Computation Skills

LOGARITHMIC AND EXPONENTIAL NOTATION

Exponent

Recall 2  2  2  2 3 factors
3

3  3 3 3 3 35 factors and so on

5

4
Thus  a  a  a  a
The raised numeral is called an exponent or power and a is the base
In general of n  a x

 a  a × a x factors
x
Where x is a positive integer, a is the exponential form on n, where a is the base
and x the exponent or power (also called index)

Laws of Indices
i. a m × am +n

3 5
e.g. 2 × 2
  2 2 2    2 2 2 2 2

(3 factors)
(5 factors)

=2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2 ×2
(3 + 5) same factors

8
=2
3 5 35
Therefore 2  2  2
 8
2

ii . am ÷ an=am−n

7 4
e.g. simplify 3 × 3
 7 factors

3 3 3 3 3 3

3
3×3×3×3

4 factors

3 ×3 ×3

) factors

 374

 3
3
y
iii) ( a x ) =ax × y =a xy
e.g. simplify (22 ¿3
=22 × 22 × 22
From (i) we have
 22+2 × 2=26
But 2  2  2  2 3
So in evaluating  2 3 , we have in fact multiplied the indices together
2

4 4
iii). Consider 3  3 using (ii)
4 4 44 0
3 3 3 3
Using factor form
4 4 34 3 3 3 3
3 3   1
4
3 3 3 3 3
0
Therefore 3  1
In general any non-zero number raised to power zero, equals 1 i.e. 0
a 1
where a  0

iv). Consider From (ii)

 2 5
x x

2 5 25 3
x x x x
using factor method

x×x 1
=
x × x × x × x × x x3

Therefore

1
x−3=
x3

−x 1
i . e. a = Where a ≠ o
ax
−x x
a b
vi) From υ above it can be proved that
b () () =
a

vii)( ab )x =a x b x

a x ax
viii) ()b
= x
b
1 1
ix) n n
a = √a
n
Note √ a means the nth root of a and n is called the order of the root

x). If x m=x n ⇒m=n∧if x m= y m ⇒ x= y

Exercise
1. Simplify

8 5 3 4 5 18 15 a6
a).5 ×5 b). p × p × p c).2 ÷ 2 d). 4
a

2
e) x 5+ x8 f).1000 g). √ 9 x 2 y 4 h). 4 x 7 y 2 ×2 x y 3 z 2 i).( 53 b c 2 )

35 a7 b12 c 3
j).
5 a5 b4 c 2
2. If 4 3 4 2 2 2
A  27x y z B  3x yz find (a). AB (b). A  B (c). A
and

x1 2 x1
3. Solve for x in 9 3  36 x y
2 x y and 3 1
4. Solve for x and y in (a). 2 
8
 x 2 x1 15
5. Solve the equation 9  3 3

m
1
6. If ( ) × 81
27
−n
=243 express m in terms of n

LAWS OF LOGARITHMS

Logarithm? What’s a Logarithm?

A logarithm is just an exponent.

To be specific, the logarithm of a number x to a base b is just the exponent you put onto b to make the
result equal x. For instance, since 5² = 25, we know that 2 (the power) is the logarithm of 25 to base
5. Symbolically, log5(25) = 2.

More generically, if x = by, then we say that y is “the logarithm of x to the base b” or “the base-b
logarithm of x”. In symbols, y = logb(x). Every exponential equation can be rewritten as a logarithmic
equation, and vice versa, just by interchanging the x and y in this way.

Another way to look at it is that the logbx function is defined as the inverse of the bx function. These
two statements express that inverse relationship, showing how an exponential equation is equivalent
to a logarithmic equation:

x = by       is the same as       y = logbx

Example 1: 1000 = 103 is the same as 3 = log101000.

Example 2: log381 = ? is the same as 3? = 81.

It can’t be said too often: a logarithm is nothing more than an exponent. You can write the above
definition compactly, and show the log as an exponent, by substituting the second equation into the
first to eliminate y:

Read that as “the logarithm of x in base b is the exponent you put on b to get x as a result.”
Where Did Logs Come From?

Before pocket calculators — only three decades ago, but in “student years” that’s the age of
dinosaurs — the answer was simple. You needed logs to compute most powers and roots with fair
accuracy; even multiplying and dividing most numbers were easier with logs. Every decent algebra
books had pages and pages of log tables at the back.

The invention of logs in the early 1600s fueled the scientific revolution. Back then scientists,
astronomers especially, used to spend huge amounts of time crunching numbers on paper. By cutting
the time they spent doing arithmetic, logarithms effectively gave them a longer productive life. The
slide rule, once almost a cartoon trademark of a scientist, was nothing more than a device built for
doing various computations quickly, using logarithms.

Today, logs are no longer used in routine number crunching. But there are still good reasons for
studying them.
Why Do We Care?

Why do we use logarithms, anyway?

To find the number of payments on a loan or the time to reach an investment goal

To model many natural processes, particularly in living systems. We perceive loudness of sound as the
logarithm of the actual sound intensity, and dB (decibels) are a logarithmic scale. We also perceive brightness
of light as the logarithm of the actual light energy, and star magnitudes are measured on a logarithmic scale.

To measure the pH or acidity of a chemical solution. The pH is the negative logarithm of the concentration of
free hydrogen ions.

To measure earthquake intensity on the Richter scale.

To analyze exponential processes. Because the log function is the inverse of the exponential function, we often
analyze an exponential curve by means of logarithms. Plotting a set of measured points on “log-log” or “semi-
log” paper can reveal such relationships easily. Applications include cooling of a dead body, growth of
bacteria, and decay of a radioactive isotopes. The spread of an epidemic in a population often follows a
modified logarithmic curve called a “logistic”.

“Base”ic Facts

From the definition of a log as inverse of an exponential, you can immediately get some basic facts.
For instance, if you graph y=10x (or the exponential with any other positive base), you see that its
range is positive reals; therefore the domain of y=log x (to any base) is the positive reals. In other
words, you can’t take log 0 or log of a negative number.

(Actually, if you’re willing to go outside the reals, you can take the log of a negative number. The
technique is taught in many trigonometry courses.)

Log of 1, Log Equaling 1

You know that anything to the zero power is 1: b0 = 1. Change that to logarithmic form with the definition of
logs and you have

         logb1 = 0     for any base b

In the same way, you know that the first power of any number is just that number: b1 = b. Again, turn that
around to logarithmic form and you have

         logbb = 1     for any base b

Example 3: ln 1 = 0

Example 4: log55 = 1
Log as Inverse

A log is an exponent because the log function is the inverse of the exponential function. The inverse
function undoes the effect of the original function. (I’m not a big fan of most uses the term “cancel”
in math, but it does fit in this situation.)

This means that if you take the log of an exponential (to the same base, of course), you get back to where you
started:
         logbbx = x     for any base b

This fact lets you evaluate many logarithms without a calculator.

Example 5: log5125 = log5(5³) = 3

Example 6: log10103.16 = 3.16

Example 7: ln e-kt/2 = -kt/2

What’s “ln”?

Any positive number is suitable as the base of logarithms, but two bases are used more than any
others:

base of
symbol name
logarithms

log
10 common logarithm
(if no base shown)

natural logarithm,
e ln
pronounced “ell-enn” or “lahn”

Natural logs are logs, and follow all the same rules as any other logarithm. Just
remember

         ln x  means  logex

Why base e? What’s so special about e? Most of the explanations need some calculus, for instance
that ex is the only function that is both its own integral and its own derivative or that e has this
beautiful definition in terms of factorials:

e = 1/0! + 1/1! + 1/2! + 1/3! + ...

Numerically, e is about 2.7182818284. It’s irrational (the decimal expansion never ends and never
repeats), and in fact like pi it’s transcendental (no polynomial equation with integer coefficients has
pi or e as a root.)

e (like pi) crops up in all sorts of unlikely places, like computations of compound interest. It would
take a book to explain, and fortunately there is a book, Eli Maor’s e: The Story of a Number. He also
goes into the history of logarithms, and the book is well worth getting from your library.

Combining Logs with the Same Base

In a minute we’ll look at the various combinations. But first you might want to know the general
principle: logs reduce operations by one level. Logs turn a multiplication into an addition, a division
into a subtraction, an exponent into a multiplication, and a radical into a division. Now let’s see why,
and look at some examples.

Multiply Numbers, Add Their Logarithms

Multiplying two expressions corresponds to adding their logarithms. Can we make sense of this?
By the compact definition,

         x = blogbx   and   y = blogby

and therefore, substituting for x and y,

         xy = blogbx blogby

But when you multiply two powers of the same base, you add their exponents. So the right-hand side becomes

         xy = b log x+log y

b b

Now apply the compact definition to the left=hand side:

         b log (xy)

b = xy
Combine that with the preceding equation to obtain

         b log (xy)

b =b log x+log y
b b

Now we have two powers of the same base. If the powers are equal, then the exponents must also be equal.
Therefore

         logb(xy) = logbx + logby

So what’s the bottom line? Multiplying two numbers and taking the log is the same as taking their
logs and adding.

Example 8: log8(x)+log8(x²) is the same as log8(xx²) or just log8(x³).

Example 9: log10(20)+log10(50) = log10(20×50) = log10(1000) = 3.

Exponent, Multiply the Logarithm

Continuing our theme of logarithms reducing the level of operations, if you have the yth power of a
number and take the log, the result is y times the log of the number. Here’s why, starting with xy:

Start with the compact definition of a logarithm:

         x = blogbx

and raise both sides to the y power:

         xy = (blogbx)y

A power of a power is equivalent to just multiplying the exponents. Simplify the right-hand side:

         x =b
y (y log x)
b

Rewrite the left-hand side using the compact definition of a log:

         b log (xy)

b =x y

(The font may be hard to read: that’s x to the power y on left and right.) and combine the last two
equations:

         b log (xy)

b =b (y log x)
b
If the powers are equal and the bases are equal, the exponents must be equal:

         logb(xy) = y logbx

Example 10: ln(26) = 6 ln 2 (where “ln” means loge, the natural logarithm).

Example 11: log5(5x²) is not equal to 2 log5(5x). Be careful with order of operations! 5x² is 5(x²), not
(5x)². log5(5x²) must first be decomposed as the log of the product: log55 + log5(x²). Then the second
term can use the power rule, log5(x²) = 2 log5x. The first term is just 1. Summing up, log5(5x²) = 1 +
2 log5x.
Divide Numbers, Subtract Their Logarithms

Since division is the opposite of multiplication, and subtraction is the opposite of addition, it’s not
surprising that dividing two expressions corresponds to subtracting their logs. While we could go
back again to the compact definition, it’s probably easier to use the two preceding properties.

Start with the fact that 1/y = y−1 (see the definition of negative exponents):

         x/y = x(1/y) = xy−1

and take the log of both sides:

         logb(x/y) = logb(xy−1)

The right-hand side is the log of a product, which becomes the sum of the logs:

         logb(x/y) = logbx + logb(y−1)

and the second term is the log of a power, which becomes (−1) times the log, or just minus the
log:

         logb(x/y) = logbx − logby

In words, if you divide and take the log, that’s the same as subtracting the individual logs.

Example 12: 675÷15=45, and therefore log10675 − log1015 = log1045. (Try it on your calculator!)

Example 13: log(x³y²) − log(x²y³) = log(x³y² / x²y³) = log(x/y) = log(x) − log(y).

Changing the Base

Now you have everything you need to change logarithms from one base to another. Look again at the
compact equation that defines a log in base b:

To change the log from base b to another base (call it a), you want to find loga(x). Since you already have x on
one side of the above equation, it seems like a good start is to take the base-a log of both sides:

         loga(blogbx) = logax

But the left-hand side of that equation is just the log of a power. You remember that log(xy) is just log(x) times
y. So the equation simplifies to
         (logab) (logbx) = logax

Notice that logab is a constant. This means that the logs of all numbers in a given base a are
proportional to the logs of the same numbers in another base b, and the proportionality constant logab
is the log of one base in the other base. If you’re like me, you may have trouble remembering whether
to multiply or divide. If so, just derive the equation — as you see, it takes only two steps.

Some textbooks present the change-of-base formula as a fraction. To get the fraction from the above equation,
simply divide by the proportionality constant logab:

         logbx = (logax) / (logab)

Example 14: log416 = (log 16) / (log 4). (You can verify this with your calculator, since you know
log416 must equal 2.)

Example 15: Most calculators can’t graph y = log3x directly. But you can change the base to e and
easily plot y = (ln x)÷(ln 3). (You could equally well use base 10.)
An interesting side road leads from the above formula. Replace x everywhere with a — this is legal since the
formula is true for all positive a, b, and x. You get

         logba = (logaa) / (logab)

But logaa = 1 (see Log of 1 above), so the formula becomes

         logba = 1 / (logab)

Example 16: log10e = 1/(ln 10). (You can verify this with your calculator.)

Example 17: log1255 = 1/(log5125). This is easy to verify: 53 = 125, and 5 is the cube root of 125.
Therefore log1255 = 1/3 and log5125 = 3, and 1/3 does indeed equal 1/3.

Summary

exponents logarithms

(All laws apply for any positive a, b, x, and

y.)

x = by       is the same as       y = logbx

b0 = 1 logb1 = 0

b1 = b logbb = 1

b (log x)
b =x logbbx = x

bx by = bx+y logb(xy) = logbx + logby

bx÷by = bx−y logb(x/y) = logbx − logby

(bx)y = bxy logb(xy) = y logbx

         (logab) (logbx) = logax

         logbx = (logax) / (logab)

         logba = 1 / (logab)

Laws of Logarithms
  1)  Logb MN = Logb M + Logb N
 2)  Logb M/N = Logb M - Logb N
 3)  Logb M = Logb N if and only if M = N
 4)  Logb Mk = k Logb M
 5)  Logb b = 1
 6)  Logb 1 = 0
 7)  Logb bk = k

 8)  bLogb x =  x

 Sample problems

Write each log in expanded form.

 
1)  Log5 xy2 =
                         Solution:  Log5 x + Log5 y2 = Log5 x + 2 Log5 y
 
2)  Log7 (xy/z2) =
 
                        Solution:  Log7 x + Log7 y - 2 Log7 z
 

3) 
 
Express each as a single log.
 
1)  Log x + Log y - Log z =
 
                     Solution:  Log (xy)/z
 
2)  2 Ln x + 3 Ln y =
 
                     Solution:  Ln x2y3
 
3)  (1/2) Ln x - (1/3) Ln y =
 

                     Solution: 

Writing logs as single logs can be helpful in solving many log equations.
1)  Log2 (x + 1) + Log2 3 = 4
                     Solution: First combine the logs as a single log.
                                         Log2 3(x + 1) = 4
                                      Now rewrite as an exponential equation.
                                         3(x + 1) = 24
                                       Now solve for x.
                                         3x + 3 = 16
                                         3x = 13
                                         x = 13/3  Since this doesn't make the number inside the log zero or negative, the
answer is acceptable.
 
2)  Log (x + 3) + Log x = 1
                     Solution:  Again, combine the logs as a single log.
                                         Log x(x + 3) = 1
                                       Rewrite as an exponential.
                                           x(x + 3) = 10
                                       Solve for x.
                                           x2 + 3x = 10
                                           x2 + 3x - 10 = 0
                                           (x + 5)(x - 2) = 0
                                           x = -5 or x = 2  We have to throw out 5.  Why?  Because it makes (x + 3) negative
and we can't take the log of a negative number.  So the only answer is x = 2.
 
3)  Ln (x - 4) + Ln x = Ln 21
                     Solution:  Notice, this time we have a log on both sides.  If we write the left side as a single log,
we can use the rule that if the logs are equal, the quantity inside must be equal.
                                     Ln x(x - 4) = Ln 21
                                   Since the logs are equal, what is inside must be equal.
                                     x(x - 4) = 21
                                   Solve for x.
                                     x2 - 4x = 21
                                     x2 - 4x - 21 = 0
                                     (x - 7)(x + 3) = 0
                                      x = 7 or x = -3  Again, we need to throw out one of the answers because it makes both
quantities negative.  Throw out -3 and keep 7.  Thus, the answer is x = 7.

Simplify each log

 
1)  ln e5
                 Solution:  This is rule number 7.  The answer is 5!

2)  Log 10-3

                 Solution:  This is again rule #7.  The answer:  -3  (This answers the question:  what power do you
raise 10 to get 10 to the third?

3)  eln 7
                 Solution:  This is rule #8.  The answer is 7.
 
4)  e2ln 5
                 Solution:  We can use rule #8 as soon as we simplify the problem.  Rewrite as:  eln 25 = 25  The 25
came from 52.
 
5)  10Log 6
                 Solution:  Rule #8 again.  Answer:  6
 
6)  102 + log 5
                 Solution:  We need to simplify before we can apply one of the rules.  Rewrite as:  (102)(10log 5) 
Adding exponents means you are multiplying the bases.
                                = 100(5)  Use rule #8 again.
                                = 500

Logarithm of a product

The logarithm of a product is the sum of the two logarithms. That is, for any two positive real
numbers x and y, and a given positive base b, the following identity holds:

logb(x · y) = logb(x) + logb(y).

For example,

log3(9 · 27) = log3(243) = 5,

since 35 = 243. On the other hand, the sum of log3(9) = 2 and log3(27) = 3 also equals 5. In general,
that identity is derived from the relation of powers and multiplication:

bs · bt = bs + t.

Indeed, with the particular values s = logb(x) and t = logb(y), the preceding equality implies

logb(bs · bt) = logb(bs + t) = s + t = logb(bs) + logb(bt).

By virtue of this identity, logarithms make lengthy numerical operations easier to perform by
converting multiplications to additions. The manual computation process is made easy by using tables
of logarithms, or a slide rule. The property of common logarithms pertinent to the use of log tables is
that any decimal sequence of the same digits, but different decimal-point positions, will have
identical mantissas and differ only in their characteristics
Logarithm of a power

The logarithm of the p-th power of a number x is p times the logarithm of that number. In symbols:

logb(xp) = p logb(x).

As an example,

log2(64) = log2(43) = 3 · log2(4) = 3 · 2 = 6.

This formula can be proven as follows: the logarithm of x is the number to which the base b has to be
raised in order to yield x. In other words, the following identity holds:

x = blogb(x).

Raising both sides of the equation to the p-th power (exponentiation) shows

xp = (blogb(x))p = bp · logb(x).

(At this point, the identity (de)f = de · f was used, where d, e and f are positive real numbers.) Thus, the
logb of the left hand side, logb(xp), and of the right hand side, p · logb(x), agree. The sought formula is
proven.

SUMMARY

Logarithms
m
If a  b then the logarithm of b to base a is m.
m
The exponents of a is the logarithm of b to base a i.e. a  b  log b a m

Laws Of Logarithms
i). If A and B are positive real numbers, then logb  AB  logb A  logb B
Proof
Let loga A  m and loga B  n

m n
a  A and a  B
m n
AB  a  a 
mn
a
mn
 AB  a

 loga  AB  m  n

But loga A  m and loga B  n

 Therefore loga AB  loga A  loga B

ii. Similarly it can be proved that log a ( AB )=log a− A−log B

a a

P
iii.( log a A ) =P log a A
iv.From a o=1 thenlog a 1=0 wherea ≠ 0

v.If we recall that a 1=a that log a a=1 where a ≠ 0

Example
1. Solve for x given log3 9  x
Solution
log3 9  x
x
3 9
x 2
3 3
Therefore x = 2
2. Solve for x given
logx 8  3
3
x 8
3 3
x 2

x2
Common and natural logarithms
The systems of logarithms with 10 as the base is called the common logarithms.
i.e. log10 A . This imply that if 10nnnnnnnnnnnnnn where the base is not
explicitly written its understood to be 10.
e.g. log 2 is understood to be log10 2 .
Common logarithms are applied in computation. Since all positive real numbers
can be expressed as standard number. i.e. as products of 10.
e.g. 1.2 = 1.2 10
0

12 = 1
120 = 1.2 10
0.12 = 1.2 10
2
etc
1.2
1
10
By the use of common logarithms tables and applying the laws of logarithms
computation is made easier. (This content is omitted here. Student are advised to
read on how to compute using logarithm tables).
 Another system of logarithm is the logarithm with an irrational number as the
base. This irrational number is exponential (e = 2.71828…). This system is
commonly used in advanced mathematic such as calculus and classical
mechanics.

Note in your calculator, the key log gives common logarithms and lin stands for
‘natural logarithms’.

Exercise
Solve for x given
i).
1
log 2 2 =x
3
4
1
ii. log ( x+1 )=−2
2
 log 75  log 9  log 5
Iii.Evaluate
log 5  log 45
Iv.Find y if log 2 y−2=log 2 92