear of the World //, 66-70, London, 1964.
121. SMITH, A.W.: Ropes made from man-made fibres. Brit. Ropes Ltd., Public. 555,
London, 1966.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES 175
122. STEINBERG, R.: Monofiiament gillnets in freshwater experiment and practice. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World II, 111-114, London, 1964.
123. STEINBERG, R.: Two-boat midwater trawling for herring with bigger boats. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World //, 235-239, London, 1964.
124. STEINBERG, R.: Zur Frage der Schleppnetzfischerei in Binnengewassern. Fischwirt,
Nr. 12, 1967.
125. STEINBERG, R.: Fangtechnische LJntersuchungen an Grundschleppnetzen fur Kutter.
Fischerblatt, Nr. 1, 1970.
126. STEINBERG, R.: Two-boat bottom and midwater trawling. Mod. Fishing Gear of the
World III, 423-430, London, 1971.
127. STRATMANN, M.: Tdentifizierung der Faserstoffe Dtsch. Farber Kalender, Degussa,
1970.
128. SUGANO,S. and YAMAMURA, S.: Japanese tuna purse seining off West Africa. Mod.
Fishing Gear of the World 111, 198-205, London, 1971.
129. The Textile Institute: Textile Terms and Definitions. 5th ed., Manchester. 1963.
130. The Textile Institute: Identification of Textile Materials. Manchester, 1965.
131. THORSTEINSSON, G.: Description of commercial Icelandic purse seines for herring,
capelin and cod. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 217-225, London, 1971.
132. THORSTEINSSON, G.: Icelandic purse seine with double leadline construction and
experience. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 273-279, London, 1971.
133. Tran-Van-Tri and Ha-Khac-Chu: Nylon monofilament in the Vietnam fisheries.
Mod. Fishing Gear of the World //, 108-110, London, 1964
134. Ura, E. and Mori, J. Forecasting purse seine fishing conditions in the East
: China
Sea. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World III, 12-14, London, 1971
1 and Maton, A. Double-rig shrimp beam trawling. Mod. Fishing Gear
35. Verhoest, J, :
of the World II, 209-217, London, 1964

136. van Wijngaarden, J.K. Testing methods for net twines and nets especially those
:
manufactured from synthetic materials. Mod. Fishing Gear of the World I, 75-81,
London, 1959.
137. "World Fishing" Course for apprentice fishermen. London, 1964
:
138. ZAUCHA, J.: New synthetic herring drift nets used in the North Sea. Mod. Fishing
Gear of the World, II, 73-78, London, 1964.
Other books published by Freezing and irradiation of fish
Fishing News Books Ltd Glossary of United Kingdom
fishing gear teams
Free catalogue available on request
Handbook of trout and salmon
diseases
Advances in aquaculture
Handy medical guide for seafarers
Advances in fish science and How to make and set nets
technology Inshore fishing: its skills, risks,
Aquaculture practices in Taiwan rewards
Atlantic salmon its future
:
Introduction to fishery by-products
Better angling with simple science The lemon sole
British freshwater fishes A living from lobsters
Commercial fishing methods Marine fisheries ecosystem:
Control of fish quality its and
quantitative evaluation
Culture of bivalve molluscs management
Echo sounding and sonar for Marine pollution and sea life
fishing The marketing of shellfish
The edible crab and its fishery in Mending of fishing nets
British waters Modern deep sea trawling gear
Eel capture, culture, processing and Modern fishing gear of the world 1
marketing Modern fishing gear of the world 2

Eel culture Modern fishing gear of the world 3
European inland water fish: More Scottish fishing craft and
a multilingual catalogue their work
FAO catalogue of fishing gear Multilingual dictionary of fish and
designs fish products
FAO catalogue of small scale Navigation primer for fishermen
fishing gear Pair trawling and pair seining: the
FAO investigates ferro-cement technology of two boat fishing
fishing craft Pelagic and semi-pelagic trawling
Farming the edge of the sea gear
Fish and shellfish farming in Planning of aquaculture
coastal waters development: an introductory
Fish catching methods of the world guide
Fisheries oceanography and ecology Power transmission and
Fisheries of Australia automation for ships and
Fishermen's handbook submersibles
Fishery products Refrigeration on fishing vessels
Fishing boats and their equipment Salmon and trout farming in
Fishing boats of the world 1 Norway
Fishing boats of the world 2 Salmon fisheries of Scotland
Fishing boats of the world 3 Scallops and the diver-fisherman
The fishing cadet's handbook Seafood fishing for amateur and
Fishing ports and markets professional
Fishing with electricity Seine fishing
Fishing with light Stability and trim of fishing vessels
The stern trawler Trends in fish utilization
Study of the sea Trout farming manual
Textbook offish culture: breeding Tuna: distribution and migration
and cultivation of fish Tuna fishing with pole and line
Training fishermen at sea

Parte2 Netting Mat

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Parte2 Netting Mat

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

66 NETTING MATERIALS FOR FISHING GEAR

FIGURE 20. One possibility of testing

Knots which have not under increasing force. The

FIGURE 21 .Load-elongation curve of a slipping weaver'* knot la this case the

2.3.2 A Change of length in water

(No international standard yet) The diameter can be determined by

FIGURE 23. Gauge for measuring the diameter of

2.3.2.6 Flexural stiffness

Figure 24 illustrates a non-standardized testing method. It is applicable

FIGURE 24. Apparatus for measuring

Height of the apparatus about 95 cm.

2.3.2.7 Abrasion resistance

Due to the complex and varying fishing conditions, it is virtually im-

2.3.3 BREAKING STRENGTH AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH OF NETTING YARN

FIGURE 25. Apparatus for testing the abrasion resistance.

normal medium twist or tightness of braid respectively. Greater deviations

2.3.3.2 Breaking strength of straight netting yarns

straight netting yarns is therefore of rather limited significance in the case of

FIGURE 26. Types of knots:

FIGURE 27. Direction in knotted net-

general course of the netting yarn.

PVD (Saran) is mainly used in mixed netting yarns, i.e. in combination

2.3.3.3 Weaver's knot breaking strength

If in a badly constructed net a large share of the total stress is concentrated

PES, cont fii.

PA. single monof, mort than 250 ttx

PA. cant, fit, R 1000 ttx to R 4000 ttx I

PA. com tit.. undtr R I OOP ttx

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 ISO

Kinds of netting yam Breaking strength, wet, knotted

The edges of netting in fishing gear are also frequently strengthened by

The mesh breaking strength ofknotted netting which can be deter-

in Figures 19a and b) because the strength of a mesh is determined by the

2.3.3.4 Other knots

Fibre Loop AB Loop CD Knot breaking strength

as thick monofilaments. Compared to the normal single weaver's knot, the

FIGURE 30. Single weaver's knot and double weaver's knot

fine gillncts made of transparent PA single monofilaments, which owe their

2.3.4 DIAMETER, RTEX, AND KNOT BREAKING STRENGTH

cotton netting yarn + 10 %

lie diameter of netting yarn is a major factor for the resistance of

ftouiw 3Ia.~Most common sorts of twisted PA

FIGURE 3 lb. Twisted PA staple fibre netting

2.3.4. 1 Diameter and knot breaking strength

Apart from the construction of netting yarn, the relationship between

FIGURE 32, Netting samples of cotton and PA continuous filament made of

Twnttd netting yarns mad* of

Knot breaking load, wet

Knt wet breaking (Md m kgf

(1) Polyamide continuous filaments, (2) polypropylene continuous filaments*

2.3.4.2 Wet knot breaking strength and Rtex

Even more significant is the relationship between wet knot breaking

Twisted ntttrng yarns made of

Knot breaking load, wet

PA c.f. : PA st. : PP c.f. : PE mon. : PES c.f. : PVAA st. =

and for the heavy braided netting yarns (Table 23b):

PA c.f. : PP c.f. : PE mon. - 100 : 107 : 120.

In Figure 35 some average values of braided PA continuous filament netting

2.3.4.3 Diameter and mass

obviously decreases or increases with the density of the fibre material of

With equal diameter PP continuous filament netting yarns are about 30

2.3.5 FLEXURAL STIFFNESS

The flexural stiffness is and