CHAPTER 3

L VESSELS
DESIGN OF CYLlNDRlCAL AND SPHERICA
UNDER INTERNAL PRESSURE.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
pment is either cylindrical or
The shape of most of the chemical process equi
tion of a process equipment is to
spherical or some composite of these. The m1in func
re. In doing so it is also subjected to
conta:n a media under desired pressure and temperatu
piping reactions, and thermal shocks
the action of steady and dynamic support loadings,
sed by these conditions. The final
which require an overall knowledge of the stresses impo
chosen that it is not only adequate
thickness of a process vessel should, therefore, be so
ure, but also ensures safety against
against the induced stresses caused by internal press
above.
stresses caused by extraneous agencies as mentioned
g waH thickness small in
As it is observed most of the process vessels are havin
little resistance to bending perpendi-
comparison with their diameter and JenEth, and offer
their plane. The constituents of these
cular to their surface ; ·but' these are very resistant to
lated by neglecting bending i1,; called
surfaces are called "membranes", anj the stresses calcu
ed are based on membrane-Stresses.
"membrane stresses''. In this',chapter corr~lations deriv
_be assumed to b_e . uniform and then ,
First, stress distributi~n across ihe wall thickness will
will be derived.
applying Lame's analysis the form~lae given in IS code

3.2 ffllN WALL VESSELS

presc;ure and temperature. For
The thickness of the wall depends on the operating
specify any _limiting value for thin wall. 1
low pressures, thin walls are used. ft is difficult to
An ideal thin wall is that in which membr~n e stresses are ua1form along the thickness.,
1 ness .to diameter ratio is less than ·
However for practical usage it is suggested , if the thick
, .
o·.1, the shell may be considered as. thin wall.
·-thickness t is subjected to an
Let a cylindrical vessel of length L, diameter D and
tangential dircction,- and longitudinal
internal -pressure p. 1his will cause hoop stress in th'e '
-

and Desi$f1 of Pressure Vessel and Piping,

.1Proceedings of.Ad.vanced Summer School on Analysis
., Allah.abad (India), May --1972, p. 89• .
organized by M.N.R.E.C
. . . ' .

Scanned by CamScanner
 HANICAL ASPECTS
f!SlON- MEC
QUIPMBNf D . ;
CIIBMIC~L B
30 the I ore e F. , which . is balancing rad'1a1 r
· "
m Fig. 3, 1 b Janee Takmg the sum of th orr,.
·
t dtrec ,o n. Frobe found by force h 8half· of
stress in the aua · t' • · c • ."'-\
s the equ·/vrt1~1
•
acting on the shell surfa~e, ;:r~es acting ~n ~ac the shell give
components of all th , I lbriur~

equation:

··,(3,l,I)

pLD, · · (3.2,l)
Fe ::: ~
. . 'd' the force F by the cross-sectional
btaine d by d1v1 ing
The hoop stress ·m t he shell can be 0
area A = tL of the vessel. Thus,
LD!, == ~ pD, •.. (3.2,3)
F - · J!__
aa = A - 2 tL 2I

p I
-+ --
1

F ·F

Fig. 3.1 Radial and hoop stresses in thin cyli

nder

The longitudinal stress can be calculated by equatin

g the total pressure against the end of
the cylinder to the longitudinal forces acting on
a transverse section of the cylinder, as
indicated in Fig. 3. 2 giving
. 7t D,2
1t DI az =- p ... (3.2.4)
4

P D,2
a;i: == -
. . 41 D ...(3.2.5~

Scanned by CamScanner
 BLS ,,
CVLIND.RICAL AN
D SPHeRtCAL Vl!SS UNDBR INTERNAL
PRESSURE 31
.

_t~;--
Di

r and sphere
2 Longitudinal st re ss in thin cylinde
Fig. 3.
internal
na l stres ses in a thin sphere subject to
sim ilar m an ner, the hoop and longitu di
sa m e as , the lo ng itudinal stress in a
In a d the
out to be equal to,- an
pr~ssure can be found
cylmder.
P D '2 ... (3.2.6)
a z = aO = 4t D

lls un its are consistent and D = Di + t.

In all the above equatio
n of proc es s ve ssels under i nt ernaJ
in desig a sphere ;
Eq . 3 2.6 is of pa rticular significance = = crmin is given by
. . lue cr
h minimum absolute stress va
crz
0
pressure because t e thic kn es s fo r a given set of conditi
ons is
requ ire d
form stress-wise. Its
hence, it is the ideal y for a cylinder.
one half that necessar
-CODE
IG N EQ U A TI O N S AS GIVEN IN IS
OF DES
3.3 DERIVATION t so small
ocess equipment is no pr
cases the wall thickness of observed
In most of the pr actical
di st rib utio n is ju sti fied. Actually it is
of uniform stress the stress
that the assumption is re la tiv el y la rg e, the variation in
n th e th ic kn es s of the cylindrical vess el
ap pr ec ia bl e, an d th e ordinary mcmbra.nc
whe e becomes
e to the outer surfac ficant stress. In such
from the inner surfac ctory in di ca tio n of th e sig ni
the
ulae are not a satisfa ders is available in
or average stress form solutio n fo r th ic k cy lin
p,
is is used. Lame's _an internal pressure
cases Lame's analys thic kn es s is su bj ec te d to
t change
der of constant wall out it-; axis and will no
litcrature. ff a cylin
2 ab
be sy m m et ric al
po, deformation will th from the wall is co
nsidered
and external pressure m nn1m 1 of un it le ng
its leng th . In Fi g. 3.3 an element m m 1 an d 00 is a _ The radial stress
along the sides 1 0
Th e hoop stress acting on
for forc e ba lanc e.
s w ith th e ra di us r in the amount of
ss varie
rm al to th e si de m n is a,, an d this stre al ra di al str es s on the side m1n1 is
no the no rm
ance dr. Therefore,
(da,/dr) dr over a dist
, 1969.
st-We.st Pres s Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
sure Vessel ~ p i, Ea
2
John F. H arvcy, Pres

Scanned by CamScanner
 CTS
IO N -M EC llA N IC A L ASPE
LJIPMIJNT _or .B
CIWMIOAL IIQ

32
t!a, dr
a ,+ dr

m,<
'Ii, •.

n,
n

- ·- - - -

r_
alysis in a .thick-waJJed cylinde
stress an
Fig ; 3.3 Lamc's
nship,
re ct io n yiel ds th e following relatio
in radial di
lib rium th e su m mation o f fo~ccs d,
A t equi
an titie s o f high order arc neglecte
if the small qu .. . (3.3.2)
, = 0
. a - a, - r da dr
0 A second relati
on can be
a an d a,.
.the stresses O
ua tio n gi ve s on e relation between m pt io n th at the longitu
di-
This eq and from th e as su e of
th e de fo rm ation of the cylinder ce m en t o f a cylindrical surfac
obtained from dial disp la
o f al l fib ers is eq ual. If u is the 'ra radius r + dr is
f
nal strain
al di sp la ce m ent o f a surface o
radius r, the ra di
.. . (3 .3.3)
: du ..1
ur
u + -·dr strain o f
it ra di al el on ga tion o r a radial
rgoes a un
re fo re , th e el em ent mnn,m, unde
The
.. . (3.3.4) -
dr = rf'!..
e, = ( ~ -)dr dr
dr . t·
p. stra r·n o f th sa m e cJemen 1s
gation o r h o o e
fere nt ial dire ction the unit elon , (see p ar ag ra p h 2. r I)
, i.e.
I~ th1e ·circhum · · . rrespond in g ra di us
ua to t e un it clonga~wn o f the co
eq )
.. . (3.3 .5
. .
. - . th e
d . " r th e stresses 10 terms o f
10 4 and 2 IO 5 set o f ex p ress·
io ns 1o
Then from Eqs. 2~ • · . • - a. se.con
· es ·. · . .
st rains becom

Scanned by CamScanner
 AL PR ES SU RE 33
LS UN DE R IN TE RN
DR IC AL AN D SP HH RIC AL VBSSH
. CY LIN

E (du u)
+µ r
••. (3.3.6)
a, - I - µ dr2

•.. (3.3.7)

nction u. By
n
si_ ce th ey ar e ex pr es sed in terms of on e fu lving
These stresses ar e in te rd
ep en de nt
Eq s. 3.- J.6 . an d 3.3 .7 in to Eq. 3.3.2 an d so
r a, an d a0 fro m
substituting the values fo ns fo r th e · no rm al stresses ar
e
ra l ex pr es sio
th us formed, th e gene
the differential eq ua tio n
given below : ... (3.3.8)
(p, - po) r12 ri
r 2 (ro 2 - rl )
.. (3.3.9)

a. occurs at th e
in ne r
e m ax im um va lu e of 8
sions it is cle ar th at th
Fr om th e ab ov e expres res, p, an d po. These
eq ua tio ns
ge r of th e tw o pr es su
a, will be th e lar e sum of these tw o
stresses re m ai ns
. surface, an d m ax im um It is no te d th at th ne d
e's so lu tio n. is th e sa m e as m en tio
·are kn ow n as th e La m th e ax ial di re cti on
at io n of all elements in ven by
constant, he nc e de fo rm str es s at an y po in t in th e cylinder is gi
rin g
earlier . Th e m ax im um sh ea
.. .(3.3.10)

is given by
is ge ne ra lly small and
The lo ng itu di na l str es s
... (3.3.11)

r th e stresses
on ly in te rn al pr es su re , p, th e ex pr es sio n fo
to
Fo r a cy lin de r su bj ec te d
are, 2 ... (3.3.12)
rl p ~ ( 1 - ro
2r
)
a,= 2
ro - ,,
2 ... (3.3.13)
,,2 p 2( l-,t-ro2 )
ae= 2
ro - r; r
ne r
ea ter than a, and it is the maximum at the in
a is gr
It should be noted that O "
r th e design pu rp os es, the ho op stress at r =
Therefore, fo
periphery of the cylinder.
taken as critical or allowable stress, i.e.
should be .. .(3.3.14)

D -5

Scanned by CamScanner
 T DJ!S tON- MECHANICAL
· ASP.etTa
Uf Jlf,f f!N ,
34 cueM1CM, lllJ he material· of comtr~ct1on, 'lfie
0
tress value ~ th sheet metals necessitating the ~hc,lli,_
whcre.f •14~ cnt Is genera y fabricuted
ds for allowabl~ s t e material with a factor caned ioin~1;t71
rength ofw1~ f:f¼i, "•
roe<!! cqu1pm he allowable _st factor, then, . ''I
P I h reduce• t • .nt efficiency
wh c If J denotes JOI
factor. 2)
(ro2 + r,
I J = .P. ,; - ,,2

P r:: I J (
,, t -,,2)
,:2 + ,,2
..
If I is the mm1mum . d for the shelJ,
wall thickness reqmre
+·,)2 - ,,2
(r,
P =I J (r, + t)l + ,,2

I 1 t (t + 2r,>
~ (2~r,2,+ 2rf t + t2)
'•1 -

I Jt
== t (r, + t)
· [r, + 2·r, +·,
... . /Jt
or, p == ------:,,
,,
I+-
I!
I
r, +t
,,
2+-
t
... (3,3,16)

Eq. ~.3.16 is the basis for all design equa!ions specified in the codes for internal pressu~
vessels, The above equation can also be written as,

2/Jt
p
D1 +
C: /
+
t J 2 t D,
· . +
1 t/D, ... (3.3.17)

Limitations stipulated in IS: 2825-1969 for using design equations indic-dte that
Do/D, ~ 1.5

maximum
above, D,
where, are theofouter and inner diameter of the vesse I respectively. From the
an<1.D, vaJ~e

t/D,:::::: 0,2S
It is evident thaH th • .
I + 2 I/D, or e values of t/D, between O to 0.25, the magnitude of the expression
~variesfro Io 10 · d JO
' · Ill • 1.2. As an approximation, IS : 2825-1969 has accepte ·

Scanned by CamScanner
 ·
AN D SP HD RI CA r. VllS!l[ll S IN lllR NA L PR W URB
CY LI ND RI CA i. , . . UN OflR 3S
al e •
·
· ex pr es sio r r t/D , no t exceeding 0.25. Th~ fin sio ns from the ho op str
ess
for t111s n 1o fo r ti II d ~p rcs .
or e, gi ve n as fo llo ws vessels)
co nsideration ar e, th er ef le cy n rtcal pressure
t
p = 2 /J t_ 2 /J ... (3.3.18)
D, +t- Do - t

= PD , I' Do ... (3 .3. l~)

t
. 2/J - p = 2/J + p
op an d
de r in te rn al pr es sure, th e induced ho
1
. d! n 1hc ca seseof sp he ric al vedssel h un · d 1s · · stress in .a
e as th e long1tudinalEq 3 3 11
s ar e eq u I rn ag m tu e sa m
Iong11u 10a stres ~ an l e. linder is given in
. ex pr es sio n fo r lo ng 1tudinal stress in a cy · • · •
Th e ge ne ra l
cyhn_der. on ly th is becomes
Fo r m te rn al pr es su re
... (3.3 20)

Fo r sphere,
P r 2
... (3.3~2I)
Uz = ·a 0 = fJ = r 0 2 _ ' r 12

or
pD,2
or 4 fJ t = fDi + t)
4 f Jt
or D , t+ = ( I + ~,
p
r ..
... (3.3. ?2)

tween Oand 0.25.

to un ity for t/D~ varies be
approximated ( 1 + ~1
)
· JS: 2825-1969 has de expressions are
ratios of t/D,. The co
is gives conservative estimation for h_igher
Th
therefore,
4/ Jt ... (3.3.23)
4. f J t
p-- J.J, + t -~ Do - t
pDo .... (3.3.24)
pD,
t == 4 /J -p = 4 /J + p
3.3.19 and 3?.24 for
e expressions ·given in Eqs.
It is ·to be noted care fully th at th
requ ired m inimum wa ll thickness to withstand
cate . the theoretically
walJ thickness t, indi
s Institution, New
ed pressure vessels, . Indian Standard
Code for u·ofir
BIS : 28 2S -1 96 9,
lle.JhJ,

Scanned by CamScanner
 J! . "1 uru•HA
J',QlJJPJr11!Nt' I) SlOi, ,_,.,JJV NJCAL ASPECTS
cJlf!IAICAJ,
36. · fe
'I'hMJP do not in
· 1lure p lY clude any extra
cffe-Ot or Intern al pre 5 f)a \,/ JV
• ., rmity
in sheet meta I t h' k
11

of corrosion, no.0.. un110

•
1c ness andano"'a.n~
th e ~ary to take
care . . he appropri•ate
After a,ddmg t . to allowances to th rC ~\
nefcleh\cknen durlns _r
ok rr b e ch osen e theord~1%
o ntnS•the final value h1 from the standard
calculated. wa ll th1clla ne&,, k t an d
.s should be
equal to or hig icticau)
th
the ,heet metal ava F hlo in the mar e . see A t is • ( ) her th nets ()f
M3ndard dimen sio
ppendix B • an th
calcul:1ted value. ns
or e
is
Ex.ample 3.1: A
pr oc es s I to be designed for the ma~
ve rs~ has the nom i
, tinDg e1prlgcsn~ure of 500 kN/mi. The in al diameter of 1.2 rnrnur
opera t to tangent le vessle ·s de o
ngth of 2.4 m. Th vesse 1 u.-~ w-
f IS : 2 00 2-1962 Gradea~
n.
tanSJl~tn •ttcl havi
ng allowable de
e t ss v alue of 118 MN/m • ~
qu 2
Thea Icoyrr•osion allow • te
si
d
gn
to
s re2 '"or the life span a t w o rkm g temperature'-o
- ·. ance is augg be mm e xp
1 ss 2 of Indian S d edcted ·5
11
The ves&e l 11. to be fabricated es ac co
. for the Ve&sc1·
atipu\ate the weld_ • rd in g to c a tan ar spec1 ca ·
•
jomt efficiency of 0 tions Which·
1 .85.
.
(a) What will be the stan'd_ar d Plate thickness to fabri•cate th'
ts vesse 1?.
(b) If a spherical
vessel having the
the aamc qua \·tI y tee! wha same diameter an
t maximum inte d thick
safely 7
s ,
rnal pressure th ness is fa~ricat~d with
e spher~ will
withstand
Solution : (a) To
e~tra allowances to determine the min
withstand the indu imum wall thick
the cylindrical ves!el ced membrane st ness required
, Eq. ress excluding any
ia to be checked la 3.3.19 is applicable as d ue to operating
ter. suming that t ID
, will not excepedress0 ure inside
.,, .25 wh.ich
PDo .
t:::: 2/J+ p
Here, t = minim
um wall thickness w ... (3.3.19)
ithout CO{tosion allowa
rcs,ure, a= ?1d~1Di~lmumpresofsure'5, N/m' (Accordin t .
P nce,m
% extra is to beg
igber value" not as
ked by the party). ad~!s. 2825-1_969, to
In this problto th decide the des
e maximum wo ign
P Ill 1.0s x 500 x 1 000
N/rn1 cm , rking pressure, if a
=: s2sx 1ooo N/m'
Do === outer diam
eter of th
according to India .
D : Vessel, Ill
I O l:a 1.2 D
\ n tandard) (This is the
t · same as nomin
I - allowable ~. . al diameter
._118)( l~ 1'1/1t1l atress for th
Cltgn

e trlaterial specif
. ied, N/~'2,

Scanned by CamScanner
 CYtINDRICAt ANb ~PllBRtCAt VfSSilts tJNbBR lN'IBii.NAL 1'1\'ESStJRE 37
J = weld joint efficiency factor.
= 0.85
I J = 100.3 X 108 N/m2
Substituting the values in Eq. 3.3.19,
t = 525 X 103 X 1.2
2 X 100.3 X 106 + 525 X 1C3 m
= 3.13 X •\10-3 m
= ,3.13 mm
Adding corrosion allowance to this, minimum actual wall thickness required to be
I
ta' ·= t +C= 3.13 +2= 5.13 mm
Standard thickness (nearest higher) available is 6 mm. Therefore, to fabricate this vesseJ,
sheet 'metal of 6 mm thick is to be used.
(b) To determine the maximum internal pressure for a spherical vessel of
Do = 1.2 m and t = ta - c = 6 - 2 = 4 mm, Eq. 3.3.23 is to be used. From this
equation, first design pressure is to be evaluated.

p=
4/ Jt ... (3.3.23)
Do....;., I.-'

Substituting the values,

3
_ 4 X 118 X 106 X 0.8S X 4 X 10- N/ 1
p - 1.2 - 4 X 10-3 m
= 1.34 X 108 N/m
2

Maximum internal pressure is obtained by dividing p by 1.05. Therefore

1.34 X 10 6 2
p, (max) = I .OS N/m
= 1.276 X 106 N/m
2

. · The spherical vessel having the same diameter and thickness will withstand a
2
. pressure of 1.276 MN/m safely.
In both the cases t/D I is same, and that is

4 '
. t/Di = 1 200 - 2 X .4
= 0.003 4
, t' · : h.··less than O25 ·and hence the equations are co~ectly applied.
Thera to 1s muc . • . . . . .

Scanned by CamScanner
.......-- .

CHAPTER 4

DESIGN OF HEADS AND CLOSURES

. 4.1 INTRODUCTION

el are to be closed before putting into

. . The en?s ?f _a cylindrical process vess es.
n. This 1
s don e ?Y means of hea
_ ds and closures, which are of different shap
operatio owing types of heads :
The vessels are usually provided with the foll
(a) Flat head
{b) Standard dished or torispherical head
{c) EHipsoidal
(d) Hemispherical
(e) Conical or toriconical head

Some oth er forms are also in use.

1.
Various forms in use are shown in Fig. 4~
s on the factors like process temperature
The selection for a particul~r type depend
su_re, natu re of the mat erials to be handled and products obtained position f th
and pres s ;
el (ho rizo ntal or vert ical ), ~atu re·_of the support and above all the eco~omy. Us~ 0
vess below. ,
common types of heads are bnefly narrated
\

for manholes in low pressure ves~els

Flat Hea ds: Fla t covers are generally used eter
y can .also be used as closures for small diam
· or to blin~ any flanged opening. The or at higher pressure, the flat head
ng at low pres sure . For larg er vess els
vessels operati
be too bul ky ; othe rwi se, it wilJ tend to collapse. The discontinuity stresses at
cJver will is the
jun ctio n of hea d and sheJ l are high . Fro m fabrication point of view, this
the a result~
ing a circular piece from a flat plate. As
simplest type head to construct just cutt imum"
ditions, material cost for flat head is max
· for a particular diameter and operating con
though, ·fabrication cos t is very low.
of flat head in which the gradual change
Flanged-only Heads : This is also a type omical_
ced local stresses. This head .is very econ
in the. shape at the cor ner re$ults i~ redu age vessels
bric ate and 'finds its widest app lica tion in closing the ends of horizontal stor
to'fa as.!._~fuel
ids having low vapour pressures, such
at atmospheric press~re to store liqu on
heads of vertical cylindrical vessels that rest
oil, kerosene, etc. Also used as bot tom
concrete slab. 39

Scanned by CamScanner
 Oo
(0)

(h)

(C)
Do
1- De
1
ho~Do
. I
4

Ii...• .-- -- - Do --- -i~

. . (d)

Fig. 4·,1 Commonly used formed .heads

(a) Flanged only, d' bed
(b) Flan. ged and shallow dished, · . (c) Flange an
. d d cer.ts
(torispherical), (d) Ellipsoidal, (e) Hemisp~ e~ical, (f J Conical headd standard
or re u
.

iff~llow
· · Flrrnged Dished a11d Flanied Standard Dished Heads : While
dished ·shape, · such heads consist of two radii, nam pressi~g ~~:;,
ely, 'crown' radius and 'knuckle ra a
If the crown radius is greater than the shell outside
diameter, the head is known as
'flanged aitd ' shallow · dished head'.' On the other han
Jess than the outs,'d e d'tameter, the head is known as 'fland if-the crown radius is equal d,
'ged and stan dar d dishe d hea
10 01·

Scanned by CamScanner
 >
<
DESIG N OP HBADS AND 6LOSURBS 41
all inside-corner (knuckle) radius, localiz·
ed stresses are ve ry h.1gh ,.:and d o-·not
~ c to s m .
vll code reqmr ement .
1
serve tie
of vertical
The typical applications of such h~ads are ~ound in the construction
vessels for low pressu res, of horizo ntal cyhnd.rical storage tanks for voJat·1l e fl u1•ct s,
roeess . d k d f in which the
P naphtha, gasohne an . erosene, an o large diameter storage tanks
sueh as, static pressure are too great for the 'flanged-only heads '. __ _
vapou r Pressure and hydro
local stresses at
To increase the pressure rating of flanged ·and dished heads, the
ed by forming the head
the inside corner of the head must be reduced. This can be achiev
with inside corner (knuckle) radius not less than three times the
metal thickness and also
inside corne r radius (r()
not Jess than 6 per cent of the inside diameter. As per IS code
and also inside crown
. should preferably _b e not less than 10 per cent of inside diame ter
radius (R,) should not be greate r than outsid~ diame ter (Do). ·
re range of
Heads of this type are used for pressure vessels in the general: pressu
from 0.1-1.5 MN/m 2 •
ed in the
Elliptical Dished Headv: · These type of heads are generaJly recom mend
designed to opera te above
pressure range of 0.7 MN/m and preferably for the vessels
2

ard dished head - and

I.S MN/m2, an econo mic balan ce may be made to select between stand
Elliptical dished heads are
eJlipticaJ dished head both meeti ng the JS code specifications.
Most of the stand ard
formed on dies in which the diame trical cross-section is an ellipse.
to mino r axi~. The
eJJipticaJ dishe d heads are manu factur ed on 2 : 1 ratio of major
a seamless cylin dri :al shell
· strength of such head is approxilriately equal to the streng th of
having the corre spond ing inside and outsid e diameters.

Hemispherical Head s: For a given thickness, this type of heads is the strong est
appro ximat ely twice the
among the forme d heads . These heads can be used to resist
of the same thickn ess and
pressure rating of an eJJipsoidal dishe d head or cylindrical shell
are greate r than for any of
diameter. The degre e of formi ng and the accom panyi ng costs
single plates are more
the comm only used heads . Also the availa ble sizes forme d from
ical heads are fabricated ·
limited. Small heads are made by spinn ing, but large hemi-spher
, or by forgin g. This
by welding press ed plate sectio ns in the shape of a crown and petals
in heavy duty high pressure
type of head is perha ps the most expen sive but it is widely used
ial is achie ved .
· • . vessels due to the fact that the most efficient use_of the mater
I
for a variety of
. Conical Heads and Redu cers: COnical heads arc used a$ botto m
settlin g tanks , silos, etc. The
proce~s equip ment like evapo rators , spray driers , crysta llizer s,
solids from such equip ~~nt.
partic ular advan tage lies in _the accum ulatio n and remo val of
ding a smo_oth tranSitt~n
Anoth er comm on appli catio n of conic al head is as reduc er, provi th
eter in cylin drical proce ss vessel s .. ~on~c al heads wi
between two parts of differ ent diam 10st
is easies t to manu factu re, but this simph city is partly '
a sharp cylin der-c one J·unc tion b · · When
· ion at t e Junction. .
When a knuck le radiu s is speci fied,J p reduc e the stress -conc entlat
ted, it is necessary. to provi de
,_ the apex angle is more than 60° or fatigu e failur e is expec
D-6 -----

Scanned by CamScanner
 Ml/(}Jt,'i/-lU Af I A1'Pll
1 JI f1

f(tltf1 ill I11 lll'Mlil I,

, , 1 ,1;urw•
I
f,O''
.

ifl'O uunm,,mly
,~ e11w~• n 1111,~ 1,,1v l11/f ,,poK ll II J~/1:J J

. 1 II
11
k ,,k 1,, 11111/ui,
1
A II fim,wd llmtrln 4ro ,, q
I f l!il ,',',,.i
. 1,111n
,w11~ ,11,,,, I/ ' ,, l/{
/ ,,,,,,,"/l'lf . (2) COl'li DJ' lori w N 'Ctl({
' /1,(I 1111 ' ' ''"'' 11 Jt,e r,J'
I' , •1/,111.,· 11111 ,I ,,, "f I'll I I n 11. f I llw h11 r II µ11rl o/ u •r•lrcro I ~:•11
I ,., / dlt I

""'"''1 ,, <,) I rH o//011) In ,10, , 11f!3,,,.,,,,t1, oJ' l.l,J1t ,1ccUut1 '" ,:, ,~,,,,,~
/ '111 11 1,1,,mtd /11'111/.i • ' ~, 1111, 11 1'11 II 11111111 'J' II) " u .,, •u,,,,.
'11 ,,1m111, 111111 , ,, ,

'I 1111 , 'I , ,·vii ,

, 1,., "' • NI I11
,.,11 11111' , , '0111111 ' ,
1 n uJ/1111 ( II•1111/lll'O, ,,.,, co11vvrt Iha <l1~l1e11 ,,c,.'tl('7a~
wJIt 1 ' '" I'u111 of cu,v~
, 1 I (11'11WI I I,

(,l l , 11111 r,11111

,.~
I , ,
m11 .. ,
. 1111111 of
I
/im,icd 'I

""'
1111 1
111 "" 1111, ',1 , ", v,1111I wII II 1111 1111 1111 111
w;
II' 11' ~oflu H' u111·11vr IOI "IJ I l'1Hll 1111, /\ !I u re,: uh •J inco 11
r,1
~
11 1 of 11 •l ' Ii•:• ,,yl/iuh'1111il or ; · 11111 ilul' 1111111 tlm CJ/ 1/0IJII cu1111;11g 11trc11 J•c 111ccutrali,,., '.1•
I~~-:
11,';'",' ::;.,'.~·:.:·,,:,u!INwit /oh \'' llll:~,.i I:,:,111111111 / (/'"/I o~I i/() II ()/' t() I'll/I It, ,n () ro j,,, PoI I;,~:
~:~
,·11 " ' ·cur, n' Ihu ,/1111111"" I ll mul 11I l'lllln uo1111 ! ,er Nox I to tor1111 con1c11 "hMe1
111\1;() U8Ii• IICll<J ii, COffl p Icle V/it;I
1:';" 1 1~:,' 1 III rl11H1I~ II 11hl/l 1(11'111,1•1 I WI, 1: h /11 1111101I II111ll'IJ
/,.;,;, "" 111' 1h~ 1/11l " ' ~•·• '., ~~llnih'lcnl m·om1-1m,,t ;,i~/ow II ntruleh t flu nee 11cctio11 i aia~
n"'~ ,,, wit'"" Iii lt11 v11Inu,"" rn ~huu Ill hrlc11 lion I10/11 I o I ·01111. io11co11 tm tio" wou Id be larg; 11

,ll.dw1I 111111 !M"" ,"~~~•:t~ho tol'lln neot/011, wlic;·o :;,~nevi Jiond wit~ the cylin_dri &hcJJ ca1
,·cri• very r1191111,11,11,::,~,lotl I /olut w/J/oh l11 n11001111ory ~ru11 durl1w wc/drng .. Stra1gh1 flange
111n1·111'),'()I/II
,j)l\'fl,V , ~!, ,s,ro~Nt'
, 1 "' 11111, · ·'l ' fl) he Induced , • Ju LIJot
so 11 ,'01 J11tl1
o of tl1i8 IJCCtion . ia Barne• as that • of a
1
,.Y flV" ~ liko n cylinder under Jll'OIIIIIIIO, 111 '.,,. 01811 ;118 JJcud there/ore, consideration of
II or oou,Jltlon~ ' Uv,J ' •
. 1"111c· k ncsa oI' t J1e torus .•
()(l ""
llndrlclll \IC,NSt,I under slm I 1 1 1111 imi>or·t,r nt critcrru
• ·
s11. 'J '~o Jun:11on • a of
.,1re9s-co11cen1r11/?11 ut t ic_ torus , · 1Beet• clor01110 RNckcl lho head th1cknc
seol/on, ho11ever mlho dolcrnun 11 lns ~ • ·onccnlrulion in tho torus section. 1 hese arc ·
d/sconHn , . 1Ieuity c 1111dore lorus-oyh re::c
lufluouol_n<S1c,,~lie• LBnrg tho knuckle radius, stronge . r is the torus section.
.
1cc IS lo p1ov111c . three . 1times the 1r, head l thickness
Oeneml
torus-sp6
pnocl
r . . , • k,iucklo rndius uot less t/11111
ord , per • cc11 t oI' lhc inside dlnmclcr of I/Jc hcnd,• wluchcv , 'J · d .c.,uc
, cr 1s l argcr. · to ft 1chsmaller
·k
m ,us . , o1·1111011curvutur 10 e , lorus .
section scls tl1l11nc1· during
.k lormmg F' . 11s re uction o I . ness
1c ..
depend, 11 rndlus of curvalurc and plnle lluc _ncss. or genera 1 purpos e a reductio n
of 6 per cenl may be considered reasonable, Ihough II can go uPio JO% (IS : 4049- f968).
Exact mnsnitudc should bo oblaincd from Urn m11m1facturcr's catalogue. As it is mentioned
earlier, lorus thickness is nc1u11lly c11lculalcd to determine lhe head thickness. Design
e~un1io11 "'."' gi~c l/1e m_lnlmum !orus thickness_ required. In deciding the standard plate
be considere
1h1cknc!s w,111 wl11cl1 ~cad
d appropru 1tcly,1s lo be lormed, rcduchon of thickness in the torus section is to

Wlien l1c11d and «hell are to be co td I

flange, s1raight llnnge seciion in t/ic head is ~:cc c t iro~gh removable joint like bolted
Purpose is 11gai11 not to connect lhe rin llau ed_ for We/ding the ring flange, with the head,
enhancement of lbe stress-conceutratio: ge With the torus sectiori to a void the further
I
Many times it Will b fi
. of head thickn, . . . e ound that Under the . .
joint beiwcen h/: is cons1derabJy larger than th t st~e operating conditions, requiremenl
l gradual redu at· nnd shell under such cond1't• a o s ell thickness. To provid e a smoothd
for
. c 1011 of ti · k •on straj ht fl
. . Uc ·1ncss,
t llckness, Th·is operat,o .. so Uiat 'h ' th. gk .ange section can be charnfere 1
, ' e edge
• of
n w, I hdt alfect th e strength nessh becomes equal to the shel
ic th
· . - . e ead any way,
Scanned by CamScanner
 :$
t)ES JON 011 HBA,t>s • ANb CLOtURB 43
· le .,- '- "
'-'ard leng th of stra igh t flan ge is from .40-1 00 mm . Ma xi mum ngth t may , go
.
sw.ou if spec ially d d B ut t h'1s w1·11 mcu r extr a cha rges M'101.
or ere . mumhalengt . h of
rnrn; is 3 tim es the end thic kne ss
and this sho uld no; be 1ess t n 20 mm
pto 2ooa
0 ;ght JJaog
stra . 4049 _J9 68) .
(IS:
ANALYSIS AN D DE SIG N
, .z
Ffat cover head
4.2. 1 of
stress ana lysi s of flat cov er hea d is mad e her e on the basis of bendin~
The eral expression
:r. rmIY loaded circ ula r pla tes of con stan t thic.kness. For der ivin g the gen
. . ?l~te are
un1,o · cons1_dered. In one case, ed~es of the
for ead thickness, two s1tu~t1o~s are ed, i.e.
9 rota tmg only and not otherwISe rest ram
assumed to be clamped pre ven tmg 1t from ative end
the plate. In this case the re ~re neg
there is no stra in in the neu tral pla ne of ly sup por ted , thu s
2 ' 3 In this sec ond cas e, edges are con side red to be free
bending momen ts.
eliminating the edg e ben din g mo me nt.
era l def lect ion equ atio n is giv en by3,4
For uni form ly loa ded circ ula r plate, gen
p x4 . x2 .
... (4.2.1)
w = D - Ci 4 - C2 In x + Ca
64

; In the abov.e equ a~i on,

p == loa d intensity (say pressure)

x .= ·dis tan ce of any par t of the plate

und er consideration from the centre,

D = flexural rigidity of the plate,

E t3
- 12 (I - 11-2)

t = thickness of the plate,

µ = Poisson's ratio,
= modulus of elasticity,
E

C1, C2, C3 = constants of int(?gration, . /

of inte gra tion are det erm ine d in eac h particular case of loading by the edge
C9nstants
conditions of the plate. '
• t Design", John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Eqmpmen
L. E. Brownell and\E. H. Young, '.'Process
1
1

, · lh'1 l969 .
New York, 195 9, p. 93. \ . · -Hi'll Book
_D. e M'c0 raw
1 J H Har vey "Pr ess ure Vessel Des ign " , Eas, t-W
est Press Pvt .Ltdd., New
Sh lls"
. . , ' - . e ' .
Tim osh enk o and S. Wo inow sky-Kriege r,· ''Theory of Plates an
s S. . Inc., Princeton, N.J.,
195 9. · · '. :
· . ' · . ·
C9._Inc., New. Yor k,
, Par t ll, D. Van Nos tran d Co '
· 'S. Tim osh enk o "St ren·gth of Ma ten als" .-
1956. ' /, ·

Scanned by CamScanner
 "-•-JdfCtl At-iJCAL J,.SP
J!ctl
ea u ir )I B ~_1' t> 1i5JOi, ·"
ci 1s )t le ,4 .t,
. ~ d edgtS, the equation o f deflection
(Eq,
Jate WJ't h c Ja ti lr .
{a) fo r circufar P "·l.\)
...,:oJJtCS, 2
""- 2)2
~ (fl.2 - X
w === 64 P
.
. t the poa·nt o f support.
R is the rad-1US of the plate a
. where
. . at the centr r the plate (X -- O) e q u a l to
rna.xilllllrll deflec tion is eo
~ .
~ .
~ .,.(4,2,3)
S === 64 D .
.

u nd M are bend . ents per unit• 1cn th caused by pressure

If IY-" a 8 ang mom g and M, acts
1 . . t' ons
·n o f th e plate,2 th
along cy j1 drical sections and Ma a on diametrical sec t en,
g

M, c::s
J!._ [R2 (l
16 + !-'-) - x2 (3 + 1-'-?1
.

•.. (4.2,4)
M e: i _i [R2 (1 + !-'-) - x' (1 + 3tJ,
o Y6 )] ... (4.2.S)
Moments at the
following express
edge o f the p I te is obtained by . substituting x
a = R. This gives the
ions :
pR2
M,=-s
•.. (4.2.6)
. µ.p R2
Mg= - - 8
... (4.2.7)
Similarly, by sub
stituting x == Oin
obtained as follow Eqs. 4.2.4 and
4.2.5, th e mo
s: ments at the c
entre are
M,
'= M6 = 11+6µ .p R 2
From Eqs, 4.2.6, •.-.(4.2.8)
4.2.7 and 4.2.8 it . .

given by Eq. 4.2.6 ·is evident that th

ee
that the maximu xpression for maximum mom
~~ . This indicates
m stress is · a t th ent is
.
.
e edge of the plate and
<Jmu = CJr = Mr =~ X p
t2/6 t2 R2
8

... (4.2,8)

Scanned by CamScanner
,,.,,..-
1 D CL<>aUkBS
Dll8 lON 01 HIM DB AN 45
• ~-:.. '

ded cir cul ar pl t 0 ia sim ply ·su ppo rte d, the

b\ Wh en 1hc edges 1of a uni for ml y loa a

do1100
( ~u ati on becomcs :
1ion ..., 1
p (R" - x ) [ (S
l
+
+
fJ.) Rl
fJ. - x2_
J f ... (4.2.9)
W - 64 D
es
mum deflection at tho cen tre bec om ,
0 maxi
"x r= :i,
i,t (5 + r.t) p R• .. . (4. 2.1 0)
8 ..,. 64 (J + µ) D
• 2
:
BeJJdiog moments equ ati on s are
. .. (4. 2.1 1)
Mr = { (3 + µ) (R x2 )
1 .
-
6

Ma = i6 [R2 (3 + µ) - x2 (1 + '3µ)] ••• (4.2.12}

occurs at the cen_tre where,

The maximum bending mo me nt
11 · - M· _ (3 + 16
µ) p .R2 · ... (4.2.13)
,n, - 8-
str ess is
and corresponding ma xim um
M ·, 6 (3 + µ · ) p Ri
C1ma• = <Ir c:: (18 = t2/ 6 . = 'ji"" . 16

3 (3 +-.. ::. ... -

1-') . p R2
= -~ -- ... (4.2.14)
8 ,2
e stress 'f' of the ma ter ial ·_
In Eqs. 4.2 .8 an d 4.2.14, if
'a.,.• .i:' is substituted by allowabl ral
is the e
· ffe cti ve dia me ter of the flat he ad , a ge ne
and 'R: is replaced by .D./2,
whe.re D, Th is is as
the thi ck ne ss of fla t hea ds an d covers . is ob tai ne d.
expression for cal cu lat mg
follows: . . .. (4.2.15)

shell.
on the me tho d of att ach mt ;nt to
where, C is a factor de pe nd fog up
IS : 28 25 -1 96 9 for cal cu lating the flat head thickness. _
Eq. 4.2.15 is given in
the few cas es wh ere C val ues are indicated (IS : 28 25 -19 69 ).
FoJlowing are
ed fla t he ads bu tt we lded to shell. D, = D, ; C = 0.45.
J. Flang
lde d to the ins ide of the she >
ll D, = D, ; C 0.55 (Fig. 4.2
a).
2. IJates we
.en d of the she ll (no ins ide welding). D, = D, ; C = 0.7.
3. Plates welded to the
(Fig. 4.2 b)
the she ll wi th an ad dit ional fillet weld on the inside.
4. Plates welded to the end of
c)
D, = D, ; C == 0.55. (Fig. 4.2
wi th a ful l fac e ga sk ets to she lls, flanges or side plates.
5. Covers riveted or bolted
D, = Bolt-circle diameter ; C
= 0.42. (Fig. 4.2 d)
w fac e bo lte d fla ng e joi nt, i.e., gasket is placed within bolt
6. Covers with a narro
t;
holes. D, = mean diameter of ps ke

Scanned by CamScanner
 _ j_
-t 7
t

-r
' '
0 --
. (a )

o- .. ,. _ _ 0 -
J_ -i-----,_j_
i t t

I
I
1 t

(d )
Fig. 4.2 Typic (e )
ai flat heads indic
ating the values
Design Example 4.1 o_f 'D '
process vessel of Exa : Determine the thic
mple 3.1. kness o f the flang
ed · flat. covers of the
Solution : To dete
rmine the thicknes
s of flanged flat h
· t =CD,.\ ! p /f . ead, Eq. 4.2.15 is
to be used ;;
. .. (4 .2,1
Scanned by CamScanner
 CL OS UI UIS 47
HB AD S AN D
DB SI ON OF
l C ...,. 0 .4 S . D . - D , D 2 x '·•·
-w el de d to th e sh el ' ~ -: " - ·
tt
1e 3 . 1, D i = 1 190 m m = su re = 0.52
ICI
ad is bu D . . 5
ing th at th e hef E p of 'P ~eSign pr es
bo th he ad . d
.A ~u 111
lu
•
ti on o xa m at th e l
m at er ia . co ns tr uc ti on fo r an
. ·om th e so 2 um in g th
8 M N /m (a ss
F!:_r/ 1 . f =) 11
1'~1,, ~ ,
shell 1s sa m e •
lu es in E q. 4. 2.
15 ,
Substituting the va mm
1 19 0 x (0.525/118)½
t = 0. 45 X

= 35.9 m m this 2 mm corrosio

n allow
ed . To :~:
thickn es s th eo retically calcul at
ke care o f the re duction ·in thick~
This is the minim
um ded to ta
an d an ot he r say 6% is to be ad ir ed minimum thickness
of
is to be ad de d prac tically re qu
n. This gives a
at the torus sectio
t = 1. 06 (35.9 + 2)
40.2 m m kness
c:a
th e he ad . If reduction of thic k-
mm fo r ell thic
ates a st an da rd plate thickness 45 us ed . rt is to be noted, when sh o f the
This necessit , th en a 40 mm plat
e can be
di ca tes th at th e se
lection
rm in g is Je ss . It only in
during fo 45 mm
is on ly 6 m m , head thickness is it er ia in pr oc ess vessel design.
ness rt an t cr
h ea d is an im p o
p ro p er .type of-the

ad eter
4.2.2 Conical he o f a· cy li nd er in which the diam
f d with th at so be
ry o f a co n e may be compare li nd ri ca l sh el l equations ·may al
G eo m et
. T h is su gg es ts th at the cy
at el y m od if ie d -i ncorporating the
ch an gi ng propri e
·is co n ti n u o u sl y , p ro v id ed th e diameter is ap rv at ur e .a t an y section is n o t sam
case dius o f cu ra
applied in th is li n d er . F o r a cone, the ra th e h o o p di rection, while fo
r a cy section in
conical sh ap e fo u re o f th e element at th at e o f th e element iri the ho
op
cu rv at us o f cu rv at ur
as th e ra d iu s o f sa m e. As twice th e radi a re la ti onship between
radius
th ar e ua ti on ,
tr u e cy li n d er b o et er te rm in th e h o o
p stress eq
·n ec es sa ry. In Fig. 4.3(
a), R
th e d ia m o o p dire ct io n is
direction gives s o f cu rv at u re in ·t h e h di r: ec tion (i.e. perpendi
cular to
e ra d iu th e h o o p
o f a co n e an d th f cu rv at u re ·o f th e elem
ent in
o in t, an d a, is half
the apex
ra d iu s o re nc e p
represents th e sa m e refe h is only implies
that a
r is th e ra d iu s o f co n e at th e = r/ co s a. T
· th e m er id ia n ), th at R lent
tr ig o n o m et ry it ca n b e sh o w n w il l b e ob se rv ed in an equiva
y effect as
angle. T h en , b ie n ce th e sa m e stress k is th e inside diamet~r
of
w il l ex p er n cl u d ed , if D
co n e o f ra d iu s r . F ro m th is it ma·y be co al l th ic kn ess o f cone will
b,
s r/ co s a n sh ip fo r w
I cylinder o f ra d iu e r co n si d erat io n a re la ti o
ti o n u n d
cone a t th e p o si s fo r D;, in Eq. 3.3.19, i.
e.,
st it u ti n g D t/ co e1.
... (4.2.1
o b ta in ed by su b
p Dt 1
a
t = 2 fJ - p X cc,s
~!
Wbere1 t = thic~qess Qf the c9Q

Scanned by CamScanner
 0

(a)

- --- 0

p I

(b)
Fig, 4,3 Stresses fn a conical head

From the consideration . of stress analysis, a cone is divided into two regions,
They are:

(a) region around knuckle or junction not exceeding a distance, ½(D, 1/cos ~)½'
or end;tho junction or knuckle,• where D, is the outer diarneter of the conical section
from

' .IS: 282S-1!169, Indian Standards Io,111Uuon, New Delhi.

,,

Scanned by CamScanner
>
BS
DBSION OP RBAD.1 AND C'LOSUR 49

(b) region away from knu ckle or jun

ctio n.

Eq. 4.2.16 is app lica ble for the regi

on away from the jun ctio n.
is
ctio n of the_ con ical hea d _a ~d th: cylindrical shell, a compressive force
At thtt jun ·
rna l pre5,sure shell tries to exp and rad 11
ed by the cone on the cylinder. Du e to tnle in: t~
t\is resu lts in a ben din g mo me nt and shear at the jun ctio n. Ref err
es e~ and be evaluated as
J(b) the inw ard com pre ssiv e forc e pro duc ed by the conical hea d can
o~t 4 .
f1g. • '
foJIOWI• n
uni t of shell circumference, the
If p. is the axial ten sion in the shell per

nDP r= n ;'1 p or P = Pf'

inte rna l pressure, at equilibrium,
If Tis the axial tension in the con e due to
. pD
C = T sin ct = P tan ct = tan ct.
P =- T cos ci, and 4
tc
impossible to design a conical hea d
As a resu lt of this compressive force, it is ays tends to deflect inward, and
ction 1 since cone alw
eliminate mo me nt and she ar at the jun ount
war d und er the infl uen ce of inte rna l pressure. A factor (Z) tak ing into acc
the shell out ic thin-shell
uen ce of this disc ont inu ity stre sses is therefore introduced into the bas
the infl The equ atio n
the co;,e at the jun ctio n or knuckle.
equation to det erm ine the thickness of
is as followss : ... (4.2.17)
p -D.. Z
t =· 2f J
rp
s upo n ape x ang le and knu ckle rad ius. Z values for single sha
For single con e Z dep end 5
e (wi tho ut knu ckl e rad ius) are give n bel ow .
con
0 30° 45° _ 60°
a= 20
1.35 3.2
Z = 1.00
n -
etric capacity of a conical head are give
Equations for surface area and volum
below:
.A =i xn D XI
... (4.2.18)
f 4-
D1
+ J,l
= 1.57 D \j

•.. (4.2.19) .
= 0. 131 D3/tan a.
0- 7

Scanned by CamScanner
 . . MBCHANICAL ASPECTS
.oes10N- .
u1rMBNT · I ' t b .
r.ucAL EQ .. . . 1 0 f Example 3. ts o e provided . ,
cHB . · 1 process vesse . the thickness of the head. ~% a
50 4 2 : Jf t ie 300 determme .
E ainplc . angle • d
J)csfgn •"'- the Italf-npex . b ·unction of the hea and shell is t
o ht
conical hell d having ) Thickness oft h e head at t e J
Solution: ~a2 17,
evaluate . from Eq.
d . · ·
pDdZ
t=21T
P = 0.525 MN/m2
where
D, = 1.2 m
2
/= 118 MN/m

J= 0.85

z= 1.35

Substituting,
0.525 X l_.2 X l.3S = 4.24 X 10-:- m
t = 2 x 118 X 0. 85
•
= 4.24 mm
(b) Thickness .away from the Junction
. -. is . . determined from Eq. 4.2.16,
. p Dk 1
t = 2fJ - P x_ cos a
Here D'k is the maximum inside diameter of th~ cone at a distance ½(D, t/co~ t1.)i
from thejunction.

½(
D, t
cos a
)½ = t ( 1 200 X · 7)½
0.866 ·
= 50mm
1 is taken 7 mm including corrosion allowance. If inner diameter of the cone at thii junction
is same as that of the shell, i.e. I 188,mm, then from trigonometry it can be seen that at a· ·
slantthe
ing distance
values,of SO mm from the junction D, I 188 - 2 25 =
1 138 mm. Substitut- x· =
1 =_ 0.52S X l J38 X I
2 x 118 x 0.85 - 0.525 . 0.866 mm
'
= 3,45 mm
\s the differenc-e· in tliickness comes I . .
s. no Justification in using differ th
h_ess an 1 mm 10 two regions of the cone, there
·· ent t · iclmess sheets for two sections. It will be rathe~

Scanned by CamScanner
I .DBSlGN OF HBAD
. S .AND CLOSURBS

conomical from fabricational point.if sin i th"

.

•. · · ·
. . .

' s1
e .. b h If g e ickness is d
I e two is to . ke c osen.
.c,afcufated
f 4 2 the corrosion a11 owance ofuse
thtc ness O • 4 mm, which is req • d
2 . . In such . case, the larg
mm is added to th .. e,
0
[
tb
will be requ_ired for the conical. head
. ·. It is intu1re : a to
erestmg standard
obs sheet metal thicke ness
mm1mum
1 mm
vessel, a ange fl • th. ead t h 1ckness of 45 mm is . .
. requ,red (seeerve that for
Example the same pres,u-re
4.1).
fl d

,.z.3. Torispberical (standard dished) and ellip so·1da1 d"1shed heads

' Any dished head consists of 3 integral t . .

and end straight flange (Fig. 4.4). All the 3 patr s, nham~ly, c~ntral dishing, comer torus
. ( "d" 1 d. . par s are avmg different ·-·d·
curvature men tona ~.a 1us is perpendicular to the direct" · . men 10nal radius of
· result there are two junctions of discontinui·t . . . ion of long1tudmal stress). As a
. k kl . ( y ex1st10g m a formed head p· .
ween nuc e . torus) and crown (dish)
ftange. . an d second one between knuckle
• . irstand
onestraight
is bet-

t
hI
'
ho

Fig. 4.4 Construction of a dished bead_

Due to differential dilations at the junctiors under pressure loading, bending moments anc
shear stresses are induced, besides normal membrane · stresses, to maintain the continuity
between adjacent parts. As the torUS section is small, these sttcss concentration factors
cannot be neglected in ihe design equation. Coates• bas given a relationship for local
bending stresses at the junction of head and shell. According to the. relationship suggested
by C. 0. Rbys,1 the maximum bending stress is the meridional bending stress in the knuckle
due to discontinuity at the cro\Vn-knuckle junction. Introducing a shape or stress
-- --------- -- ------------
• W. M. Coates, ''State of Stress in Full Heads of Pressure Vessels", Trans. Am- Soc. Mech. Engrs.,
53
. . • C.p.0.
52 (1930), Rhys, "Stresses in Dished Heads of Pressure Vessels", Trans. Am. soc. Mech. Engrs.,
APM-52'."12.
1

(1931), p. PME-53-7. . . : ·

Scanned by CamScanner
 52
cHBMJCM,

fou factor C,
.
IS has given
.
11QVJl'MB~
T 0 es10 N

the folloWI
·og
-MBCHANICAL ASPBCT8

simplified relationship to
eva11.la.
-
~ \~
ncentra t
co d thickness, pDoC
be• 1 :,c: ~ ···(4,l~

h I Do and t/ D for the head without any Ot>cnn-i

O • • •
C depends on m . of beads contammg unreinforced ~ Cit
shape factor d In the .case ol>tnill
f{ere_ the mpletely reinforce . d h . the effective external height of the head . t.
openings co and - -. E is "½th.
C wiJI depend on hs/Do V t Do c;t of ho or Dol/4 Ro or (Do r~/2)112. It may be &
and equal to the lea Reason can be attnbuted to the fa c~
outs r
t aigbt flange
as hE/Do increases,
c decreases.
.
. d . ct that
d' 5 of curvature m torus an dished seer ,
41
fr_o:t!:~:cr;a;e of hE/Do the d!fferen_ce ~~yr:t;:sses at the knuckle-crown junction. ~~1
"'.'t .. h thus reducing the d1scontmu1 h d becomes hemispherical. .Again, from the
d1m101s es, . 0 5 when the ea . h t
limiting value of hE/Do is . stress concentration factor C · J~creases s arp)y _v.iith tbe
e table it may be observed that /D It is pointed out earher that at the Junction
sam ~ range of hE O• ...,
decreas~ o~ t/f!o or 1o;erlower values of hE/Do,
discontmmty _1s more or
h d" continuity is higher. This can be proved from the
Bending moment _for s_ arpefrfl its head with cylindrical l)hell, (2) junction of hcmi.
1 . t o cases-()) Junction o a . . . . d
fol o~mg w . M 'd al bending stress at the Junction 1s estimate by dividing.
11
spherical hea~ wttbh shet_. m~~uf:s which is a function of t 2 • Therefore, if t is small
b nding moment y sec ton . . . . . h '
e . . C • d will be more This s1mphfied reasonmg 1s owever, not sum-
i e t/ D0 is less, require 1 .
h · b d' moment is also dependent upon flexura ng1'd'1ty an d dampmg
. .
•• • ,
c1ent as t e en mg ·
factor.1
d
Thes~ are expressed as a functi_o n of El, and/ depen son t.

One is to make a careful note in selecting weld-joint efficiency factor J for the heads.
If the head is made from one plate and attached to the shell with a straight flange, J is to
be taken as unity. On the other hand, a large diameter formed end is usually fabricated by
welding petals with a central dish. In such cases and also in the case of ·. circumferential
end-to-shell seam having no straight flange, appropriate weld-joint factor J is to be chosen
considering the nature of the weld and whether the seam is radiographed.

In v'~, dis the diameter of the largest uncompensated opening in the heal
g:ir procedure for the compensation of or reinforcing. the ·openings will be discussed i

Eq. 4.2.20 is applied to d t . .

pressure is acting at the . e ermine the thickness of the formed ends when t1
• concave side T 1 the thickness of ends convex to' pressu:
care is to _be t~ken to ensure safet a· . 0 ca1cu_ate
. r ~a1nst elac;ttc defor~ation. Eq. 4.2.20 can be app\1

Scanned by CamScanner
 DE!IION Ott HDAt:>8 AND Cl..OUSJUS 53
b 20
the second situation by increasing the design prcasurc
• ~ation gives the press ure p1a nt which
0 l
elastic dcfo rmal ltn or t hpcr
c
cent.' The following
ends convex to prcaaure
eq 1 fl
takes pace .
p1ij c:i 0.366 E ( ~• r ...(4.2.21)

The safety against elastic failure is ensured, if p 10 > 3p.

blank diameter of the·.
The external height, ho of a dished head, the approximate.
e contained within heads are
plate with which formed ends can be fabricated and volum
evaluated from the following expressions.•''
ho (excluding straight flange)
...(4.2.22)

Blank dJ~meter = J?o.+ . f2+ ; ·r, + 2 $,1. ((9r_ ~ 25 mm) l

t
... (4.2.23)
~
D
i 2
=D o+ 4 + 3 r, + ·2 S1+t (for t> 25 mm) j
V (excluding straight flange) = 0.0_84 7 D, 3 (for r, = 0.06 1
3 D,)
and = 0.131 3 D, (for 2 : l ellipsoidal or r ... (4.2.24)
deep dished head) J
to discontinuity at the
In the case of hemispherical heads, the bending stresses due
ity stresses do not exceed the
junction with cy1indrical shell are small. The discontinu
the cylindrical shell thickness to
maximum membrane stresses by more than 4%, provided
2.0. Eq. 4.2.20 applies to hemi-
hemispherical shell thickness ratio is in the range of 0.8-
spherical head. ·
s
Table 4.l(A) Stress Concentration Factor C for Formed Head
6
Without Opening or With Fully Compensated Openings

t/Do

hE/Do 0.002 0.005 0.01

2.15
0.02
-----
1.95 .
-
0.04
1.75
4.55 2.66. 1.32
0.15 1.45 ·1.37
2.30
1.70 . 1.00
0.20 l.00 1.00
1.38
1.14 0.77
0.25 0;77 0.77
0.92'.
.0.11 · 0.59
0.30 0.59 0.59
0.59 0.55
0.40 0.59 0.55 0.55
0.55
0.50 0.55

.a AD-M ERK BLA ElTE R, Beuth-Vertrieb GMBH, Berlin.

Scanned by CamScanner
 OESIGN-MECHANICAL _
Ast>Ects
. CHS.MIC At EQUIPMENT - . .
54 · · · tration Factor C for Formed Heads
(B) Stress Concen . s
Table 4.l with Uncompensated Opemng .

.d/ytDo ~
2.0 3.0 . ~

-.o
o.s 1.0 4.0 S
h~/Do
~ -
1.67 I.86 2.15 2.65
- '
3.IG
3,60
0.15
1.28 1.45 l.85 2.30 2.75
0.20 3,2S
·0.25 1.00 1.15 1.60 2.05 2.50 2.95
0.30 0.83 1.00 1.45 1.88 2.28 2.70
0.50 0.60 0.80 1.10 1.50 1.85 2.15
"; ... Note: Values can be interpolated.

_ Design Example 4.3 : Determine tbe thickn_ess of the plate required to fabricate a
standard dished ·head for the process-vessel of Example 3.1. It may be assumed that there
---
wiU be no uncompensated opening in the head; Specifications for the head are given
below:

R, c:: Do; r, = 0.06 Do ; S1 = 40 mm

What should be the blank diameter (i.e. the diameter of the plate) for the head ?
Solution. · From Example 3.1 following data are known : .
2
_. : P = 0.525 MN/m
mined from Eq. 4.2.20.
; I= 118· MN/in2 ; Do = -1.2 m. Thickn~ss of the head is deter-

t = p Do C
2/J ... (4.2,20)
Solution of the above equation will require iteration as C . . 1 f .
first approximation assume R _ R _ D Th ' IS a so a unction -oft. As the
_·- . ' -
0
-
0
• en from Eq. 4.2.22.

Substituting
ho= Ro - [(Ro - Do/2) X (Ro + Do/2 - 2-ro)]l
Ro ·= Do = 1.2 m ; = 0.06 x-. Ta .
1.2 = 0.072 m
ho = 1.2 - 0.997 = 0.203 m -

\\
\

Scanned by CamScanner
 ES
bdf OJl OP JJV.DS Am> ~ 55
.
abo ve, h,. b the Jeatt . Th ~d
Ord of the three quant~ties calculated. h,. ..., 0.203 m, Prom thL, , ore, the effec:tr,1e ext tt.
,J b-eight of the hea.d u equ al t.o
h,, J.e.
11
0,20'3
h,.,IDo r:::r L 2 r:::r 0.17

u n ot very larg e head can be fabricated from a 1

•
A• the diameter of the vesc3Cl (1.2 rn) mgle
platt and the refore, J =
l.

From Eq. 4.2.20,

t/D . = pC
2f J
0.525 C
= 2 X 118 X l z: 2.225 X l o-3 C

es of tC are to be t n'ed LJD o -_ 0 •17 t o -

fior ra
With the hel p of Tab le· 4.1 (A) , var iou valu _ D ,
005 an d cor resp on d'mg v a1· ae o f
0

ve rela tion ship . It fa fou nd tha t fior t(D o = o.

match the abo
•
C = 2.26 gives t/Do C = 2.215 X 1()-
may be obt ain ed by plo ttin g
-
imation. An e-xact value
3 which i!i a very good appro-x
n: C -against C; Fro m the abov~ find
ing, the cor rod ed head

thickness is obt ain ed as folJow~ :

...
t = 0.-00-5 X-1:2
_Do = 0.005 or-t

= 6.0 X to- i m
kness
ed to tha t, the req uire d unc orro ded plat e thic
If cor ros ion allo wan ce, 2 mm , is add no ext ra allo wan ce
. It is to be not ed her e tha t for the thin nin g of the torus
will be 8 mm ss of 9 mm will be
en, the n a stan dar d pla te thickne
is pro vid ed. Jf 6% alio wan ce is giv · of R, = R;,
required. Co mp are d to 1.2 m, 9 mm is
very sma ll. Hence, the first assu mp tion
accuracy it is
odu ce any con sid era ble err or i~ _ihe resu lt. However, for
doe, not intr
R, t = (1 .2 + 9 X J0-3) m and the n calc
ulat e
1uggea ted to rec alc ula te ho by put ting Ra = +
ass um e som e valu e for t and check
t from new value of he/Dt), Another method would be to
the tame from Eq. 4.2.20.
dia me ter of the pla te for forming the he:id can be eva luat ed from
Blank
Eq. 4.2 23.

Blank: diameter = Du + Do
42
+ 23 Ti + 2 .,1"

= l 352 mm

Scanned by CamScanner
 c~ M O
cess l
.
. t SQUtPMBNT DssroN...:.),fgCHANfCAL ABPBC11 1
-S~ E IIJlplt 4. 4: For the ~oop vessel of Examp e 3.. 1, a 10 ~
J)eslgn \h
an uncompensate . . ening is to be fabricated.
ellipsoidal bca~ w~ill be perm
vr;;-
~-·l-4:2 ...
d'18 meter opening issible? ~ .1 • ,

• • . ffect the co
.
Soladon _: Ne glecting thinn10g e rroded thickness t = 10 _
' 2~ l .
--.
From Bq. 4.2.20
2 / Jt
C = -p Do

Where~ f = 118 MN/m 2

J= 1.0
t == 8 X 10-3 m
p - 0.525 MN/m2 -

D o= 1.2 m

Substituting the values,

. -
_2 .X 118 X 1 X 8 X 10 -3
C == 0.525 X 1.2
== 3.0
·For .2 : 1 eHipsoidal head, hE
= ho = 0.25 Do,
Th_erefore, hE/Do' = 0.25 .

.
. Now, from Table 4.1 (B
is to be obtained by interpola ), for the magnitudes
tion. This gives
of hE/Do = 0.25 and C = 3.0, d/\ltD~
.

oi' ~:_...~ ·-= 5.11 X (i -{)~)t

= 5.11 x· (8 x 1 200)½ mm
= 5CO
/ '
;,mm
For a vessel diameter
However, because of the th' of 1 2 . .
· · k . m, an opemng
ic ness much m
is arnved at. Actual corrode th diameter of 500 mm is
d th' k . ore_ an required is pr quite large.
ov id · ·
ed, such big opentn: (1
ic ness requuement may ;
be less th an· 4 mm.

Scanned by CamScanner