p

CHAPTER 6

COMPENSATION FOR OPENINGS IN PROCESS EQUIPMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION
ions
Any process vessel must be provid ed with multiple openings or various dimens
for providing
at differen t parts. These are necessary for giving inlet and outlet connections,
stirrer, etc. While th!= openings
sight glasses, manholes, drainage, for inserting shaft of the
pment or
are essential for operating the vessels , these weaken the vessel parts due to develo
at the edge of
discontinuities. Experimental evidence shows that the stress concentration
unpierced shell
the openings in pressure vessels becomes as high as 500 per cent that of the
of stress at
under the similar o perating conditions.' It is also observed that this high value
his makes it necessary
the edge or t he opening decreases sharply with the distance from it T
of reinforcing
to ascertain adequate reinforcement in appropriate region. Again, excess use
teristic of that region may be
material may reduce flexibility and thus the dilation charac
inuity stresses .
changed with respect to the rest of the vessel. This will again induce discont 2
re in connec-
Following observations can be made from the results published in the literatu
tion with the reinforcing of the openings.
gs and
I. There is conside rably high stress concentration at the edge of the openin
than the allow-
around them. T he magnitude of the resultant stress value is much higher
as large as 500 per
-· able stress limit for unpierced shells and sometimes the differen ce is
cent.
to
2. Stress concentration is muimu m at the edge of the openings and diminishes
a negligibly small value beyond the area covered by twice. the hole diameter.
um
3. It is necessa ry to adequately compensate a ll the openings above a minim
diamet er to avoid the failure of the vessels in those regions.
so that
4. Compensation can be provided by increasing the entire shell thickness
or equal to, the
the maximum anticipated stress at the edge of the opening is less than,
not economical.
allowable stress of the shell material. This may be the best method, but is
stress gets
If a sufficiently thick-walled nozzle is welded to the opening, the magnitude of t he
also economi-
red uced to the safety limit. This type of compenS1tion is quite efficient and
of ring plate and
cal. Other commo nly used methods are welded ring plate, combination
nozzle, etc.

1S. 8 . Kantorowitscb, •'Die Pc.stiakc i(dcr App1tatc u od Mascbloeo (uer die

cbcmlschc Iodustric"
VEB, Berlin.
• Sec list or rdcreoces at the,end of this chapter.
·P-ll ~I

Scanned with CamScanner

 --,
82 CHOOCAL IQU1 l,l£C11ANIC1'L
Plol11NT o es 1 ASPECTS
0N-
S. Corupcimti
on sbou\d provid botb n.gt'dt'ty and strength. It sh
\r at ed near the e ould be coo~-
opening. ""'"'
6. Hundred pe .
- r cent comp ensa · for tbe opening " no t practicable and
not ncc:cuary, fr . r tion it u
mat: f&ilurc. O sa{et'I pomt o vi.ew•. due nto ,w tr ib u ti o n o•f stresses wb1.cb Ca
om -d is
a\so
n the other h&nd er from over-rei f . th U$C U\ti-
heavy ring plates , th n .
causing stress co ere is ~ da tgtbe outer edge o f ofCl~g e opcn111gi 'llith
ing effect. nc entr at ion a th e ri n g due to a stif
fen.
6 l · TYPES O
P COMPENSAT
ION
Figure
,·cssels. A uio6.rt1 uiows the commonly u scd tY cs o f compensation for
description of ea P opening, in proc
ch o f them arc . below. ess
. given
(a) Flucd-m ty . •
as, compr essed air storagpe elhpuca\ man-~ are quite common in
e tanks, steam bo ys t pressure veasc\s,
compensation, fa
brication is diffic 1\ets, e c. Though th " type provid such
ult and costly. es efficient
(b) Flared-out
~ u s e o f large or drawn openin
transition radii to gs further connec
1s not essential, av ted with nozzle
and may prove a oid the stress ~isi~g s may b e prefer
th at case openin dangerous pract effect o f sharp red,
g diameter will ice 1f to o larg _c o ~ e n ; but th
enhance the amou be much larger ea is
nt o f compensatio than actual no rad~us 1s se le ct ~. to
tests are possib n requirement. O u.\e diamete r.
le in n o u le co n e great ~ d Th1S WU\
graphyiog is diff DDCCtions. At v an tage _is th a t radi
icult. th e vessel's Juncture og raphic
w1tb th e nozzle
(c) "Ring plates radiC>-
method o f compe or pa ds ·wel
nsation. The ou ded to the shell and n o n le ,
ing diameter. H ter d iameter o r th ar e
igh thermal stress e pad is usually often used as a cheap
cocffici:nt betwee es arc often indu l l - 2 times th e
n the shell plate ced due to th e open-
an p o o r h e a t transm
~ffcct ~ il l be fu
rther enhanced it d the pad as b o th parts C.l.tin ission
n p a ~ 1 o n arc us dinimilar metal ot be fused tog
crack10g under cy ed. In a~dition s, having differen et h er. Thi$
cle loading. , the ,tress raising effect t coefficients o
f thermal
o f th e weld fi\\
ets may initiate
(d ). Rim
most effectively o r nozzl~ type is likely to be th
maximum. uranged ·a t the em
edge o r th e o ost efficient. H er e th e comp
pening where ensation Is
• at
re ss concentratio · ·
are also (e ) Sweep-type no
used in practice u \e s and a combinat n u
. ion o f ring plate
s a n d _ _,
It may be noted n "" "e a as com .
per cent, with that ring plate ty pensation
resp co
reduction o r only ect to the fatigue ur, ~ th mpe sa •
\S per cent and n
. p ro ~ :- e un tion cause, a reduction in life
pieteed v e u c l,
while flush n ozz by ~
ing nozzles a ~ u le
• M. ~-~ ic:\.~Ua~d
t 10 p er c e n t. ' s cause a
C. l\uiz, '·Prcs,
ure VC!SCI Dc$i
· · 111 ~ Analysis",
Macmillan , Lon
don. 1961.

Scanned with CamScanner

 COMPENSATION FOR OPENINGS IN PROCESS eQUlPMCNT 83

(a) Flued-ln or Flaoged·lo (b) Flued-out

.
•'

(c) Ring Pad or Collar (d) Protruding Type ,.

•

(e) Sweet Type (f) Special Type

Suitable for
Radiography Ing

Fig. 6.1 Commonly used types of compensation for openings

Scanned with CamScanner

84 CHBMICAL BQVlrMDNT DDSIOH-~lllCIIANICAL ASl'tCl8

6.3 TllEORmCAL DETERMINATION OF STRESS l'ATfEltNS AROUNn Ot•~N.

INGS

Because of the complexity of cylinJrical structures, tho thcorcticnl lnvcstl11,,tlon

limited to two dimensional stress analysis and the problems nro mostly ovcr-slmpliflc<l\~'o
H.>wcvcr, the following analysis will give somo interesting aml useful inform11t1on, ab<)::
expected stress patterns nround openings in prqcess vessels.

6.3.1 Stress concentration around a circular bole In a plate under nnlform tension

The stress distribution in the vicinity of n small circular hole of radiu s , r, In n Plate .
~tre!ched elastically-by a uniform tensile stress, a, In the direction or the polar nxia o.,. ~'
15 given by the following expression.' '
3
a, = ; ( t + :: ) - ; ( 1 + a~· ) CGS 28 ... (6,J.1)

where o, is the induced tangential stress of the clement at the radial distance 'a' from th
centre of the hole, shown in Fig. 6.2. At the circumference of the hole, a "" r _nn<l 0 1 .,, :
(I - 2 cos 28). The tangential stress is a maxi• er
mum at the points 9 = .,.,2 and 3 n;2 located on
the circumference of the hole and on the axis per·
pendicular to the direction of the applied tension,
0
, At these points the stress 01 = 3a. Again,
~or a= rand 8 = o or 180°, o, = - o. Thus it
1s seen that a small hole in a plate subjected to
tension in a given direction causes an ·increase in
the stress in vicinity of the hole to a maximum
value of three times that in a normal undisturb-
ed oortion of the plate.

The general equation for stress distribution

curve for any value of 'a' and for & = n/2 and
3 rr/2 is given below :
er
a,= K, a= f ( 2 + :: + 2{.' ) ...(6.3.2) Fig. 6.2 Circular bole In a plate
subjected to uniform tension
For e = 0 or "• the equation for the curve becomes,

o, = Kc a(rl
a .., - -
2 al
- - 3,..)
a' ... (6.3.3)

'E. 0. W,ucrs, "Rciaforccmcnt ot openings in - pressure vessels" Weldina Journal Research

S11pplcmco1, 1958,
' "Pmsiue Vcs~I ~q4 Pipins D:sigQ" ·~111Ji 1~ pa~, l9?1·1959. ASMB. ~w York.

Scanned with CamScanner

-
►

COMPBNSAtlON F-'OR Ol'ENJNOS IN l'ROCIJSS EQU1PMEN1' 8S

Vari11tinn in stress in a plate containing 11 circular bole and subjected to uniform· tension
is shown in Fig. 6.3.

The exact theory of Eq. 6.3.1 is based on a

small hole in an infinite plate. But from Fig. 6.3
it is seen that the effect of small hole is
extremely limited and damps out rapidly. Hence,
for practical purposes the formula can be used for
plates of widths more than five times the hole
diameter.

Furthermore, the variation in the stress

concentration along a diametrical section mm parallel
to the direction of tension is minimum (Fig. 6.3 ). At
l.--le-----t'4f
the edge of the hole it produces a compressive stress;
tangent to the hole, equal to the tensile stress a applied L...- 1.---' 5f
• tr O -tr
at the ends of plate, and damps out very · rapidly with I<{'
distance from the edge of the hole.
Fig. 6.3 Variation in stress arono~ a
bole in a plate subjected to tension

The stress concentrations around a circular hole in a cylinder or sphere with

stresses applied by internal or external pressure can be obtained from the cases of simple
tension or compression by using the method of superposition. In the case of a cylinder
stressed by pressure, the longitudinal stress is half the hoop stress (Fig. 6.4), therefore
the maximum stress at point n on the longitudinal axis is 3 a - a, = 3 a 8 - ! ao
0
= 2.5 u , and at point m on the circumferential axis is a 3 a, - a 8 = i a 8 - a6
8
= i a e. In the case of sphere, the two principal stresses are equal, a, = a 8 == a, and tbt
maximum stress concentration is 3 a
8
- u, = 3 a ....;.. a = 2 a.

6.3.2 Determination of reinforcement

CIRCUMFERENTIAL AXIS
boundaries for circular openiog9
f f t~t t t
-- m
in cylindrical and spherical vessels

The boundaries for the addition

- -LONGITUDINAL of effective reinforcing material can be.
-- n
m
n

-crz
AXIS
obtained by examining the stress gradient
with the distance from the edge of the

- !lllll
- hole along the longitudinal axis. Fig. 6.5
shows the stress gradient from the edge
of the hole for cylinder and sphe re
<'8 subjected to internal prcs~ure. F or a
Fig. 6.4 Hole in -a cylinder subjected C)'lindrical vessel subject to internal
to bf-axial stress

Scanned with CamScanner

 86
CIIBIUCAL fQUIPM!NT DESIGN- MF.cilANICAL ASP£Cts

Pres.sure, Wherein the loogi1udinal strc511 (er,) is one hair the hoop st rcss (ere ) Eq. 6 3
..._ • ,\ c,h
"" Written as, q

K, o = -ero ( l ,1
+ _al )
-ere2 (I 3 ,• )
+ -::.- cos 2 e ( e.·-__
'lt )
9 2 - u· 2

+ ';' ( 1 + :: ) _ °i (1 + 3 0 ~• ) cos 28 {8 = O) ... (6_3-4)

Substituting a,- -"e2

.
... (6.l,5)
ia: r~~I
~· l""
ht
~ii fl I ' .,...
)i, ,:"::=: :::
·,- . ' ·r,. ~. ...
-
_t t 1 t t -- t t t 1 ..,...

t-- -
-

,.
i II ..
'

'
' '

' ... '

I

-
2-5q

·-
- n -
-
er&.:: !l
,
2
"i."<r• Zt

l
' <Ji '
Fig. 6.5 Stress graclieut aroalld circular hole lo (a) cyllncler (b) sphere subjected
er.

to loteroal pressure

Fig. 6.5 shows that the stress decreaics sharply with distance from the edge of
the bole. At the edge of the hole a = r, and from Eq. 6.3.5 the maximum stress is
2_.J,0
8 . At a distance from the edge of the hole equal to the radius, a = 2r, the stress
-:-~ omes 1.23 a 0 . Similarly, the variation in stress around a circular bole in a $pherical
vessel subjected to internal pressure is obtained from Eq. 6.3.4, wherein o = o,. For
0
maximum stress distribution Eq. 6.3.4 for sphere becomes,

... (6.3.6)

Scanned with CamScanner

p

COMPIJNSATION FOk Ol>llNINOS IN l'kOCW ~ Ull'M t 1l1'

81

A corresponding rndia l dccrca~e o f t_hc stresses from th e edge of the hole occu rs u ~ho_
wn
in fig. 6.5. The stress reaches mnx,mum at the edge of the hole e11 uar to 2 o and fallrng
9
10 11
vnlue of I. 25 a O al n distance o - 2,.
from the above analysis, it is obse rved that at a distance from th e hole edge equal
10 the radius. the stress concent rntion is negligible. This is proved by experim en tal
d
evidenccs.•• Therefo re, one boundar y limit for the elfcctivc rei nforceme nt area h ~u2gettc
7

10 be cquul to 2d, where d is the opening diamete

r (Fig, 6 .6). ·1 his is accepted by va ri ous
standard codes includin g 1S.
8/ The second bounda ry limit which i., 1n the directio n of
eristi':'
pcrpcndicul:ir to th_c plate su rface can be approxi mated from the deflection charac1 11
of the nozzle or ring (see Ch.' 5), which is doing the reinforcement. From sect ion 5.2.5,
ication
can be noticed lhnt for n cylindrical noulc, at a dimince n/{J from the point of appl
from the
of load, the deflectio n effect is practically nil To achieve effective reinforc ement
is only
nozzle or ring pad, the length //, which is within n/f, from th e surface of the nozzle,

to be taken into account . For cylindrical nozzle p = J.285/ ✓· ~ t,, where, ,. is

the cor-
roded wall- thickness.
From this JI ... 1.7yJ, ;, Howeve r, in section S.2.S it is also stated that the
most
,
eft'cctive length fro m the conside ration of deflection characte ristics would be
1/P or
0.51 y'iitt: IS ha, accepte d approxi mately an a verage of these two mlgnitu oe, and the
second bounda ry limit is given by (Fig. 6.6)
H 1 = H 1 = V d t, ... (6.3.7)

J
II J
_j_
'•
f
•
i
I

Fig. 6.6 Boundary limits of the reinforcement for circul•r openings in

cylindrical and spherical vessels
--- ---- --- ---
• J. H . T:iylor :ind E. 0 . Waters, ..The effect of openings io pre~rurc vessels", ASME
Trans:iciions, I 934.
'"Sympo~ium on Pressure Vessel Research Towards Beller Design", LMcch.E•• 19<,2.
• IS: 2S~S-1969, lndiJn Stondard s l ns1itu1ion . New Delhi.
• R. C. Bh:itr:ic:lur,')'3, "Requirement of compensation for opcnin~ in prcs~urc v~~I design··.
Chemical Ase or lndin, 1972.

Scanned with CamScanner

 ldl lC J1 o\ t,JCAL A~ h: cu
... VI T oe s1 ot 1-
UI
61 u1JCA1. fQ ,~ o
.. 11.btc ro r r el nr " '•l b~ ,
-m pt o. s■ ttd alld area ..
..... ,tr mIn■ lIOD Or ■ttl to .,.. •v
L.
,C JJ ~ 11 be co m es weak er be
V, •
s5C I wall, th e hw3 h u~
ress direction ca
.
. g 11 m3 de in a ve
'" h en an op en in
n re3 pe rp cn di cu l3 r t~ t e _ oo p std ho op • ll js 'ttf;f
os s- s« tio o: il 3 I I snfcly 3g am st in du ce Stress
th e d~ rc :is c in cr. sse , t ie , on e is to '~ ~ in11
•
·10 C b. . 3, ·m des,gn,ni! pres su re ve be co m pe ns at ed
efore in de term in
in g 1h e nr ea to the •nd "~~
co iu id er cd . Th er ct io n h? s go t re m ov ~d . du e lo
~tress di re th coo~nioa,.
ic ar ea pc rp cn di cufa ; to th e ho op ul e d1 am c~ er mul11pl1:d by the
~ or no 1 ''lic:.i~
th in g bu t co rr od ed opening O ne is to no te th at , the v
is no 19 . uc _or J
:ninh
Th is . 3. 3.
ltc d m inim um wa ll- t hicl::ness fro m Eq io n of t~ e nc •z ~le. If th e no zilc :
ca lc ul th e po sit
will de pe nd upon =. I '. a nd in ca se . th pr o•
e ho le
in th at eq ua tio n na l ~-c lJ ed sc am , I ni ng lo 1.
y longitu di ,ng an d pl an
m ad e a way fr om an J < I. In de sr gn
g .....~~ ss ssc~
Vc
di na l we ld ed jo in t w el ~e d jo in t, be in
m ad e on the longitu
re J to av oid an y
op en in g th ro ug h
t wice th er ltttioa.
it is 3lways pr ef er er of th e op en m g pl us
et er is the in te rn al di am et is to be ecoco~r0 s~
Th e co rr od ed di am du rin g de sig n w or st ~o nd iti on lllrder,d.
is do ne because, op eo m g, t he n ,
al lo w an ce. Th is g re du ce d du e to
t he basic ar ea bein
Th er ef or e, if 'A ' is
... (6 Ja
+
A = {d 2c ) t,
atno un ·J
le m of de te rm in in g th e co rre ct or rcio.
difficult pr ob ga r'
N ow co m es th e el em en ts , th en ph olo el astic iovcsti ns ' !h o,
is th e ar ea of rein
forc ing m ax im um stress io0 nio11s
forc:emeoL If A' 5 pe r ce nt , th e im pr ov em en t in c 1ld
fo r A' /A va ry in g 65 to 11
!h ar
u ncgligffile. to be les s sens "r
en t• ha ve sh ol l'n th e st re ss Th i; ive lo ~
Fu rth er , th e same
ex pe rim
ut io n of t hi s m at er ia l.
to th e di st rib ag~ecs "'ilh
re in fo rci11g m at er ial th an ut io n aroUDd op en in g
ss t ha n 1~ i...~~evcr.
~O U D t of n di str ib
nc en tra tio
dings of stress co it sh ou ld no t be Je
th e th eo re tical fin e bo UD da ry lim e U&>IC lre i
co m pe ns at io n within th
th e area of g i.e.,
shell d ur ing op en in
re m ov ed fr om th e

d as ,
', A' m ay be ex pr es se
N ex t is to find th e composition of A
A, ••• (6,3.9)
A' = - A. + A .+
In th is eq ua tio n, da ry lim it
ailab le io th e sh el l w it hi n bo un ac ting as reo-
A, = excess area av
forcemcn t
I, - c) 6
- (d + 2c) (I, - fo r re in fo r . . ··· ( .3,JO)
e in th e n oz zl e is when tb
A. - ex cess ar ea av ai la bl th an t he ce ':° ~n t. Th~s
th ic kn es s is m or e ss rcq uirtJ
ac tu al nozzle wall • m in im um t hickne
ns id er at io n.
fro m ho op st re ss co
= A, + A,
le ve ss el av ai la bl e fior compcnsatfon
Ao = ar ea of th e nozz ex te rn al to th e
(Fig. 6.7)
2 H1 (t . - 1,' - c) ••• (6.3.11)
=

L
Scanned with CamScanner
 COMPl!NsATION f'OR ot, .
!!NINOS IN PllOCl!SS EQUIP.,tl!NT 89
A, = area of the noole insld h
.' compensation (Fig. _?)c t e vessel (i.e. protruding nozzle) available for
6
= 2 H~ (t. - 2c)
·os1'dc prolrl1s· • · ... (6.3.1 2)
For I ion t, 1s zero . ·
from bolh the sides A re, ' ads ere th 15 no pressure difference ; but corrosion is •
11
•
J1 and /l2 are the outside 'd s about. H 1 nn d H z w1·11ma ke the matter more cIenr.
and . wor
1
limit. 11151 e protrusion respectively indicating tbe one boundary

...;---.!. . 1nrger thnn Hi, the boundary limit, then,

If nozzle length outside the vess 1 15
H
1 = (d+2c)(t,.-c) ... (6.3.13)
If, on the other hanJ the nozzle I tl1 .
the height of the boun' d . . eng outside the vessel surface is less than or equal to
nry 11m1t, then
H , -- actual length of' the nozzle
Similarly, if the inside protrus1on
· of t he nozzle goes beyond the boundary zone, then,
H2 = -V(d + 2 c) (1
11 - 2 c) ••• (6.3. 14)
On the other hand, if inside protrusion is less or equal then
H 2 = actual length of protruded portion.' '
. . After ~lculating A, and A., if it is found that A, + A. > A, then no other external
rcmforccment 1s necessary
21d+2
d
In

t As

H2

i
t4
Aj

~c

Fig. 6.7 Protruded nonle connection showing effective area for compensation
On th.e other hand, if A, + A. < A, the difference in area A - (A, + A,.) is to be provided
with ring ·pad and wcldments (Fig. 6.8). Therefore
A, = area available from ring pad and weldments within boundary limit
~ A - (A,+ A.)

D -12

Scanned with CamScanner

 t p!!!ION - MECIIANICAL ASf'Lcts
90 CIIIIMICAL lQUtrMEN
, ment the ring pad ~hould be riuid en ough
, cin,orce
It is 10 be noted that for us1~g_as r hould not be le~• than 5 mm. Further, the : to,
t~t p~rpose, ring pad 1l11ckncu • the area is conccnlratcd near the edge or the 0' •na "4
th Ptn,n1
d1meos1ons should be so cho5cn al, . forcemeot.
Thia aivcs belier etrcctiveocas to th c rem ·
• • 1 f construction for noule and ring pad .
3
Also 10 be noted that if m tc~• r ~hell, the following corrections for A. an~' "-~in1
3
°
different allowable stress value~ than odified as follows, A, to ht
made. lo thal case Eq. 6.3.9 11 to be rn
f. +A /!_
A' - A. + A. f. I I•
where,
f, ... allowable stress for shell material
f. co allowable stress for nozzle material_
I, ""' allowable 11rcs, for ring pad material
2 6+2

! ! !!-!"• ,.m r
=ti I "
=>• ,.'':! : : ..,
.•.. r-· .. An. f
t'----.. ~
.._ L
Ht
l
... a,, L I
" ~

I .. ~-
l'-~'-' '

!..
I ·,:
e
V.
•✓
V
/ "'
I -fiz
'
Fie. 6.8 Rias pall comptosatNI ooulc optnlng sbowln1 tft'tcthe area for comptosatloa
Dtslp Eumplc 6.1 : Examine the data given below to evaluate the requirem ent or
compensation for the nozzle opening in a cylindrical shell.
Outside diam. of the shell .•. 2m
~ax. working pressure ... 3.S MN/mt
Wall thickness for the shell ... O.OS m
Corrosion allowance ... 3 X 10-> m
Weld joint efficiency factor (Class I) I
Allowable stress (IS ·: 2002-1962-lA) 96 MN/ml
Outside diam. of noule (seamless) ... 025 m
Nozzle-wall thiclcness ... Cl.016 m
Inside protrution of nozzle- not desired
Length of nozzle above surface 0.1 m

Scanned with CamScanner

 COMPBNSATION FOR OP
l!NINQS IN Pao:w EQUIPM!Nr 91
Sofullon : From Eq 6 3
· · •8 area to be com
A = (d + 2c)r, d . ,.
pcnsate 1s ,ound below
From the given data,
d = (0.25 - 2 X 0.016) m
= 0.:?18 m
c = Jx 10-, m
From Eq. 3.3.19
t pD.
, ... 2/ J +p
where,
P - deaign prcasure
... 3.S x I.Os MN/ m2
... 3.68 MN/m2
Do = 2m
I = 96 MN/m1
J = 1 (opening is assumed away from welded joint.
In tbit problem, however, there is no difference)
Substitutina,
3.68 X 2
t, ~ 2 X 96 X 1 + 3.68 m
= 0.037 7 m
Hence, A = (0,218 + 2 X 0.003) X 0.037 7 m 2

= 8.443 X 10-l m2
Area available from shell for reinforcemer.t
A, = .(d + 2c) (t, - t, - c)
= (0.218 + 2 X 0.003) (0.05 - 0,037 7 - 0.003)
= 2.083 X 10-3 m 2
Area available from nozzle for reinforcement
An = Ao (no inside protrution)
= 2 H1 (t. - t,' - c)
Where, ,. = 0.016 m
• Pd.
,, =, 2/ J +p
3.68 X 0.25
= 2 X 96 X I + 3.68
= 0.004 7 m

Scanned with CamScanner

 ""Sl<
tl dUMJ CAL IQUIPIIINT .,. lk- 1..cC llA1'0CAL AStlC lS

From Eq. 6.3.13

Hi - y(d + 2c) (I• - c) 3
_ (O.lll + l x 0.003) (0.016 - O.OO )
- 0.054 m
· lirger tb1n 0 .054 m
Actus l lengt h or nozzle above shell sur rsec 15 ·

Hence, A. - 2 x 0.054 (0.016 - o.004 7 - O.OO))

1
- 1,964 X 10°"' ffl
Reinf orcem ent area anilablc from shell sn:1 nozzle is
A, + Ae "" (2.083 X 10-i O.S96 X IO-') ml + °'
= 2.979 4 X 10-> ffl1
Arca rema ined to t-c romp tnsatc d is
A - (A, + A.) e2 (8.443 - 2.979 4) X lO-I ml
- s.,63 6 x 10-' rn1
This diffet tncc is to be msde up by ring p:ad, i.e.,
A, -' .5.46J 6 X 10-1 ml
= {2 (d + le) - (d + 2c + 2 r,')) '•
.,. {2 (0,218 +2 X 0.00) ) - 0.233} r,

t, - Thick ness of ri ng p:id

>
0 .02S m
1t is to be noted that if ring pad is used, H , is mc3Surcd
from the surface of tbt
ring pad (Fig. 6.8). lf :ictus! length of nozzle is more
than /11 + '••full v:iluc of 111 tan bt
used for calcul:iting A. Otherwise, H, shoul d be subst
ituted by actu:i.l noul e length minus
'•· In this probl em, actua l length of nozzle - O. l m and
= 0.079 m. There fore, H1 - o.os, is used for calcu lating
H, + '• +
= (0.0 : 4 0.025) in
A••
Ring pad d imensions : _
Inner diameter ... d. -o.2s m
Oute r diame ter - 2 (d + le) - 0.448 m
I
Tbkk ues.s 0.02S m =
As the plate thickn ess is sufficiently b rge (0.02 5 m) to be rigid,
it is not n,~~siry
to iocrea.se It funhc r by rcd,c ing the outh diam
eter of tbe rigid p:i.d. In this me,
n1axi mum effective outer d iameter for the ring pad is
used. Ir thick ness of the pad would
be )C$S, it would be prcfc nble to reduce the outer
diam eter to incre ase tbe thick.om, so
that the pad becomes rigid.

L •

Scanned with CamScanner

 ~-----------
CO?dl'liNSATION FOJt Ol'BNINOS IN HOCE.."-S £QUIPMEIH 93

6.•.. UNCOMPENSATED OPENINGS

It is not alw~y_s neces5ary that any opening is to be cxtcraally reinforced. T his i;

th
t,ee4USC, the w:ill ickn~s of the vessels finally decided is huger than the theoretically
required. . T hl> extra 1h1c~ness pr:wides strength to the vessel walls to withstand slress
conc:ntr:it1on due to opening to some extent. The magnitude is t he refore, depends upon
the diameter. of the vessel Do, thickness of the shell I, pressure P ~nd a llowable stress value
of the material. All th ese factors will influence the size of the opening diameter that can be
left uncompensated.

I_f t, is the ~ctual shell thickness, then p Do/2 (r~

_ c) is the magnitude of the stress
th
induced in e unpierced shell under internal pressure p. This is ob\'iously less t han the
allowable stress value of the shell by a factor t,/(t, _ c). This difference in stress values
between allowable and induced is the indication of the reserved strength of the shell to take
care of the_ wea~cning ~!feet caused due to openings to certain limit. It is seen fro~ the
earlier sections, if openings arc made in the shell, its allowable strength is reduced consider-
ably compared to the unpierced portio:1. This deficiency in strength is made by providing
extra thiclmess as discussed in Section 6.3. By this way the enhanced stress level around
the opening is brought down to the allowable stress value of the shell theoretically. For the
calculation of the reinforcement area available from the shell, it 1s both related to the
.
'1

opening diameter d and shell thickne~s t, by,

A, = (d + 2c) (t, - t, - c) .. (6.3.10)
Again, area to be compensated is given by,
A= (d + 2c) t, ...(6.3.8)

By analysing these two expressions, it is found that the ratio t,l(t, - c) is an

important factor to determine the size o' opening which need not be compensated.
On the other hind it can be said that small.:r the value of t ,/(t, - c), larger can be
the opening diameter with.o ut any external reinforcement. Let a factor K be defined as :
K = t,
(t, - c)
Theo,
P Do =Kf ...(6.4.1)
2 (t, - c)
From Eq. 6.4.1, (Kf) is the magnitude of the induced stress in the ~npierced shell due to
internal pressure p. If any hole is mide in the shell, str.:ss concc?tratton near the ho~e edge
will be increased and the induced stress correlation for the portion nca~ the opcnmg or
bole will be ditrerent. According to IS: 282S - 1969, near the opcnmg the Eq. 6.4.1
becomes,
P Do = K' f
1.82 (t, - c)

or K, = __ Lp~D~o"--
-
1.82/(t, - c)
...(6.4.2)

Scanned with CamScanner

 cR!MlCAL BQUIPMSl'IT oB5ION-MllCHANICAL ASPICTS
94
Stress enhancement around the opening"d is purely
· floca'l in nature and th·,.• nc d 01
be nullified totally (Section 6. I) from this cons• erauon, or• e 11
K' ... or a little over 1, an opening diamet.:r upto 0.05 m need
1
compensated. not bt
f(' <! I, larger opening diameter upto_ o.i ~
c~n remai~ unreinforced de
upon the shell diameter, and the relat1onsh1p ,s graphically presented ~tndin
111

2825-1969. IS~
Another rational approach for determining the uncompensated opening d.
developed from the following considerations.10 It is seen fro~ Secti_on ~-3, open::rnetcrs is
stress concentration in the shell. As a result
.' near
h the . openmg
d causes
.y1eld1og of th eg Sh 1
expected at lower pressure than that required at I e unpicrce section. From tb. e I ii
a weakening factor i1 defined as,+ ts COnecpt

where, p . ""
.1. Po-i
,,- -
P• .
pressure required to cause 0.2% permanent deformation near the O e .
0 1
P, = pressure required to yield the unpierced shell. p ning .
., . -:~:.,
.tit'
~: I ·ii,
..
I'•
~
If t_his weakening fact_or is introduc~d in Eq: 3.~.19, one can determine the
......... cal shell th1cki:iers for uncompensated open mg. Tb1s gives, lbcorcti-
... y~- "•
:>· , ... -·
' • • p Do ...(6.4.3)
: ... t - 2/ J.+ p +
.?. I
~
. If opening is made away from welded joints, / =- I.
:
-~ d"
It is quite obvious that the wcak~ning factor
---~
will depend on th + Cope ·
tameter do and shell deftectiou characteristic
th· k · •
y
Do (t, - c) where 1 1·5 th
1' '
ning
e actual h
ed h" ·
+
IC ncss and c is the corrosion allowance, as a function of d0 / -
V
D (
O 1
• -
.
C) IS
i ell
grap 1cal_ly m German code, for unfired pressure vessels (AD•Mcrkbla 11 ) present.
values are given below : e er · A few
Table 6.1

do / 'V Do (I,
0,0
0.25
- c) +
1.000
0.900
Do / V Do (I, -
4.0
4.5
c)
-•
0.245
0.215
0.5 0.785 5.0 0.180
0.75 0.700 5.5 0.155
1.0 0.645 6.0 0.130
1.5 0.545 6.5 0.115
2.0 0.465 7.0 O.OYO
2.5 0.390 7.5 0.080
"3.0 0.340 8.0 0.075
3.5 0.285
. ,o L. w·mn, H. Montag and H Henne k -;--::-;:::-;:-:'.'.".':''."""'- - :_ussc
- - -- -- -- -
n111vcnsta~r-kung:n"
Tocillllsche 1,lebcrwachun•• 1 (1960)! 409 , · c en! Dae ~rechnuog. von A h •

Scanned with CamScanner

 C"OMPENSATIOl'I roR OPl!NINOS IN PROCES!, EQUIPMENT 9S
Dcsl 0 n F.xample 6 2 • E • . ..
d,. . . · · itamtne the poss1b1hty or making one 0.05 m diameter un·
compensate opening 10 the shell or Example 6 .1.
Solution : From Eq. 6.4. 2
K' = . P Do
1.82/(t, - C)
where,
P =
3.68 MN/m!
Do= 2m
I,,. 96 MN/m1
t, = .~.05 m
C = 0.003 m
substituting,
K' = 3.68 x 2
1.82 X 96 (u.05 - 0.003)
- 0.892 5
As.K' is less than 1.0, as per IS: 2825 -1969 a 0.05 m diameter uncompensated opening
..,.
'

can be made.

Let the question be examined as per German code.

'V do - = 'V 0.05 - . = 0.163
Do (t, - c) 2 (0.05 - 0.003)
From Table 6.1
,f, = 0.935
substituting in Eq. 6.4.3
1 = -=-:-'p'::-'='D-"-o,--
2 f J {> + p
3.68 X 2
- 2 X 96 X 1 X 0.935 + 3.68
= 0.0402 m
· tis less than (t, ~ c) i.e. 0.047 m, which is available in the shell. Therefore, as per German
code a 0.05 m uncompensated opening is possible.
It may be mentioned here that according to ASME section VIII, nil openings not
exceeding 0.05 m diameter need not be compensatc.d.

6.5 DETERMINATION OF COMPENSATION REQUIREMENT FOR OPENINGS

IN HEADS
Procedure is same as described in Section 6.3.3. Here the evaluation oft, is to be
made according to the following norm.

Scanned with CamScanner

r
96 OUIUC.U, IIQUIP~BNf DIISIOH-M!CH.\NIC.\L .\SPtcfS

(a) For dished and hemispherical end•

tr the opening and its compensation are located enti~ely withi~ the Sphcrict\
of a d ished end, t, is tbe thickness required for • sphere having a radius equal to thcPortioa
radius. tro..,Q

(b) For semi-ellipsoidal end

When the opening and its compensation arc in an ellipsoidal end and arc
entirely within a circle having a radius, measured from the_centre o~ the end, of 0.4o'~t~
shell diameter, t, is the thickness required for a sphere havmg a radius R, derived fro: 1hc
following table : lb.c

Table 6 2

--......
!l !~~, r.~,
-
h;ID,
0 167
~
1.36
h,ID,
,
0 .2J7
~
0,81

,
~• I ?I
=>· ,::-: :
.•. ....... --·
i '
~

~..·
.:---·: '
0 .178
0.192
0.207
J.27
1.18
J.08
0.312
0.357
0.40
0.13
0.6~
0.59
~
. ,.., 0.227 0.99 0 .45
0.54
'
..:: 0.25 0.90 0.50 o.so
i1
6.6 CO~PENS\TION FOR MULTIPLE OPENINGS
It is not un~ommon in process equipment to find several openings grouped to
• • h ff &ctbcr
over a comparatively small region. The pro bl em o f d etermm1ng l c e ect of the intcra .
. Tb' . . ct1on
between openiogi on the stress distr_ibution !hen arise~. 1s ~nteraction. depends 00 tbc
dista_n~ between the ~cnlre lines of each_ pair of ope~mgs, ~r pitch. The interaction Will be
neghg1ble when the pitch becomes sufficiently large, 10 wh ich case, each opening can be
treated in isolation.

In case of multiple openings grouped nearby, it is to be examined, if they may be

regarded as isolated openings. In this question the deflection characteristic of the shell~
(Ch. 5) comes for consideration.

As a conservative estimation it can be said that there will be negligible interaction

between two openings, if their (dge d istance is roughly 2 1t//J. This -value is givco by
German code2 as :
L - d sit 3 V Do (t, - c) ...(6.6.1)
where L is the pitch aqd dis tbc lqside diatllcter of th~ large opening (Fii, 6.9).

L •

Scanned with CamScanner

- ,
C0'1Pl1NSATION roa 0Plt11N0 3 Ill .,,.ocu, L<lUIPMIH r 97

Accordlna to M ershoo,2 the , n1cr11ctioo between t wo opcnmg s ii v11tu1lly neahg,b le

when,
L - d > 0 .86 \ I -UQ(I, - c) ... (6.6.2)

Tbit maanitu dc is little less than 2/r, 1111ugac5tcd hy Harvey (Ch. S).

Aa per JS : 282S - 1969 the openings spacco apart a dlllance oot Jc51 thJ! n
L =
I - 0.95 K
d ... (6.6.3\

but in no case less than twice the diamete r of the l:irger opeoiog may be reprded as
isolated
0 peologa .

At prcseot the desigo or pressure vessels with multiple opening s is based on the orea
replacem ent method. >

When the distance between two o penings is smiller the effect or in teraction is to be
st
examined. One should note that the cross-sectional area b~tween two opening edges mu
be large enough to carry the induced load.
(n the region indicated l>y the centre distance L, the effective cross-se ctional area A,,
.
I

for the nozzle type reinforc ement is given by (Fig. 6.9),

A, = shell area + ½ nozzle area
A, < (L - d, ~ d
1
) (t, - c) + ½ [H1 (t. + ,.• - 2c) + Ha (t. + tn' - 4 c)J ... ( 6.6.4)

(a) Jf t he opening s arc :iloog longitud inal directio n

p D1 /.. <I ... (6.6.S)
2 A,

(b) Jf opening s arc along ei rcu mfercocc o r on sphere

p D, L <I . .. (6.6.S)
4 A,

SH[U. All[&
Hz t

L - - - ---1

Fig. 6.9 E...

U'
ectlve are■ for compensation of multiple openings

Scanned with CamScanner

 OIIWICAL tQIJltMINT DDI ON- Mec llAH
!CIJ. ASr ecn
98
llllFE lltNC l:3 :
Anslrcn1u na und die Por
E. Sitbd and p, Koerlxr, ••Venucho ueber dlo
och bel der BeanspfU<:hun lllat 11~
,ewo clbter Kcstclbode n mil und obno Manl
bUJll m Dussel-dort, Miu! •durtb 111: ,
Druck,'' ,C.her-Wilhclm lnstll ul fuer Bben forst d11t11tii, 7 (I~
I IJ.ln : I (I), I·-' I.
die Beai upru cbun a voo Z .
I!. Siebel and II. Hauser, " Venu cho ueber
pflte ssel- , Beba elter - YU11c1t,1 ~
2.2
~illtCSChwelulco S1utzcn", T~h. MitL aus dem Dem • 11:nd R.~ .
luna,bau. Oucsseldorf, May, J9S-'.

E. Siebel and S. 5'hwalaerer, "Untenuchu111cn

Ucbe r du Fatip ei1n erba 1t
u Omb H. DuueJdorf ~ 11i&cb11ster
2.J 1
Abzwclp1uec:lt" M ill der Vcreini,ten Rohr-leilu:opba • IQ. 1931
.
iol, J., 9 (1962). !-'O(). •
2.4 "Desllll of PressUNI Youd Nozzlet", Brit. Wdd

lJ ?
I I

....·:

Scanned with CamScanner