METHODS OF RESEAP4';4

AND

THESIS WRITING

Victoria M. Espinr.:".
III-Hvdmi:en
- JOSE F CALDERON, Ed.D.
• EXPECTACION C. GONZALES
METHOD S oFRESEARCH
IIDTH0DSoTRESEARCII
AND
Al{D

WNNNG
THESIS WRITI
THESIS NG
IiETHODSoTRESEARCH
METHO DS OF RESEARCH
AND
At{t)

THES IS WRIT
THDSIS WRITING
ING

•. JOSE F.
F. CALDERON, Ed.D.
Ed.D.
.• EXPECTACIO
EXPECTACION GONZALES
C. GONZALES
N C.
Coordinator

(M
ffBook blot.
_

Pm= SLAtmxiabseef CO)

M
Pub/hilt?? by

Kano"
Book Store

COPYRIGHT 1993 by
National Book Store, Inc.
Jose F. Calderon cC
&partition C. Gonzales

Pint Year of Publication, 1993

All rights reserved.

No pan of this book may be
reproduced in any form or by
(my qc4 brief
M4 except
r4 mean., bn?lquddbN
quotations
Jqa(review.
for .4;w.without Fa)ri
turau permission
iu wiling from the Author.

Cover Design by
Rosauro Remo

Printed by
Cahn Hennonos. Inc.
Pines tor. Union Sts.
Mandaluyong City ISBN 971-08-5.508-5
 PREFA CE
PRIFACF,

This book has been the result of the author's many years or
experience teaching research methodology and thesis writing. From his
work as a teacher in research methodology. he learned exactly the kind
orknowledge and skills needed by thestudents whoareuking the course
and eventually will write their research reports. Therefore, he tried as
much as he could to incorporate in this book. discussions and explana-
tions of all the essential ideas, concepts, asul principles in methods of
research and the skills needed in thesis writing.

The author took pains to make the ideas, concepts, and principles
as easy to understand as possible. Tti this effect. aside from using simpler
language. he included very clear and 1h:star:al illustrations of the ideas,
conceptsandprinciples. Hence. INS book can be used by grad uate as well
as undergraduate students. Them are now schools offering methods of
research and thesis writing in the undergraduate level. among them. the
nursing schools.

This book consists of two pans. The first pan deals with the ideas,
concepts. and principles orremarch methodology, the prithlem, the three
major research methods. preparation of the research instruments. review
of related litcratum and studies, sampling, and guidelines in the selection
of statistics to be used.

The second pan deals with thesis writing, chapter by chapter. The
dki*." riioic
analysis, presentation, and interpretation of data are especially given due
emphasis. The methods of analyzing and rincrprcting data arc very well
qlh . tuhdtoedrqr,hcdu i,qrd.bhl;
explained. The methods of presenting data in textual. tabular, and ud
graphical forms are very well illustrated for the benefit of the beginning
thesis writer.

This book is especially good to be possessed by teachers and

im 0idN,tu e
students of research methodology and thesis writing and those who am
contemplating to do somc research work and eventually write their
research reports. This book is a good guide to them.
vi

Noclaim is made to originality.. Those familiar vri th writingsabout

methods of research and thesis writing will notice that many or the
hFid
imponant ideas. aD4r ofui'lhtribd
las concepts, and principles found in this book came from
different sources with only some sprinklings of original ideas. the
author is, therefore. expressing his thanks and gratitude to all those
authors whose ideas. concepts, and principles have been used to enrich
the content of this book. This book could not have bccn written without
i,rr.sr4c, d principles origin:Mal r]
r( ideas. concepts. andpi@ipksoiFrdr
the by these outliers. It should
be noted here that they are fully reavnized and acknowledged and they
have always been cited for every bit of idea or information borrowed
from diem. They are cited in the different pages and are also listed in the
bibliography.
The authoralso acknowledges his debt ofgratiludc m alt those who,
in one way or another, helped in the publication of this book, especially
the National Book Store.

The Author
 vii

OIi CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Preface
Parts
Chapter
I INTRODUCTION • 3
Ddinitions of Research 3
P!1i ofrF
Purposes i ,Lr
Rescan;li h Objectives.
(Aims. bt\ {r Goals)
!oa/ 4
Characteristics of Good Research 6
Differences Between Research and Problem-Solving 9
Kinds and Classifications of Research 11
Accenting ni purpee
According to goal 11
According to the levels of investigation 12
Accenting to the tyre of analysis 12
According to scope 12
Accenting to choke of answers to problems 13
According to statistical content 13
According to time element 13
Some !Radiances to Scientific Inquiry 14
The Scientific Method of Research 17
Principles or Mc scientific method 18
Designing the Studs, 18
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 21
Definition 21
Elements of a Research Problem 2l
Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem
or Topic 22
The Title 27
Guidelines in writing the tale 27
Statement or the Problem 28
Guidelines in formulating the general
problem and the specific subproblems
or specific questions 28
 Assumptions 30
Guidelines in the use of basic assumptions 30
Hypotheses 31
Forms of hypotheses 31
Guidelines in the formulation of explicit
hypotheses 31
Purposes. functions, and importance of
hypotheses or specific questions 32

3 RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES 35

Importance. Purposes, and Functions 01
Related Literature and Studies 35
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies 37
Sources of Related Literature and Studies 38
Where to Locate the Sources of Related
I iterature and Studies 39

4 HISTORICAL RESEARCH 41
Definition of History 41
Meaning of Historical Research 41
Choosing the Problem 42
Collection of Historical Data 42
Written sources 42
Orally transmitted materials 43
Artistic productions 43
Tape recordings 43
Relics and remains 43
Primary and secondary sources of data 44
Critical Analysis of Historical Data 44
External criticism 44
Use of auxiliary sciences 45
Purposes of external criticism 46
internal Criticism 47
Principles in internal criticism 48
Specific problems of internal criticism 48
Tests of truthfulness and honest• 49
Causative Interpretation of history 50
cojldlhbllhgdhiq'
General philosophies of history 50
Specific schools of historical interpretation 31
Synthesizing Historical Events 52
 Is

identification and definition of the problem 52

Formulation of hytanhescs S3
Inductive-deductive reasoning 53

Central theme or principle of synthesis Si

Guidelines to Effective Writing of Historical Research 55
Delkiencies in Historical Research 57
Characieristics of Iistorical Reseatch_..--__.__ 57
importance of itistorical Research 58
When to the Historical Research .......58
5 DESC'RIFTIVH RESEARCH 61
Meaning of Descriptive Research 61
Characteristics of Descrimive Rescanth . 62
value. Importance, and Advantages or
DCSCtiptivc Research - 62
Techniques Under hit Descriptive Method of
Researeh 64
Survey 64
ere Study 64
Diffemons haw= survey and case study 64
Advantages of the Survey Over the Case Study
Approach 65
Disadvantages or the survey approach 65
Types of survey approach 66
Case Study ant Case Work. 6141
CSCWO* __..._....__...._.....__.r....__.._ _... 69

Ca.se history 69
Clinical method 69
Who should be studied ..... .................. 70
Kinds of information needed in cave studies 70

Otaracicrinics of a satisfactory case study.._....._ 73

Social skills of case work 74
The cycle of case study and case work 74
Content Analysis . 75
Cfnraleristes of content analysis_ 75
Steyr in contents analyns_ 76
Applications of content analysis of documentary
materials 40
6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCII
Definitions 83
g4
Concepts on Causation
Geneial Distinguishing Features of Extriments
Experimental Desig 86
Single (actor experimental designs 86
Two factor experimental designs 90
The Experimental Plan 90

7 COLLECTION OF DATA 97
Classification of Data According to Source 97
Primary data 97
Secondary data 98
Advantages of primary data over secondary data ... 98
Advantages of secondary data 99
Categories of data gathered from respondents 99
Selecting the Method of Collecting Data 101
The Research Instruments or Tools ICI
Kinds of instruments 101
Charactensues of a good research instrument_ 102

ri THE QUESTIONINAIttf 105

Definition 105
Advantages of the Questionnaire 105
Disadvantages or the chiesi:01111ain• 106
Const ntetion of a Questionnaire
Types of Questions Asked in Survey Questionnaires 1.0
111I
According to tone 109
According to the kind of seta asked for 110
(side hr iu the Formulation of Questions fur a
Questions aiir 110
Some Problems with Itcsoons- • 115
kl.eidelitte of Misleading Questions 118
The Cover Letter
iivaluaimg the Questionnaite 11:1'41
9
Sample Questionnaite 121

9 THE INTERVIEW 129

Definition 129
Puifieses and Uses oldie Interview 129
Advantages or the Inteniew 130
 Disadvantages of the Interview 131
Types of Classes of Interviews 131
The Interview Instrument 133
The interview schedule 133
The interview guide 134
Steps in the Interview (Pointers in Interview) 135
What to Avoid in Interviews 136

10 OBSERVATION 339
Definition 139
F'unxisus of Observation 139
Types of Observation 140
Advantages of Observation 141
Disadvantages of Observation 142
Characteristics of Observation for Research
Purposes 142
Recording the. Results of Observation 144
The checklist 144
Rating Scales 14R
Anecdotal forms 150
Mechanical recording 152
Stenographic rccurding 153
Making Observation Mott Valid and Reliable 153

11 YESES, REGISTRATION, AND

MECHANICAL DEVICES 155
Testa as Sources of Data I55-
Dafinition 155
Classification of tests for research purposes 155
Accoiding tostandardivation
According to function 156
Characteristics of tests
Advantages of standard tests 159
LiTaiiatiOaS of standard tests 159
Tests as. sources or research data 160
Registration 160
Definition 160
Sources of data 161
Mechanical Devices 161
xii

12 SAMPLING 163
Definition 163
m'wcNEdsophglPL@!6ds{!LN)
Why We Need Sampling (Purposes of Sampling) 163
Sampling Concepts and Temilnology. 164
Pii.Lr$ds!j]a
Principles or Sampling 167
Disadvantages of Sampling (Defective Sampling) 167
General Types of Sampling 169
Non-probability sampling 169
Pruhahility sampling 169
rFsdNo i)s!$ !
Po b Sampfing
Types of Non-Probability 169
Types of Probability Sampling 170
Guidelines Inc Determining Adequate Sampling 175
Stem in Computing the Sirs of a Sample 176
Part II

13 HOW TQ WRITE CHAPTER 1 — TIIE PROBLEM

AND rrs sErriNc 181
The inuoduction 1R 1
Guidelines in writing the inumluction
Statement of the Problem 1R3
Assumption and I typtheses 183
Importance or Significance of the Study 1R3
Guidelines in explaining the importance of the
study 183
Definition of Terns 184
Guidelines in defining terms 184
Scopc and Delimitation of the Study 185
Guidelines in wiling the scope and delimitations 185
LitflitaliOTIA of the Study 186
Conceptual Framework 186
Paradigm 187

14 HOW TO WRITE CHAFFER 2 - RELATED

LITERATURE AND STUDIES 189
Guidelines in. Citing Relmod I Meranire and Studies.,, 189
Chametelisties of the Materials Cited 189
Ways of citingrelated literature and studies 190
What in cite 191
Quoting a matelial 19l
Justification of the Study 191
15 HOW 10 WRITE CHAPTER 3 — METHODS
OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES 193
Clinical of the Chapter 193
Method of Research 193
Method of Collecting Data and Development
of Research Instrument 194
Sampling Design 195
Guidelines for determining adequate sampling
and technique of sampling 195
Statistical Treatment of Data 195
The role of statistics in. research 195
Some guidelincs.in the selection and
application of statistical procedures 196
16 HOW TO WRITE CHAPTER 4 — ANALYSIS.
PRESENTATION. AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA 201
Analysis 201
Claw fic,ilkia of data 202
Cross-classification 202
Arrangement of data or claSSCS of data 203
Group-Derived Generalizations 203
Preparing Data for Presentation 206
How to construct a talligram 206
How to tally data gathered through a
questionnaire 208
Presentation or Dam 209
Textual Presentation of Data 209
Tabular Presentation of Data 210
Statistical table defined 210
Purpose of a table 210
Advantages of tabular over textual
presentation of data 210
'The major functinnal pans of a statistical table 210
Rulings and spacing in tables 214
Unity M a table 215
textual presentatirin of tabular data 215
Findings 216
Implication, inference. interpretation 217
Graphical Presentation of Data 2
xiv

Pun:c.v.:. of graphing _ 218

advantages of the graphical method...—. 218
Limitations of graphs 219
Types of graphs Of charts 219
Construction of Individual graphs 219
The bar graph 219
The single renical har graph....,-- 220
The single horiaomal bar graph 220
Constructitut of graphs 220
Essentials of a graph 221
Grouped bar graph 223
ldrrdh'iqbilldeFd'
Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph 224
srdurF,ct_'.- .--.
Subdivided bar graph _ ..... .--..— 226
histogram 226
Linear graph.. 728
Construcilint 228
Time series linear charts 228
Time SClicX Ii0011,0511C or nitthilinear
cliailS 229
Frequency polygon 230
The ogtve... 231
Band chart N 232
One hundred percent graphs or charls 233
re Mn bar
The 100% graph q
& (aF en
or (r q{tu than 233
rectangular
Dcqi.]rcidcF/'t..'',,,-,,,'...
The plc re circle graph ....... —...—..... 235
PiclowatilS .. 235

Implications of the finding; ..... 336

17 HOW 'ID WRITE CHAIll'ER — SUMMARY,

CONCLUSIONS. AND RECOMMENDATIONS.... 241
&immar.a of findings . 241
Guidelines in writing the summary of findings _ 241
Conclusimm 242
Guidelines in willing the conclusions 242
Sonic dangers to ovoid in drawing up conclusions
based upon quanthative data 244
Recommendations ....... ..... ..... ............. 247
Guidelines in writing the nroccomendadoss 242
Evaluation of a Thesis oc Dissension_........_.._......_248
PART
PART 1
I
2

Part 1 of this book consists of the ideas. concepts, principles,

methods and processes of research.
Chapter I deals with the definitions, characteristics, purposes. and
classifications of and hindrances to research and the scientific method.
Chapter 2 deals with the research problem, its elements, selection,
and writing: assumptions and hypotheses.
Chapter 3 deals with the imponanec or purposes. chameteristit
and sources of related litentture and studies.
Chapter 4 deals with historical research. sources of data, critical
analysis of data, external and internal criticism. causative interpretation
of history. synthesizing, and writing historical research.
Chapter 5 deals with descriptive research, its characteristics. im-
portance, and techniques, survey, case, case study. and case work.
Chapter 6 deals with experimental research. its nature, experimen-
tal designs, steps in experimentation, and the distinguishing features of
the method.
Chapter 7 deals with the collection of data, classificationS of data,
research instruments and their characteristics.
Chapter 8 deals with the questionnaire, its advantages and dis-
advantages. types of questions asked, formulation of questions, prob-
lems with responses, misleading questions, and evaluating the question-
naire.
Chapter 9 deals with the interview. its purposes. advantages,
types, interview instruments, and what to avoid in interviews.

Chapter 10 deals with observation, its nature, purposes, advantages

and disadvantages, characteristics, and forms for the recording of the
results of observation.
Chapter II deals with tests and ItgiStf3Li011 as sources of data,
classification or tests, characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of
standard tests.
Chapter 12 deals with sampling, its purposes, definition of con-
cepts and term nology,types of sampling.sampling techniques. and how
to determine the size of the sample.
 3

Il INTRODUCT
rNTRoDrJcrroN
ION

Research is a key to progress. There can be no progress without

research In almost if not all human endeavor. In government, in
education, in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of indus-
tries. research is vital and essential. Therefore, the methods and tech-
niques must betaught and learned in graduatcaswell as hh unde rgraduate
educational work. This is imperative because the people whohave gone
through the college and graduate levels ofeducation are the ones who arc
most expected to undertake research activities.

Due in the reasons above. it is the purpose of this book to make

the study of research methods and techniques as well as thesis
writing easier, more practical and understandable but comprehensive
enough.

Definitions of Research

There am almost as many definitions of research as there are

authors writing about the subject. Fortunately, the different dcnnitions
formulated by such awhorshavccommon elements. Sample:sof research
definitions follow:
Good defines research as a "careful, critical, disciplined inquiry.
varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions
of the problem identified, directed toward the clarification or resolution
(or bath) of a problem." (Gond. p. 464)
Aquino has a more detailed definition of research Ile Says that
"research is, simply, the systematic search for pertinent info= ation on
a specific topic or problem. After a careful. systematic search for
pertinent information nrdataon a specific topic or problem, and after the
research walker has analyzed and interpreted the data. he eventually
6
faces another essential task - that d r;[ix ,r j!!u!i
@i,!Lr report"
of preparing the research
(Aquino. p. 1)
Research has been defined as 'the process of gathering data or
4

information to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific

manner." (Manuel and Medal, p, 5)
kdddos,!gd4.is$L(&c|ud}fh{{$li@!l
Panel defines research as "a systematic study or investigation of
something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the re-
searcher." (Cited by Sanchez, p. 2)
Treece and Treece commented that "research in its broadest sense
is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the
collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of
prediction or explanation." (Treece and Treece, p. 3)
Formulated in a more comprehensive form, research may be
defined as a purposive, systematic and scientific process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data
for the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the
discovery of truth. or for the expansion or verification of existing
knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of
human life.

Purposes of Research (Aim, Objectives, Goals)

The definition of researchsays that research is purposive. The main

or principal purpose and coal of research is the preservation and im-
provement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are
directed toward this end. 'The purpose ofrescareh is to serve man." and
'1'he goal of research is the good life." (Good and Scares. pp. 9.
14) Due to research, man has attained great accelerating progress and is
rr N *drciud!!r^r
o,iolhs the products of research such as the fast and corn tenable
enjoying
land, sea, and air means of transportation, the wonders of electricity like
the radio. telephone. air conditioning, light in the homes, movies,
running machinery for industry, the computer. the potent drugs that
promote health and prolong life, and many other countless things.
"To satisfy man's craving for more undemanding. to improve his
!d!ndbbh'FqqDdled!|
judgment, to add to his power, to reduce the burden of work. to relieve
suffering. and m increase satisfactions in multitudinous ways - these
are the large and fundamental goals of research." (Good and Scams,
p. 15)
For more specific purnixses and goals of research, the following
may be mentioned:
_1. To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Alcohol is a
 5

known phenomenon and research may tum it a kind of fuel

equal in quality to gasoline)
>, roidls{nDro @s,rillcotBn rrFrdby
,.2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by
existingmethodsand information. (Cancer is aserious disease
which is only partially cured by present methods but due to
intensive and continuous research. the disease may be eradi-
cated later on)
Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or
products. (Ibis goal envisages the invention of new gadgets
and machines, food products and others used by man)
4. To discover previously unnvognized substances or elements.
(Previously we had only 1)2 elements but due to research we
now have more than 100)
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and ele-
ments. (Due to research we come to know the dangers from the
abusive use of unprescritcd drugs and sonic poisonous
substances)
These are suggested by French (Treece and Treece, Jr.,
p. 5) and the statements enclosed in parentheses am examples
by the author.
6. To onler related, valid generalizations into systematized
science. Schlnifeldt. (Ibid.) (The result of this purpose of
research is the science we are now studying in school)
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business, industry,
education, government, and in other undertakings. One ap-
proach in decision-making isthe rescarchapproach. (Core and
Dyson, p. 65). (This is basing important decisions upon the
results of research)
sTon'itylaa$iEi!r3{oo]iryGo6q.|])(Idt$.
8. To satisfy the researcher's curiosity. (Sanchez. p. 3) (Edison
was curious about bow a hen hatches her eggs and made a
research on that and he invented the incubator)
—9. To find answers toquedes by means of scientific methods. One
important question that may be asked which can be answered
only by means of research is: in what setting is life expectancy
higher. in the city or in the banio?
IC. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one
phenomenon that can be known and understood better by
research is why women am generally smaller than men.
 5

knownphenomenon and research may lum it into a kind of fuel

equal in quality to gasoline)
,.2. To find answers to problems which are onlypartially solvedby
existing methods and information. (Cancer is aserious disease
which is only panially cured by present methods but due w
intensive and continuous research, the disease may be eradi-
cated later on)
_3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or
products. (This goal envisages the invention of new gadgets
and machines, food products and others used by man)
4. lb discover previously unrecognized substances or elements.
(Previously we had only 92 elements but due to research we
now have more than 100)
5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and ele-
ments. (Due to research we come to know the dangers from the
abusive use of unprescrilast drugs and some poisonous
substances)
These are suggested by French (Treece and Treece. Jr..
p. 5) and the statements enclosed in parentheses are examples
by the author.
6. To ruder related, valid generalizations into systematized
science. Schintfeldt. (Ibid.) (The result of this purpose of
research is the science we arc now studying in school)
7. To provide basis for decision-making in business. industry,
education, govenimenl, and in other urutenakings. One ap-
proach indecision-making is the research approach. (Gore and
Dyson, p. 65). (This is basing important decisions upon the
results of research)
S. To satisfy the researcher's curiosity. (Sanchez. p. 3) (Edison
was curious about how a hen batches her eggs and made a
research on that and tic invented the incubator)
lb find answers toquesics by means nisi-1=1111e mei/axis. One
important question that may be asked which can he answered
only by meansof research is: !n what setting is life expectancy
bigbar, in the city or in the barrio?
10. To acquire a better and deeper understanding about one
phenomenon that can be known and understood better by
research is why women are generally smaller than men.
6

11. To expand or verilyexisting knowledge. This usually happens

when researches are replicated. Newly discovered facts may
be found to expand knowledge gained from a previous research
or verified if the same facts arc found.
In relation to Purposesblos. 2 and 3, the following may be added to
the list of purposes:
12, 'lb improve educational practices for raising the quality of
school products. Research surveys often result in the revision
of curricula and instructional innovations lb rnaxlmlxe the
effectiveness of the learning process.
_13. To promote health and pmlong life. This purpose is very
obviously demonstrated in pharmaceutical, nutritional, and
medical research.
14. To pmvide man withmore of his basic needs more and better
food, clothing, shelter. etc. The work of the International Rice
Research Institute in Los Banos, Laguna is a good example of
this purpose.
_AS. To make work. travel. and communication faster, easier, and
more comfortable. Due to research airplanes arc made to fly
faster, bud vehicles to nut faster. labor-saving machines have
been invented and improved, radio and television bring news
immediately to the mimic areas. and more wonders of elec-
tricky arc making lire easier and better.

Characteristics of Good Research

Crawford, from his definition, has given some characteristics of

research as follows: (Quoted by Aquino. p. 1)
Research is simply a systematic and refined technique ofthink-
ing. employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures in
other to obtain a mom adequate solution of a pmhlem titan would
bcpossible undcr ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects
data or facts. analyze these critically, and reaches decisions based
on actual evidence. It involves original work instead of a mere
exercise of personal opinion. It evolves from a genuine desire to
know rather than a desire to prove something, seeking to know not
only what but how much, and measurement is therefore a central
feature or it.
 7

Another author, Best. gives a summary of the more important

da*liG{gdll1Iehcldq'(cldl'AqucD'1)
characteristics of a good research as follows: (Cited by Aquino, p. 2)
1. Research gathers ncw knowledge or data from primary or lint-
hand sources. It is not research when one merely restates or
merely reorganizes what is already known or what has been
mica'. Research places emphasis upon the discovery of
general principles. It goes beyond the specific groups and
N6l'idjj4trlalqodd*Flic@Fid
situations investigated, and, by careful sampling procedures,
infers qualities of the entire population from dine observed in
the smaller group.
2. Research is expert. systematic and accurate investigation. The
researcher knows what is already known about his problem.
I le proceeds from this point,carefully planning hisproccdures.
Data am gathered, recorded, and analyzed with as much
accuracy as possible. Ile uses such valid data-gathering
instruments as he can find or devise. and employs mechanical
means to improve on the accuracy of human observation,
recording, and computation of dada.
rkdchnbgic'{iol4t{'4dyjruoqts$bbtj
3. Research is logical and objective, applying every possible test
bwdlys!traajhrcdd'uridlElndo]d.I*
to verify the data collected and the procedure.s employed. -11x:
researcher constantly strives to eliminate personal feeling and
preference. He resists the temptation to sock only the data that
support his hypothesis. There is no L.:regal to persuade or to
prove. The emphasis is on testing, rather than on proving the
hypothesis. The researcher elevates clear thinking and logic.
He suppresses feeling and emotion in his analysis.
4. Research endeavors It organize data in quantitative terms, if
possible, and express them as numerical measures. Research
is patient and unhurried. "Ilie researcher is willing to exert
.rtrid4chi.!trlPi sleod
judgment to permit the data and
painstaking effort, suspendingej!d!m{no$n
logic to lead to a sound conclusion. Ile realizes that significant
findings do not come as a result of hurried and careless
picadores. Research requires coiage. lbe researcher is
willing to follow bas procedures to conclusions that may be
otsNldodbi'g$cin&4@ql
unpopular and bring social disapproval.
5. Research is carefully recorded and reported. Every term is
carefully defined, all procedures arc described in detail, all
limiting factors are recognized, all references am carefully
8

documented, and all midis are objectively recorded. All

conclusions and generalizations are cautiously arrived at, with
duc consideration for all of the limitations of methodology.
data collected, and errors of human interpretation.
From the discussions above, the characteristics of research may
be summarized as follows:
I. Research is systematic. It follows an orderly and sequential
procedure that leads to the discovery of truth. solution of a
problem, or whatever is aimed to be discovered.
2. Research is controlled. All variables except those that arc
tested or being experimented upon are kept Constant (not
allowed to change or vary) so that the changes made on the
d the
subj4$ of
subjects ilc study
tudr can r! attributed
@i be uLdhtd only b diecdFi
odr to experi-
mental variable. This is especially true in an experimental
research
3. Research is empirical. All the procedures employed and the
data gathered are perceived in the same manner by all
qtu6 For
observers. roidLlu. mes
instance, one dxthere
says that {rctrwFN;ij
arc live persons in
the mom, all agree to the existence of the five persons.
However, if one says that there arc five ghosts in the room,
one or none at all may believe it because not all people
believe in ghosts. Ghosts arc examples of data that arc not
empirical.
4. Research is analytical. There is acritical analysis of al I the data
used so that there Is no °nor in their Interpretation.
5. Research is objective, unbiased, and logical. All die findings
d conclusions
and oE|!'oro are bs]q }bd
@ logically based on0loniqt d aod;
empirical data and no
effort is made to alter the results of the research.
6'nd?@}q/oFi}?,dsfultgxopefuirc@
6. Research employs hypothesis. This is to guide the investiga-
tionprocess. h expen mental studies, hypotheses are expressly
tu but
stated h inrdkr+rs!dq.!E subproblems or;
!4 !lbprcb6.
descriptive studies, the specific
specific questions serve as the hypotheses and the hypotheses
are tested and not proved.
7. Research employs quantitative or statistical methods. Data are
transformed into numerical measures and are treated SLatiSti-
cally to determine their significance or usefulness.
 9
•
S. Research Is original work. Except in historical research, data
e!8J.EJ'frnrda'se$li6lM!!e!&d'ot
are gathered from primary sources orfirst-hand sources and not
from secondary sour= (usually printed materials such as
books, or theses, etc.)
x6.4.rr
9. Research r4.4'4q.n
iv done rE@ffi
by art expert. The researcherr!s d
rdd and
uses valid
carefully designed procedures, valid data-gathering bistro-
meriLS, and valid data. lie subjects his data to expert
scrutiny.
W. Research is accurate investigation, observation and descrip•
lion. In fact. every research activity must be done accurately
so that the findings will lead to the formulation of scientific
generaliymions. All conclusions are based on actual evidence.
11. Research is patient and uniturrie.d activity. This is to ensure
accuracy. Research that is hurriedly done or conducted care-
lessly due to ming against time may lead to shakyconciusions
and generalizations.
12. Research requires an effort-Waking capacity. No research can
be conducted without the exertion of much effort. No one
without any effort-making capacity can conduct a research
because research involves much mule and time.
13. Research requires courage. Research requires courage be-
cause the researcher oftentimes undergo hazards, discomforts
and the like. At times the researcher encounters public and
social disapproval. Also, disagreements with colleagues may
arise.

Differences Between Research and Problem-solving

The researcher must be able to distinguish between research and

problem•solving. His supposed research problem may only be good for
problem-solving. 'the difference between the two are summarized as
follows: (Treece and Treece, Jr., pp. 47-410

Research Problem-solving
1. There may not he a problem, 1. There is always a problem
only interest in answering a to be solved.
question Dr a query.
10

2. A research problem is more 2. A problem to be solved is

rigorous and broader in less rigorous and less
scope. broad.
3. The research problem knot 3. The problem to he solved
necessarily defined specifi- has to be defined specifi-
cally. cally and identified defi-
nitely.
4. All research is intended to 4. Problem-solving dots not
solve some kind of prob- always involve research.
lem, but this is not the pri-
, many aim.
5. Research is conducted not 5. Problem-solving is always
• primarily in solve a pinta intended to solve a prob-
ism but to make a contribu- lem.
tion to general knowledge.
6. Research is concerned with 6. Problem-solving is Con-
broad problems. recurrent cerned with a specific prob-
phenomena, and wick ap- lem and once the problem is
plication through generali- solved that is the end of it
zation. It is concerned with
defining and outlining the
pmperties of phenomena,
with forecasting future
occurrences so that they
may he predicted and am-
trolled, and with describing
the relation:41M or pheno-
mena by explaining how
and why certain events
occurred or could have
occurred. In this picas
research also generates
more problems to explore.
(Fella and Deck),
 11

Kinds and Classifications of Research

There are many kinds of research which am claasificd according

their distinctive features. Some of the classifications arc as follows:
I. According to purpose. Trow identifies three broadly different
kinds of research, namely, modictive, directive, and illumina-
tive. (Treece and Treece. Jr., p. S)
a. Predictive orpmgnostic research has the purpose of deter-
mining the future operation of the variables under investi-
gation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such for
the better. "Predictive research proposes ID give the result
from one specific educational practice or pattern and seeks
to establish a close statistical connection between charac-
teristics of students and a prediction of educational out-
come."
h. Directive research determines what should be done based
on the findings. This is to remedy an unsatisfactory
condition if them is any.
c. Illuminative research is concerned with the interaction of
the components of the variable being investigated, as for
example. "intemclion of the CorrIpaileniS of educational
systems and aims to show the connections among, for
example, student characteristics, organizational patterns
and policies, and educational consequence."
2. According to goal. According to goal, research maybe classi-
fied as basic or pure research anti applied research.
a. Basic or pure research is done for the development of
theories or principles. It is conducted for the intellectual
pleasure or teaming. Much of this kind of research has
been done in psychology and sociology. (Manuel and
Model, p. 18)
b. Applied msemth is the application of the results of purc re-
search, This is testing the efficacy of theories and prin-
$$.f {d<.!r#rr nrdxFllt i)@
ciples. For instance, a principle says litaL praise reinierCeS
learning. To determine if this is true, one conducts an
experiment in which them am two classes. In one class, he
usespmio but intheotherclassthereis no praiseat all. All
12

dldtEseb[4dA'@odolEqFjqd
other things are keptequal. At the end of theexperimental
period, he gives the same test to the two classes. If the
scores of thepupils in the class with praiseam significantly
hkhr than
higher s6€ in
Do those b the d8 vLhr !ir, dri h
de class without praise, then the
principle is true.
Atolhs r b.t
ee levels of
3. According to the u,$lsqtu F'w; •
et@nrs
d investigation. French categorizes
research according to the levels of investigation into explo-
ratory research, descriptive research, and experimental m-
Search.
a tq ddorery
a. in exploratory ftd !r ME \dL! b {d
research, the researcher studies the vari-
ables pertinent to a specific situation.
b. In descriptive msearch, the researcher studies the relation-
ships of the variables.
C. In experimental research, the experimenter studies the
effects of the variables on each other. (Treece and Treece,
Jr., p. 6)
a<qtiq
4. According to tF twtu6 ACconling to the type of
a. type ofct analysis.
b the
analysis, Weiss classifies research. into analytic research and
holistic research,
a. In the analytic approach, the researcherauemptsto identify
and isolate the components of the research situation.
b. The holistic approach begins withthe total situation, focus-
ing attention on the system first and then on its internal
relationships. (Treece and Treece, Jr., p. 6)
5. According to scope. Under this category is action research.
This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve
a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem-
Salving.
Ld@bn,i*lid* r luqd{j!6rdppbi@
Ineducation, kis a firing-line orun thejob type of problem-
solving or research used by teachers. supervisors, and admi-
nistrators to ifinnove ihe quality of their decisions and
actions: it seeks more dependable and appropriate means of
promoting
@6auq and sd qdu,he
evaluating Npr go|d ri! lid\Fdi!
pupil growth in line with specific
d Frni djd s
and general objectives and !rnd,
sd attempts b @rr dua.oDr
to improve educational
practices without reference to whether findings would be
applicable beyond the group studied. (Good, p. 464)
 13

p.M4 olwT Patrdt tutt \16

A(qee to choice of answers tob problems. Adroit divides
6. According
research that is concerned with finding answers to pmhlems
into evaluation and developmental research.
a. In evaluation research, all possible courses of action are
specified and identified and lilt researcher tries to find the
most advantageous.
b. Indevelopmental research. the focus is on finding or deve-
loping a more suitable instrument or prow% than has been
available. (Treece and Treece. Jr.. p. 6)
7. According to statisdcid content. Under this type may be men-
tioned quantitative research and non-quantitative research.
a. Quantitative or statistical research isonc in which inferen-
tial statistics am utilized to determine the results of the
study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square,
analysis of variance, etc. arc used to test the hypothesis.
This typeof research usually includes comparisortstudics,
cause-and-effect relationships, etc.
b. Non-quantitative research. This is research in which the
use of quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is
especially true in anthropological studies where descrip-
tion is usually used. Descriptive data am gathered Miter
than quantitative data.
B. According to time clement. According to time clement, Best
classifies research as historical, descriptive. and experimental.
a. Historical n:search describes what was.
b. Descriptive research describes what is.
c. Experimental researchdescribes what will be. (Treece and
Treece, Jr., p. 6)
Historical, descriptive, and experimental are the three
bijdeedintdd! otur'!tuds
major research methods. All other riA,{r,)ci
methods, kinds, and types
of research whatever they arc called fall under these three
major methods.
Other types and kinds of research arc named according to
Hcqc'Wu*lsl4aj
the area or field of activity. Hence, we have sociological
research, social research, psychological research. anthropo-
logical research, physical research. chemical research. indus-
trial research, economics research, health research, nursing
14

research,curriculum research, educational research, and count-

less others.

sonc Hbbog
Some to *britu
Hindrances b Scientific hquir ($&6 inh Personal
Inquiry (Errors tor&ir
Judgment)

R{etgqeciljtsqt5!h.d!lsidu\ed4trfic
Babble gives the following as etme of the hindrances to scientific
inquiry. They aremostly errors in personal judgment. (Babble. pp. 6.16)
The explanations am made for local adaptation.
1. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices,
and superstitions are true and am pans tithe daily lives of men.
No effort is exerted to find out whether they are true or not. For
de.rq|@*1di,!'detrdlFsg$h!'qhq6J
example, there is a traditional belief among some women that
women who are conceiving should avoid eating dark or black
food such as black berries because their children will become
dark also. This may be true or not. but many women believe
and practise it witImut verifyine its truth. People have the idea
that when everybody does a thing, it is true. This belief is a
hindrance to scientific investigation. •
2. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinitatabota
iqtu $rt!dlrtrhr! f'rryrnotr{bo*c6dcEd
a certain subject which is given by someone who is considered
an authority on the subject. If an ordinary person says that
kissing transmits colds, he is not believed much, he may even
be laughed at. On the otherhand, when a doctor says the same
thing, he is believed without question. Suppose, a doctor
commits a mistake and it is a fact that some doctors commit
mistakes sometimes. Worse, sometimes persons with big
names in the community make pronouncements about things
outside their own expertise and they are believed beeline of
their big names. They am believed without any scientific
inquiry about the truth of their pronouncements. For instance,
a well-known athlete is made to annotte:that to drink a certain
brand of liquor is good because it makes the body strong. Big
stars in the movies are oflenmatle to somsordiesale of certain
products, especially beauty enhancing things or articles, and
they are believed without the slightest semblance of any
scientific investigation.
3. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is
@UJ])dt'drthi-t.'!!i9{dlieli]3]\
actually observed. For instance, in the dead eta moonlit night,
 15

a man sets a shadow in the form of a nelson and the man

concludes at once without any investigation that he has seen a
ghost. When a meteor streaks the atmosphere, people who sec
it say they have seen a flying saucer. When one sees a man
lying unconscious in the street after he is hit by a speeding car,
he concludes at once that the person is already dead even if he
is not. He does not investigate anymote.
4. Overgenendaation. This is establishing a pattern out or a few
instances. For instance., when one sees one or two Docano
husbands who are hanlworking. responsible and trustworthy
then he concludes that Roc= husbands arc hardworking,
msponsible. and trustwonhy. When one happens to travel in a
rough road in a certain province he forms the impressions that
the roads in that province are rough. He does not take the
pains anymore to we if the tuber toads in the province an. also
rough.
5. Selective vine, %Pagan. Thisis ',enlisting to believe anohscrvcd
patient from an overgeneralization and ignoring other perti-
nent par I em.s. For example. one sees for the first time one or
LWO prosperous Chinese MOMS beside a poor, struggling
Filipino store. Ile forms the conclusion that the Chinese am
more shrewd and mum COMixtlitive than Filipinos. So when-
cvc/hc sees fluinese and Filipino stores he always has that
idea that Chinese am better businessmen than Filipinos ignor-
ing the fact that them ant also p00: Chinese businessmen and
there are also very good and more competitive Filipino busi-
nessmen.
6. Made-up informs:ion. This is making up information in
',d.4'4|r'fu!,Tutroilq@h6fr,'lM
explain away confusion. Suppose a buyer buys frorn a store,
goods worth1)50.00 and gives to the storck =pima PI 00.00 bill.
The storekeeper mistakenly gives a change of P40.00. The
buyer goes away without counting the change but when he gets
home he finds that the change is short of P10.00. Instead of
going back to the store to find out why he has a wrong change.
he concludes that the storekeeper is a cheater and the members
of his family am also cheaters. Then, he buys again from the
store but accidently leaves his wallet when he is paying for thc
goods. A son of the storekeeper goes to the buyer's house
returning the wallet. Instead of Thinking that after all the
16

storekeeper is an honest fellow and perhaps also his family

hldes, he
members, rh4;$ that
E imagines h4& the
sd maybe e boy ,eL to
ts} went in house
b his Mue
purposely not to return the wallet but to see his house for a
possible burglary.
Another example of made-up information is wmngly in-
terpreting the findings of a research material.
7. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing something to another
'J4n?14d4]qnstrGfuLhA$(djhcoodEl
without any logical basis. For instance, because of the ex-
tended good weather it may rain at the weekend. Or, because
it is sunny it will not rain Mat day. Or. when a woman is
believed to beasorcerer. These are beliefs without any logical
basis and no effort is exerted to verify them.
8. Ego-involvemenrinunderstantling. This is giving anexplana-
lion when one finds himself in art unfavorable situation. For
instance, when foreigners make a slur nn Filipinos, the latter
coiner that that is racial discrimination without investigating
whether the slight is true or not When a student gels a low
grade, he says that he gm a low grade because his teacher has
a personal grudgc against him and he is a victim of vindictive-
ness. He does not make any effort to examine his abilities, his
habits of study, etc.
Mystification. This is attributing to supernatural power, the
phenomena that cannot be understood. This is accepting that
there are things which are beyond human intelligence to
understand and which am r=rvett only to a supernatural
being. Thus, no effort is exerted to make a scientific inquiry
about these phenomena.
10. To en is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility
of man. When a man renders a wrong decision or commits a
mistake, he merely leans on the saying "To err is human." He
does not make any effort anymore to study why he committed
the error. how he committed the error, the implications of his
error.how he can correct his error and how to make more sound
decisions in the future.
II. Dogmatism. This is an addition. This is an unwritten policy of
certain institutions and governments prohibiting the study of
topics that are believed to run counter to the established
 17

doarinesofsuch institutions orgovernmems. Thus incommu-

niStie Stales, it is unlikely that one studies and writes about the
beauty of democracy. The same is Iruc in a democracy. There
is a veiled prohibition to study and write about the beauty
uddopdqd@m@!n
and adoption of communism. It may be a remote possibility
that a research student in a Christian churchgelated school can
make a study ahout the non-csisicnec oroot IIis unlikely also
that one advocates the adoption of polygamy in a Christian
community because his study findings say that polygamy is
good.
The above am some hindrances to scientific investiga-
tion.

The Scientific Method of Research

One of the characteristics of good reseatch is that, it is systematic.

It follows the scientific method of research winch includes the following
samential steps: (Treece and Treece, Jr.. p. 47)
r Lrfrih8 iEornid s. pmblern;
I. Determining (recognizing) the Fh.h;
2. Forming a hypothesis;
3. Doing the library search;
4. Designing the study:
5. Developing the instruments for collecting data;
6. Collecting the data;
7. Analysing the data;
8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings;
and
9. Making recommendations for further research.

It should be borne in mind that the researcher goes through all the
nine steps when he does his research and when he writes his research
report_ if the standard format of thesis writing is followed. the first two
knedltkhg'|6e
steps will be included in Chapter 1, "The Problem and Its Setting": the
thini step will be in Chapter 2, "Related Literature and Studies"; the
founh, fifth and sixth steps will he discussed in Chapter 3. "Methods of
Research and Procedures". the seventh step will be presented in Chapter
4. "Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data and the last two
steps placed in Chapter 5, "Summary. Conclusions, and Recommenda.
Cons".
Is

Principles of the scientific method. (Ibid., p. 50) The principles of

the scientific method are:
1. Rigid control,
2. Objectivity,
3. Systematic organization, and
4. Rigorous standards.
Rigid control refers to the manipulation of the research variables.
Variables arc those things that vary in quantity and quality which are to
eh[E!|td6}!*e4!gLj\iAo
be manipulated by the researcher. Examples of variables are age, sex,
population, adequacy, efficiency. etc. There am variables which should
be controlled rigidly, that is, kept constant or equal in a certain research.
work.
Objectivity means that there should be no bias or panialiry in
treating the results of the inquiry. The results should not be tampered
with. whatever they may be.
Systematic organization refers to proper and accurate tahulation of
data as well as presenting them in statistical tables ready for interpreta-
tion,
tu 6d atu
FhciDb refers tob the
The founh principle dc setting !p of
rd1iry up iued!
d standards q ri
or prin-
ciples which serve as bases fur evaluating the findings of a study. Such
standards should not be changed to suit the expectations of the re-
searcher. The principle also referstothe accurate statistical computation
and interpretation of quantified data.
IL should be tinted that the development of this hook follows the
sequential steps of the scientific method of research.

Designing the Study

Designing the study must follow the scientific method of research.

Aside from choosing the right problem, forming the hypotheses, and
library reseamb, designing die study als0 includes deciding on the
method of research to he used, the study population the insuument for
gathering data and its preparation, the sampling design, statistical treat-
ment of data, and analysis and presentation of data.
Following arcdiscussions andexplanationsofeachof theseaspacts
of themsearch procedure. Afiercarcfully siudying thesediscussions and
explanations, the researcher can already make a workable design of
research for his investigation.
 19

There are three major research methods with their respective

variations from which the researcher may choose the mcthod he wants to
uded!!Feedaidlefu'&
use depending upon the nature of his investigation. These are the
ffi.ddcurE,d4tuffidllcd
historical. descriptive and experimental methods of research.
l)bddqndd&d.dfuo,leotdh.
Discussed and explained also are the different methods of collect•
ngd,!&4a&fudis.fulJ&
ing data such as the interview, questionnaire, observation. tests, and
fudsnsftp@fuddl@BF!hnMd'
others as well as the preparation of thick respective instrwneniu
qidhs designs
Sampling dsre^' !6such !as s random, lFbre
pure tud@, systematic.k6d,
gracile&
cluster and other types are also well elaborated on.
edtciffih.de'!id'4ii,d
Other activities involved in conducting research inquiries and
rn'irEd@E&c6d{qdalr6ddI|E
writing research reports arc also given clear explanations with diem-
tiore for better understanding. How to write the search report or thesis
bbri@!ry0pL4lIrhssdldsd9.Jb'
has been given very ample explanations and fflusuations, chapter by
chapter for better understanding of the whole process of research
tenoning or thesis writing.

AlJeNrcTWDY4DrcON
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

I. How do you &fire research?

a*i'bE:ddlofftMrifu?
2. Why is research important to humankind?
3. What are the purposes and goals of research?
♦. How do you characterize a good research?
5. flow tire research and problem iolving differentiated?
6. How is research classified according to the following?
a. Purpose
b. Goal
c. Levels of investigation
d. Types of analysis
c. Scope
f. Choice of answers to problems
g. Statistical content
h. Time element
zfu&lftlljlfu|od!h'ft!ryl&
7. What are some hindrances to research? Why arc they called
hindrances?
l*h'rdd&ldr.nddtt1dEfu?fu
S. Why should the scientific method of research be followed? What
are the steps in the scientific method? Explain
 21

22 THE
THE RESEARCH
RESEARCH PROBLEM
PRoBT.EM

Definition

A problem is (1) any significant, perplexing and challenging

situation. real or anificial, the solution of which requires reflective
hinking: (2) a perplexing situation after it has been translated into a
question or series of questions that help determine the direction of
subsequent inquiry. The foregoing definitions arc according to Dewey.
(Good, p. 414)

Elements of a Research Problem

The term research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or

study is to be conducted, nr that the pmbtcm is ready for investigation,
bqI'ffulylin&afuhdereNs1
inquiry or study, Themarecertainelements that a problem must possess
before it becomes a research problem ready for investigation. These
elements are:
1. Aim or outpost of the problem for investigation. This answers
the question "Why?" Why is then: an investigation. inquiry
or study?
?acsbjdn,Bdolcrc$jildsdfti{!*G
2. The subject maner or topic to be investigated. This answers
the question "What?" What is to be investigated or studied?
3. The placeorlocale where thereward' is to bc conducted. This
answers the question "Where?" Where is the study to be
conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be
gathered. This answers the question "When?" When is the
study to be carried out?
1,fulddoq!0ldeIoI*h4fud,eb6
5. Population or universe faun whom the data are to be
collected. This answersthequestion"Who?"or"From whom?"
*s!EftE'tsdds!
Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be
gathered?
22

Summarizing, the dements of a research problem are aim or

purpose, subject matter or topic, place or locale, period or time, and
Fpedoled!ftfu'e*dldya\sqlleftudi3'iD
populationor universe. They respectively answerquestionsmarting with
why, what. where, when, and who or from whom.
Example of a research problem: To determine the status ofteaching
dechdrsdehldhtuAd@
science in the high schools of Province A during the school year 1989-
1990.
Aim or purpose: TO determine the status of
Subject matter or topic: The teaching of science
E@c|d!:hdttr4l$ecdh@A
Place or locale: In the high schools of Province A
Period or time: During the school year 1989-1990
Population: The respondents aro implied lo be either the teachers
or the pupils or both,
In formulating the tide of a research inquiry, the aim is usually
Omitted and sometimes thepopulation isnot also included. In the above
example the title is "The Teaching of Science in the High Schools of
Province A During the School Year 1%9-1990."

cddh6bdtrskdod!RlsldIrobhDeToAt
Guidelines In the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic

There arc =nein guidelines or criteria Indic selection of a research

pmblem to make it more interesting and the research work more
enjoyable to the researcher as well as to ensure the completion of the
study. Among the guidelittesnrcritedaarethe following which may also
be considered as characteristics of research problems:
1. The researchprohlem octopi° must bechosenby thereseanther
himself. This is to avoid blaming othersorofferingexcuses for
any obstacle encountered.
2. It must he within the interest of the researcher. 'Ibis is to make
sure that the researcher will focus his full attention on the
research work.
3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This will
in some way make the work easier for him because he is
working on familiar grounds. Besides. this may improve his
specialization. skill, and competence in his profession.
4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle.
The researcher must know the method of research and other
 23
research procedures applicable to his problem and he must
know how to apply them. He must have a workable under-
standing of his study.
5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance,
fuLoln&ebrdfudgfuN64d
otherwise he must be able to find funding for his research.
Research involves not a small amount of expense and the
researcher must be able to foot the bills until his study is
tuDdbrb!@vNd eqd& d;b
c@'Ld. There must be a budget which he must be able to
completed.
shoulder.
6. It is researchable and manageable, that is.
a. Data are available and accessible. The researcher must be
$t6ddeF4.L!h3ifo'bYe{8!td@fu
Sum that the participants in his investigation possess the
needed data and that they are within his reach. So, one must
not choose a limbic-an in which the locations of the data are
too far away, say foreign lands.
b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy. objectivity,
and verifiability. This is important The data gathered
must be accurate. objective and not biased, and can be
'!n&,@4o6]'dit!io'blcd'd@E
verified if there arises a need, otherwise, the results of the
study will not be valid and the generalizations formulated
will be faulty.
c. Answers to the specific questions (subproblems) can be
fudIt!*bbd&nd$ppl,Glery
found. The data to be collected must supply the necessary
answers to the specific questions. Suppose the question is
"How qualified are the teachers handling science?" The
data to be gathered arc the educational attainments and the
fields of specialization of the teachers to be checked
against the regulations of the school system. This way, the
answer to the question can be found.
d. The hypotheses formulated are testable. that is, they can be
accepted or rejected. Hypotheses are not proved. they arc
orJrqn HAtuum!'dcFdos.tuL;n6
onlydetermined as true or not. If the findings from the data
do not conform to the hyrxithcses, the latter arc rejected. If
!r idrs oftm h,pes. id e
the findings conform to bthed!hypotheses, the sc latter are
accepted as true and valid.
lFlli@fodfuirtltttrfqlMrEd&d
e. Equipment and instruments for research arc available and
can give valid and reliable results. The construction and
24

validation of research instruments are fully discussed in a

later chapter.
-4. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless
iI Elah {rd d6 b4 bc a
bonMhd research which takes aa long time ror
it is aI longitudinal for its
oqi!'ooAfuqhEsdns6d.}rh4e1
completion. Although research is unhurried, them must be a
timetable for its completion For graduate students engaged
hsLr de io e$d! laenhp@j{Lhrt
!d educationalL research, a research project for a
in social and
master's thesis must be completed Within three years from
the time the academic work has been completed and for a
doctoral dissertation, five years. lids is according to regula-
tion.
ft. It is significant, important and relevant to the present time and
situation. timely. and of current interest. This means that the
f*sd
research pFjsL d6, be
project must dt
r. able to
b make \ahuur impact
n*c a1 substantial @prcr
upon situations and people it is intended for or addressed
io. It must able 1.0 amuse the interest of the people
concerned. If the study is about drug abuse. it must be able to
draw attention ofthoseengaged in the habit and those assigned
to stop it.
]}!c!J6@lndtJdi]dplu{hbt'fu!s
9. The results are practical and implementable. If the inves-
tigation is about drug addiction, arc the recommendations for
its eradication applicable with the expected effectiveness?
10. It requires original. critical, and reflective thinking to solve it
ro be
To k able r {c} rN rc$. p(jcdi6!*rlrr
d' research project must be novel,
lbr io apply these, the
new or original. The study is considered novel and new
if it has not yet been studied before and the data art gathered
from new and original sources. However, die study may
be a replication, that is, the study has already been conducted
hlhq[sd.l€e.mlIscPlr'hElhicddt!
but in another place, not in the place where it is intended to be
studied again. The purpose of study replications is r.0
determine if conditions in one place are also uue in other
places so that generalizations of wider application can be
fornrulated.
11. It canbe delimited to suit the n:sourcesof the researcher but big
or large enough to be able to give signi flcant, valid,and reliable
results and generalizations. The area and population may be
reduced but only to such an extent that the generalizations can
be considered true and useful.
 25

It mos/contribute to the national development goals forthe im-

provement of thequalityof humanlife. This is the ultimate aim
of research, to improve the quality of human life. Research
mug improve or show how to improve unsatisfactory condi-
tions.
13. It mug contribute to the fund of human knowlodge. All the
fans and knowledge that we have am mosdy the products of
research. Any study to be conducted must add a new bit of
Imowledge to what we already have.
v14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or
problems intended Co be solved. Usually. after an inquiry has
been conducted, recommendations arc made for the solution of
problems discovered which, if implemented, can solve the
problems.
trIi46!mldmiEdtriod!i9duq!$d'k
IS. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the
people. It must not advocatethepromotion of antisocial values
such as drug addiction, cruelly, band, divisiveness, multiple
sex mating, etc. As much as possible it must advocate the
promotion of divine values and those admirable human values
such as love, peace, goodwill, etc.
16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things
by MearIS of violence but by peaceful means. It must not
advocate subversion, revolution, or the like to wrest control of
the government or change the form of goverruncot. If there is
a needed change. It must be made by any means but the means
must be peaceful and legitimate.
17. Theremust be a retumof somekind to the it-searcher, eithcronc
or all of the following, if the research report is completed;
a Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of the
results in which there is some kind of loyalty.
b. Advancement of position, promotion. Generally,atterfin-
ishing a graduatecourse, there is apromotion especially in
the educational sylltan. It is easier to get a promotion with
a graduate degree than without one.
c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in profes-
!!d €tsdy {e @sr
n@, work especially if the research subject
sional drd b
sbild is; related to
the profession. Suppose a teacher makes a study of the
26

school management practices of school principals in a

edllo'$lend*'esFfube
certain area. So, when this teacher gets promoted to the
pid ,My bos tiv n{+ b {m
{ih he
principalship E already knows how tob manage his own
school because of what he has learned from his study about
fuDnc66d6FEjl*Ebfujd
the practices of the principals he has studied.
d, Enhanced prestige and reputation. Usually, it is a big
honor, especially among colleagues, on the pan of one who
@dd
completes a1llsrch rnd d b able
research project ant he dL to vtu aa thesis
b write hi
about his research project. This is co because of the
intellectual activity, diem-making capacity, and big ex-
penses involved in the work, and of course, because of a
higher degree camcd.
c. Satisfactionof intellectual curiosityand interest, and being
able to discover truth. ft is always our experience that after
being able to solve a difficult intellectual problem we arc
engulfed with so much elation and satisfaction that we
forgct all the sacrifices and difficulties that we have gone
thmugh. This is also the feeling of those who am able to
rr$ ftr rcs* rjtlc d atsil ,t rdq in
finish their research pmjects and reports, the latter h the tu
form of theses or dissertations, especially after passing a
very rigid end defense.
IR. There must be a consideration of die hazards involved, either
physical. social.Orlegal. This ainhorknowsof amen whowcnt
b0c
to h@iur
the mountains tobsodyxde iri4 $ldii d0gd
study a tribe, ignoring physical dangers
from wild animals and from the uibcsmcn themselves. While
this act is admirable, the researcher must also consider his
personal safety.
Another hazard is social. This occurs when an inquiry
happens to encroach upon socially approved and established
social values, norms of conduct, or ethical standards. The in-
quiry may draw the ire of the populace and the researcher may
receive some kind of rebuke, censure, criticism. or derision.
Still another hazard is legal. Han investigation may affect
lrdy rd!.d tusiqd{d; Fodc. !a rid
dr honor and integrity of certain people,
adversely the d,
libel suit
may ensue. Of course, 'Woes not manermuch if the researcher
can prove his facts to be true and if he is a crusader. He will be
admired forhisbokiness urdiscoverand tell thettuthnomatter
who gets hurt. A study about graft and corruption in the
government is an example.
 2'1

The Title

Guidelines in writing the title. The thesis writer should be guided

by the following in the formulation of his title. These are also the
characteristics of Me title.
). Centrally. the title: is formulated before the =aortic research
work. It may be revised and refined later if them is a need
,. ftdrns'Frdifr.alnq lkroroe
2. The title must contain the subject matter nd, the locale
°Me study. hdc
dftnd,.h@16ldd'deFd,l{ih
of the study. the population involved. aid the period 'e
when the
data way gathered or wall tc guttered.
r
3. ItI must
ns' he hd
h broad enough dd w$ dh
rDuxri totuInclude alliraspects of the itithfCCt
!'rre1
111atter studied or to he studied. I !crate. the title indicates what
is expected to be found inside the thesis repon.

'.ft.db!ifurdd'EF-Ffu
It mug be as brief and an raw a possible.
5. Avoid using the terms "An Analysis of." "A Study of." "An
Investigation inland the like. All these things arc understood
to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted.
R. If the tide atililtiti Mal WC lint. it muse be written like
an inverted pyramid. all woods in capital letters.

Example of a complete title:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN TIIE HIGH SCHOOLS OF

PROVINCE A AS PERCEIVED BY THE SCIENCE TEACHERS
AND STUDENTS DURING THE SCHOOL YEAR 1989— 1990

The contents ac required by Guideline No. 2 arc:

r iridffituditrdsd:
a Subjea matter: The teaching of science;
hL@dfud':ll!4t$Nldfu|EA
h. Locale of the study: High schools of Pnwince A
c. Population involved: The science teachers and students: and
d. Period or the study: School year 1989 —1990
A brief aid concise form of the title and a better one follows:

THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN THE

HIGH SCHOOLS OF PROVINCE A
Il will be noted that the population. the science teachers and
#|d-rFbdftldnlsl99c*lMfu
smdents a well as the period °fare study.1989-1990.areomined when
28
wining the second form but they have to be mentioned in the scope and
delimination of the study. It will bc noted also that thc title, thoughbrief
and simplified. is broad enough to include all possible aspucis of the
4bFhfulfudbq{htrkFd4dd{E'i
subject manse The central theme, which is the teaching of science, is
also very dear.

Statement of the Problem

Guidelines In formulating the general problem and the specific
,D"ddqe;rt!@4@;
subproblem rhhrbqc$!edbs
s orspecific questions. The e
following are suggested to guide
fi.E{lfubehE!d!idb!rydIs[Eh!16fu
the researcher in the formulation of his general as wen as his specific
subproblems or questions. These am also tic characteristics of specific
'i9i6!GqseeDe&4d$!(fuddc5dFft
questions:
I.r'fu@dbbfundeNd.odfu@lic$'
The general statement of the problem and the specific sub•
problems or questions should be formulated first before con-
ducting the research.
is customary toD!&lFLic
r ItnLqtuq
2. $bc@tus inh the
state specific subproblem eru inter-
DgdithfuM'sbldlsNdfu*dfus'
rogative coml. Hence. subproblems are called specific ques-
tions.
Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal, that is,
it has only one meaning. It must not have dual meanings.
4fuhsii.q!d@i!rc$&ujL+mfuftohl
4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other
q!fu'odk.;lW$bdsgjfu@6d.{b
questions. that is, answers to each specific question can be
found even without considering the other questions.
5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and
phenomena. Besides. data from such known facts and phe-
;".."i
nomena must be h accessible to make the
"6e..tu F{. q*d-
tu specific question
researchable.
6'^c!!nbcd@1d.q!sm@eij@'d@fu
6. Answers meach specifiequestioncanbe interpreted apan from
fuilrytrb!fui*eq!ds'
the answers to other specific questions.
7Aigc6b4h*df4q6qn6.6dMbbft
7. Answers to each specific question must contribute to the
development of the whole research problem or topic.
8. Summing up the answers to all the specific questions will give
al@d&ddslddfu4iEsdy
complete development of the entire study.
9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover
the development of the whale research problem or study.
 29

Before writing down the speci fic questions, determine first

the different aspects of the research problem to he studied and
then for each aspect make one specific question with subques-
r6 ri0tr'Ed rd tr"4h@. er!h;cd
lions if them is a need. if the research topic is the teaching of
science the different aspects may be the following;
a Qualifications of the teachers, especially educational;
b. Methods and strategies of teaching used and their level of
effectiveness;
c. Facilities available, instructional and non.instruaional
and their adequacy;
d. Adequacy of supervisory assistance extended to teachers;
e. Comparison between the perceptions of the teachers and
those of the students concerning the different aspects;
1. Problems encountered by the teachers in teaching science;
g. Proposals to solve or help solve the problems; and
LLehlqsdfu&d,esceh'gd&aE
h. Implications of the study to the teaching of science.
K10. Generally. them should be a general statement of the problem
![mdc$oUlllalqlpifua4a,$bpldmso
and then this should he broken up into asmany subproblems or
specific questions as necessary. Example; This study was
conducted to investigate ad I aspects of the teaching of sciertce
in the high schools of Province A during the school year 1989
— 1990 as perceived by the science teachers and students.
Specifically, the study attempted to answer the following
questions:
a. How qualified are the teachers handling science in the high
schools of Province A?
b. llow effective are the methods and strategies used by the
teachers in teaching science?
c. 1 low adequate are the instructional as well as the non.
instructional facilities for the teaching of science?
d. How adequate are the forms of supervisory assistance
extended to the teachers relative to the teaching of science?
e. Is there any significant difference between the perceptions
of the teachers and those of the students concerning the
different aspects in The teaching of science?
I'. What problems are being encountered by the teachers of
science?
30

g. What suggestions arc offered by the teachers and students

to improve the teaching of science?
h. What am the implications of the findings to the teaching
of science?

Assumptions - ;run-% c r

An assumption is a self-evident twin which is based upon a known

fact or phenomenon.
turEq i &$i$rc d hituid rcsds.
qj$isrt in descriptive and historical researches.
Oftentimes, especially
6uildd6eMe4ljodysprsgdhlbi
assumptions are not explicitly expressed but len implicit, that is, they arc
unwritten. Generally, every specific question is implicitly based upon an
lsh@oitrJ4*Nalodblq94ddjhrjtdl@@
assumption. If thert is no assumption, expressed or implicit, then can
be no specific question.
Examples:

osrftq!$dnhwsdjEd!rcftteE6b{dhg
(1) Specific question: flow qualified arc the teachers handling
science?
Implicit (unwritten) assumption: There arc certain qualifica-
tions that one should possess before he can teach science.
(2) Specific question: How adequate are the facilities that a
schom stung() acquire before it can offer science as a subject?
Implicit assumption: There are certain required facilities that
a school should acquire before it can offer science as a
subject.
(3) Specific question: How effective arc the methods used in die
teaching of science?
h»plicit assumption: There arc certain methods that are effec-
tive in the teaching of science.

Guidelines in the are of basic assumptions. The following arc the

guidelines in the use of basic assumptions: (By Sugden as cited by
Manuel. p. 81)
1. You cannot assume the value of your study. Such an argument
5dhire6fu!fuft.!idligfrrede
should have been made under the section, significance of the
study.
2. You cannot assume the reliability of the instruments you
 31

propose to use in your research. Such a rationale and defense

should be made under methodology.
Ycdced!['ore&tdlyLd
3. Youcannot assume the validity of basiedata Validity is estab-
lished under methodology.
Yc@e4usrFdfu*!t !. tuFim
4. You cannot assume that your population is typical. This point
is to be made under methodology.
5. An assumption is not tested, neither is It defaxkxl nor argued.

Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a =dative conclusion or answer to a specific

^'4...iril'dft.q'.tea*c-tse
FdMrcL.idltdhidldat!noltld
raised at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated
glblftulgbr@ifu@iii
guess about the answer to a specific question.
Fonns ofhypotheses. There arc two forms of hypotheses. One is
M the operational form and the other ix in the null form. The operational
bon is stated in the affirmative while the null form is stated In the
4d}cftFdirffird'bd't
negative. hit operational form states that there is a different between
Fdw'Q@tud6d.16'ukLDdtr4c
two phenomena while the null form sines that that is no difference
tudMdEq'4hdd
between the two phenomena. In other words the null form expresses
qdttuMdEflEB tutoocdr!d
equality between two phenomena This is more commonly used.
tuu.tu inh the
Guidelines acha'htb d.4h.
formulailon ref explicit hypotheses. tuNrq
rtrdtla\ The follow-
n'4h4!@h!bffddddqdicih}tsuE{N:
mg arc the guidelines in the formulation of explicit hypotheses:
/r.I. In hdFi"-d
✓ i-dr!dd"hypotheses
experimental investigations, rlc"r*, havehddo rr-!4qrl
to be explicit.
they have to be expressed. They have to be expressed also in
qryedd]d.qlls'
ammatative and correlational studies.
2'beFGdE:'dfuljGllFi.tntl
2. In descriptive and historical Investigatiom. hypotheses arc sel-
b+dtrEdd'lhfugtF{h5g
dom expressal if not entirely absent. The subprobleins or
sderl&dd6tr@!4dtrhvdl!!@
specific questions raised before the start of the investigation
and suited under the statement of the problem serve its the
hypotheses. (Good and Scales. pp. 220221) The specific ques-
tions serve as the hypotheses. With this fact. it is logical to
presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and fur
that matter all theses and dIssatations have their own respec-
fti,F,tEgGo.!q!dl!DMn.t)l'!d
tive hypotheses Cbitsequently. no research is conducted
thlaiP63.u
without any hypothesis at all.
3fiJFltE4lld'@hftfubu6!!
3. Hypotheses areusually stated in the null form because testing
ariu!,'ohisLca]'4tr''l'pdshklrdd
null hypothesis is eater than a hypothesis In the operational
32

form. Testing a hypothesis simply means gathering data to

answer it.

Jr Hrlrs
,f4. Hypotheses are0€b@ id tFi'the
formulated from s!specific qNiilq upon
$cinc questions qn'
which they arc based.

Examples:
(1) Question: Is there any significant diffcnmcc between the
perceptions of the teachers and Most of the students COTICer11-
ing the different aspects in the teaching of science?

Operational hypothesis: 'Fliers is a significant difference

between the perceptions of the teachers and those of the
students ixmceming the different aspects lit the teaching of
science.
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between
the perceptions of the teachers and those of the students
concerning the different aspects in the teaching of science.
(2) Question: Is there any significant difference between the ef-
fectiveness of thc inductive method and that of the deductive
method in the teaching of science?
Operational hypothesis: There is a significant difference be-
tween the effectiveness of the inductive method and that of the
deductive method in the teaching of science.
Nuffhypothesis: Thereisnosignificantdifferenec betweenthe
effectiveness of the inductive method and that of the deductive
method in the teaching of science.

PuN6 lwa4'
Purposes, q specific
.tu invariance ofet hypotheses or
functions, and q{4tt
'ryia@
questions. Hypotheses (sitciftequestions)perform^@)86
important functions
in research such as the following:
1. They help the researcher in designing his study: what methods,
research instruments, sampling design, and statistical treat•
meals to use, what data to gather, etc.
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions.
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of data.
4. They serve as bases forthe explanation or discussion about the
data gathered.
 33

5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings

and in formulating his conclusions. Generally, findings and
conclusions are answers to the hypothesesor specific quesdons
raised at the start of the investigation.

atB.n)mroR smY^Nr
QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION Ncsd
1. How is a problem known to be a research problem?
2. What am the elements of a research problem?
3. How is a good research problem selected? What are the guidelines
in selecting a research problem?
4. How is the title of a research problem (emulated?
5. How are the general and specific questions of a research problem
formulated?
6. Why are assumptions and hypotheses imponant in research? What
functions do they serve? How am they formulated? Arc hypothe•
scs always explicit? Why?
 35

33 RELATED
REI,ATED LITERATURE
I,TTERATIJRE AND
ANT}
STUDIES
STTIDIES

Related L•temnue is composed of discussions of facts and prin-

ciples to which the present study is related. For instance, if the present
study deals with drug addiction, literature to be reviewed or sun/eyed
should be composed of materials that deal with drug addiction: These
4 lnrselsdy[j ddioudbM
materials are usually printedandfound in bookseencycicipedies. profes-
i6d jllhri hlpis, rwsFs, d dhrFsr q'iq.
sional journals, magazines, newspapers, andotherpublications.
These materials are classified as
1. Local, if printed in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if printed in other lands.
Related studies, on the other hand. arc studies. inquiries. or inves-
tigations already conducted to which the present proposed study is
related or has some bearing or similarity. They arc usually unpublished
materials such as manuscripts. theses, and:diaserfitions.
They may be classified as
1. Local, if the inquiry was conducted in the Philippines; and
2. Foreign, if conducted in foreign lands.

Inipertance, Purposes, and Functions of Related Literature

and Studies

A survey or review of related literature and studies is very impor-

tant because such reviewed literature and studies serve as a foundation
of the propased study. This isbecause related literature and studies guide
bBnbrbs4'ie{dl*ut.
the researcher in pursuing his research venture. Reviewed literature and
studies help or guide the researcher in the following ways:
t ftr[bf sdmcqsrkhs hhgto!6!4di6
1. They help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting
a better research problem or topic. Ity reviewing related
materials. a replication of a similar problem may be found
better than the problem already chosen. Replication is the
36

study of a research problem already conducted but in another

place.
2. They help the investigator understand his topic for research
better. Reviewing related literature and studies may clarify
vague points about his pm/dem.
3. They ensure that there will be no duplication of other studies.
There is duplication if art investigation already made is con•
ducted again in the same locale using practically the same
respondents. This is avoided if a survey of related literature and
studies be made first.
They help and guide the researcherin locating more sourcesof
related information. This, is.bectiese the_ bibliography of a
study, already conducted indicate references abaut similar
studies.
5. They help and guide the researcher in making his research
design especially in
a. the formulation of spxific questions lobe researched on:
b. the formulation of assumptions and hypotheses if there
should be any;
c. the formulation of conceptual Framework;
d. the selection and application of the methods of research:
e. the selection and application of sampling teenniques;
f. the selection and/or preparation and validation of research
instruments for gathering data;
g. the selection and application of statistical procedures.
h. the analysis, organization, presentation, and interpretation
of data;
i. the making of the summary of implications for the whole
study;
j.j the bmdrthi of
ftc formulation dlc r nnb. of
the summary d findings, o! siq.
iidh$. conclusions,
and recommendations: and
6. They help and guide the researcher in making comparison
hge.i*idq5sd6.ii$ddtrlrc$!4hcDq
between his findings with the findings of other researchers on
similar studies with the end in view of formulating generaliza-
q principles
1d\ or
tions p@dq winch { the
viid arc odohbs of
dc contributions dde dy tob
the study
the fund of knowledge.
 37
Characteristics of Related Literature and Studies
Thcrcarecertaincharameristics ofrelatcd materialsthat make them
of true value. Among these characteristics are:
I. The surveyed materials must be as recent as possible. This is
important because of the rapid social, economic, scientific, and
technological changes. Findings several years ago may be of
little value today because of the fast changing life style of the
'litrdwd4kaddclALd!ry4lt4Icd&
people.
There arc exceptions, however. Treatises that deal on
universals or things of MOM or less permanent nature may still
be good today. There ammathematical laws and formulas and
statistical procedures that had been formulated a long, long
time ago which are being used today with very, very little
improvement This is also true with natural and physical laws.
Books on these, Enough written a long time ago, am still being
cited today.
Another exception is when a comparison or contrast is to
be made between the conditions of today and those of a remote
past, say ten or twenty years ago. Naturally, liurtature and
studies about that remote past have to be surveyed and re-
viewed.
2. Materials reviewed must be objective and unbiased. Some
- materials are extremely or subtly onesided, either political, or
religious. etc. Comparison with Mese materials cannot be
made logically and validly. Distorted generalizations may
result.
3. Materials surveyed must be relevant to the nay. Only
materials that have some hearing or similarity to the research
problem at hand should be reviewed.
4. Surveyed materials must have been bawd upon genuinely
d true
oqttu1 and
original nw t@s
facts or tu' toa hdt
q data @tr tu
.d with(
make them and 4tuk
reliable.
th arc
There {rs! fictitious
c66 where
uc cases n!di6 data &! are $srd j!{
@ supplied b
just to
complete a research report (thesis or dissertation). Of course,
this kind of deception is hard to detect and m prove. Thus, this
is a real problem to honest researchers.
5. Reviewed materials must not be too few nor too many. 'They
must only be sufficient enough to give insight into theresearch
38

problem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation.

The number may also depend upon the availability of related
materials. Sometimes there is a paucity of such materials.
Ordinarily. from ten to fifteen related materials are needed for
a master's thesis and from fifteen to twenty-five for a doctoral
dissertation depending upon their availability, as well as their
depth and length of discussions. Por an undergraduate thesis.
from five to ten may do. The numbers. however, are only
suggestive and nut imperative nor mandatory. These arc only
the average numbers observed from theses and dissenations
surveyed by this author.

Sources of Related Literature and Studies

The sources of related literature and studies may include the

following:
I. Rooks. encyclopedias, almillgICS, and other similar references.
2. Ankles published inN lpftsfunr
profession joldr n{,h4
al journals, magazines,
periodicals. newspapers. and other publications.
3. Manuscripts, monographs. memoirs, speeches, letters, and
diaries.
4. Unpublished theses and dissenations.
S. The Constitution. and laws and statutes of the land.
6. Bulletins. circulars, and orders emanating from government
offices and departments. especially from the Office of the
President of the Philippines and the Department of Education.
Culture and Spurts.
7. RecordS of schools, public and private, especially reports of
their activities.
8. Repon.s fmni seminars. educational or otherwise.
9. Official reports of all kinds, educational. social, economic,
scientific, technological, political. etc. from the government
and other entities.
 39

Where to Locate the Sources of Related Literature and Studies

Generally, the sources of related literatun2 and studies am located

in the following places:
I. Libraries, either government, school, or private libraries.
2. Government and private offices.
3. The National Library
4. The Library or the 13epartment of Education. Culture and
Sports.
The last two am especially rich depositories of related materials,
particularly unpublished master's theses and doctoral dissertations.

a!6rors foR STUDY

QUESTIONS FOR sl uDY AND nrsc(ls(rN
AND DISCUSSION

1. What is the nature or related literature and studies?

How are related literature and studies classified?
Why are related literature and studies imponant in research? What
am their functions?
4. How arc good related literature and studies characterized?
c. From what sources may related studies and literature be taken?
What arc these sources located?
 41

44 HISTORICA
HrsroRrcArL RESEARCH

Definition of 'History

ft dFids!{odtlirtDqsNsircib
The origin oldie word hid incans the search for knowlalge aiwrdF!d and
the truth, a searching to find out. "History is any integrated narrative or
iiioJci'tisryfol
description of past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for
the whole truth," Nevins. (Good and Scales, p. 170) Any narrative of
any past event, say the election of a President, is ma history if it
is written without any critical inquiry into the whole truth. A newspaper
report about any session of CosigieSS Cannel be history if them is no
mitical analysis alinut the whole truth

Meaning of Historical Research

Historical research or historical method of research is a process of

selecting the area or ionic to write the history about, collecting data about
events that occurred in the arca nr AMU the topic, collating the data.
sifting the authentic hum non-authentic, and then making an interpreta-
tive narrative antic or critical inquiry into the whole truth of the events.
Historical research describes what occurred in the past and then makes
a critical inquiry into the truth of what occurred.
Historical research must be interpretative, that is, it describes the
present situations in terms o (past events. For example, why arc we using
6TllJ$lid]dditdohalsfo!
English as a mall um of instruction in our schools today? The mason is
that the Americans imposed English as a medium of instruction in our
schools when they colonized the Philippines and the practice persisted up
r this day.
There are four major activities in historical research:
L Choosing and defining the problem:
b. Collecting the data;
c. Critically analyzing the data; and
d. Writing the research repon.
42

Choosing the Problem

b.fu*{EiddeFtFNqhEeDu{
In choosing his historical research problem. thc researcher must
consider his resources. availability of data, time constraint, and his
professional competence. The researcher must be able to finance his
r&aiFj.dnmMdrqdhlr ftr
msearch project if no outside funding is available. He must also be sum
tu rrqdddr16!* dllEb sD rdderid
that adeyuase data arc acoessibie and marl be able to finish thc project
within a reasonable period of time. He must also he sure that he has
'nr4ltlsl&Fddh.
q{!d ma@ d Fq
enough competence andcnoi M.hq
Won to tu project
b carry the ir completion.
hb its
lDlcq into
tud q rkr@hh5li!_nsdbLturojoF !&
The writing of a textbook in hiSinty is possible. hut for a marinate
student gical.,1" the problem must be delimited. Maybe making a
research cask binary of a town, barrio. factory. school or on institutions
such as the "compadrc" system. land tenancy, agrarian reform, a church
in a small locality. etc. will do.

Collection of Historical Data

ft odh{orsNqhhidcdrcBrci btuo0dbid
ft
second major activity in historical research is the collection of
data. There arc many sources from which historical data may be
gid'fub64MMd,dfu!,llllfu'
gathered. These sources we summarized from those enumerated by
Good and Scants with some modification; and additions. (Good and
Scales. pp. 179-188) The list follows:

A. Written untrces

I Official and public documents

a.!L8]n{!.4ld8@6(N''jd!d.
Legislative acts such as C011OillitiOnS. laws. statutes,
resolutions, charters, and records• decisions, letters of
buhdfflglfudd}ryi,'Fdgd
instruction, decrees (presidential or royal). speeches, and
records of cabinet deliberations;
c. Records of proceedings and orders, circulars, bulletins.
decisions, reports, and other communications of execu-
tive departments and lower administrative bodies such as
boards. commiutct and commissions:
d. Records of court trials. deliberations. and decisions:
c R!tq6 dFrddo (ffir tu &ni' 6
c. Registrations of population (census). births, deaths, cam
d@!!@'b4ble.*dq4
and orbit vehicles. lends, buildings. and cattle:
f. Coronets, treaties, executive agreements. and other
foreign relations exchanges: and
 43

I *bdsdand,tuq gna.dnild@
g. School records such as registration, grades, and graduation
of students, orders and reports of school officials, deci-
sions of deliberative bodies such as school board or board
of mimes. school surveys, courses of study and other
instructiomlmatcrials.texthook.slecturenota.catalogocs,
,@d&U@dl'b{dee'
muspecmses, and advertisements, diplomas. cenifrateS.
2. Books and master's theses and doctoral dissertations.
3. Newspapers and periodicals with newsitems, news notices, ar-
ticles, and advertisements, chronicles. and annals.
4. Persmul materials
t rdndqrrE nd6. @ &rdq
a. Autobiographies, memoirs. reminiscences. biographies.
c6ltlEF'EhlBdlrEd
diaries, letters. genealogies. and noce and
b&gdlfuqBlGudb}ld];i!*hleld
b. Legal instruments executed by individuals in a personal
capacity. contracts, wills. and deeds.
5. Hand-written materials, Including papyri. bricks bearing
cuneiform writing, vellum or parchment manuscripts, and
modem documents.
3. M'@M.same'lgd'l!t@
Orally transmitted materials. such as folklore, legends, lintruls
nrft! sagas.
myths, 4.iq*,diq,d'di!d.
epics. tales. anecdotes, and traditions.
C Artistic production such as historical paintings ponmIts. Fait or
Fd'
portrait fub(G tulu stones, hb
Sculpture, chiselled ,btu!. rb ts! coins,
coin types, stamped rctu
'Fr
figures In ancient coins, woven tapestries, vases, and sculptures.
D. r4 recordings,
Tape ed{r including
id!@ radiodh andd television. dB'xl'*,
rNin documentaries.
ildtuitcliEr.c.!W&dilr4ec
movies. films. pictonats slides. micmfitm, and trampuencirs.
Relics and remains
a. Physical: historic sites. roads. aqueducts, pyramids, fonifica-
dons, buildings ruined or whole, (undone, pottery. Imple-
'00.hdlsEJdlbh'fuilba'Fory.j'pl.
ments. and tools, weapons or arms, human remains, clothing.
ld'im!i4!Mnqlcry'aolM4tr'Fsd
food, dwellings. utensils, machinery, monuments, means of
d''l!!ll,ltledryle4!66d.@
Communication and transconation. skeletons. fossils. etched
!l'qd(.dd,cadbidbF.drrdqdr
mines. tablets. and walls• plans of buildings. or pictures of all
SOM.
bNm''iFid:hlsgddiiittr@'ldqtd6!
b. Nonphysical: language, social institutions. pmducts of the
mistd. business records. thy rature.marmers, customs and cere•
monks.
44

Primary and secondary sources of data. As much as possible,

efuh'me@m!,'@i9fu4!lk'd9!]E
historical Information must come from primary or firsthand sources.
This is not always possible, however. and the historical researcher may
dv.dbl'j@!rd.'@fud4'j'lE
rely. arid heavily at that. upon data gathers' from secondary sources.
fin4cnlq*ft6rilgdturr*d4ft
"Primary sour- s, the only solid bases of historical work. arc the
drrddffisfrdd
original documents or remains, dw idill€
d Etat in a rd,
witnesses 6r (Good, dd
fact" (c!o4 dted
b,cddscG.ll&)fuhnre.fusDF,tlcro6d! of a
by Good and Scales, p. 184) For instance. the stenographic notes
court trial and the newspaper reporter's accountldelLdltF'4
of the trial arc primary
sources. However, any document about the same case written by
someone who had not personally witnessed the event Is a secondary
=rte.
drGr dF6 Nr d4{d* d oM
iErur4 their photographs. and cuhural
All physical objects, including
hdtr[oddriaaqdm4eel
^0 and practices ate primary sources themselves and all ac-
institutions
counts written about them by those who had actually seen and experi-
lmdNn.Frh4suE''Al6isbJspl.9h!ilEEwI
enced them am primary sources. All writing:I hy people who have never
experienced nor observed personalty the objects and have based their
d!4lriftdJo.d.Fd6e
writings upon information gathered from those who have knowledge of
the events are secondary wanes.
ells!'dsq8'!!4dfuEdkffiq'Jl
For facts gathered thrbusli the questionnaire and the interview, all
e'rdb
data supplied by 4*ds d h'dlte
rr respondenu and interviewees who have actually expe-
rienced and observed theevents upon which the data have been based am
einrydobbu&tslFlid!yEsDfu!
primary data hut data supplied by respondents and intervieweesbasedon
hearsay arc secondary data. It follows that the theses and dissenations
based on those data become secondary sources.

.akd^nlj*dEnodolDnl
Critical Analysis of ilistorical Data

All data in historiad research have to he subjected to a critical

dfi!9idmdid'Mtdlddqq
^!eh@MiNhLdjddb!did
analysis to determine, first, their authenticity or genuineness and second.
to determine truth of the statements therein. There are two kinds of
criticism employed in analyzing historical documents: external and
internal criticism.
External criticism. External criticism is used to determine the
authenticity or genuineness of a historical document. Considered are de
factors that may have influenced the produaion of the document such as
ddi''c!ba'F@.doEN46qmtsdfuJ
authorship. time. place.purpose, and circumstances or composition. and
what pan of thcdocument is true to the original. The following questions
6 d;
illustrate the problems of cxwmal criticism. whichhd are oleo useful n
ir*tu in
hEndcildn](.@ddrc!b'c@dd&s'E'ls|,)
internal criticism: (Good, cited by Good and Scales, pp. 189-190)
 45
1. Who was the author, not merely what was hls name hut what
were his personality, character, position, and so forth?
2. What were his general qualifications as a reporter — alertness.
character, bias?
3. What were his special qualifications and disqualifications as a
reporter of the matters hen. treated?
a. How was he interested in the events related?
b. How was he situated for observation of the events?
c. Had he the necessary general and technical knowledge for
learning and 'reporting the events?
4. How soon, after the events, writhe document written? For one
purpose. the century of composition may be sufficient; for
another the very hour may be essential.
5. How was the document written. frtim memory, alter oonsulta-
don with others, after checking the facts, or by combining
earlier trial drafts?
6. How is the document related to other documents?
a. Is it an original source: wholly or in part?
b. if the latter, what parrs are original; what arc borrowed;
whence? How credible are the borrowed materials?
c. How accurately is the borrowing done?
d. How is the borrowed material changed; how is it used?
rsd@ri4&r&h ntr !e!i kryr.qG
Use of auxiliary sciences. There are auxiliary sciences tMrdp h
hat help in
determining the authenticity and genuineness of a document among
which arc; (Good and Scams, pp. 191-192)
r Lenir ofdtui!6Eadtudd&urh!frs
&4.41!is thcstudy
1. Epigraphy inscriptionsand Mean ofacciphcring
them.
1D'bruldi!e{n{cdlksddplloa,.'
2. Diplomatic& is the science of charters and diplomas arid in-
cludes a knowledge of the practices of chanceries and of the
forms used in them,
3.,egq,}Id{fodyd'ilh6'hthhis!bgoryd16
3. Palcognmhy is the study of writing, which has a history all its
oEftev\d!giusiDbliDt!$dy@fu
own. The writing of a given scriptorium is usually quite
characteristic. Besides, handwriting varies from age to age so
that it alone is often quite competent to locate a manuscript in
time.
46

4. Philology in allitsbranchesisofthcgrcatest usc indctcrmining

date and authenticity. To give some elementary examples, the
word choose was in the eighteenth century frequently spelled
chase, clothes was spelled clod:hes. entire, intire. and so on.
5. Archaeology. anthropology, and prehistory in general have
'A..fue|4,@h4aL4'[r!JL@'hEdnw
had the greatest influence upon the study of history; and the
rust of these miglu almost be called the science of remains.
6. Chemistry• and the paper-maker's art may be able to say, and
htoM\!d,hltF'oj&ofutrlilhd'Ndpdp'
have often said, that a given document, written on woodpulp,
for example, and with a panicailar ink, cannot be older than the
definite data when these materials were first manufactured.
Coins and medals are often of great historical value. Indeed,
there is no field or item of human knowledge that may not be
end upon
called r( rLbE for
@i tob give evidence 4i,n the
0 against
ror or stuus d
tu genuineness of
some particular document or remains.
Purposes of external criticism. The purpose of external criticism,
utilizing the above auxiliary sciences, is to detect the following: (Good
and States. pp. 192-198)
1. Forgeries and hoaxes. Forgeries and hoaxes are done as
follows:
a. A forger removes the name of the originator of an im-
portant dod by
ts@! document $ r means
h, some Nrs andd places
tig hiss' name
i@E oro
some other's name instead. the forger becomes the
dFd$dd*$ddtm!Fd''hj&.&th
originator of the document or the person whose name he
places.
b. lithe document speaks ofgreat deeds attributed to a cenain
person, the forger deletes the name of the person who ac-
complished the feat and places his name or some other's
name.
c. A forger copies an important document, either on paper,
baked clay or stone, and places his name or some other's
name to show that he or his hem made the document or
accomplished the deed mentioned in the document.
d. A person with a cenainmotive writes a docmnent which he
attributes to the important person by signing the name of
the latter in the document. Certain ieucr have been
attributed to persons who have never made them.
 47

2. Authorship, time, andftliation slate: menu. This problem of

determining authorship and time of a document usually occurs
with parsons who employ ghost writers. For instances,
speeches of heads of states are usually written by their levee-
live staffs and it is difficult to determine who the real authors
of such speeches are.
3. Incorrect borrowings. Incorrect borrowing occurs as follows:
avhoofuoljAddF'J{dl{j$4146:d&
a. When one copies an orit,inal work without acknowledg-
ing the originator of the work and passes that as his own:
bs['ec{!.fudieP,t'cL+LdLtodgiftL
b. When there are errors in copying the text of the original
material; and
c. When the one borrowing misinterprets the ideasbeing por-
trayed by the original material.
4. Inventions and distortions. Inventions and distortions arc
made in the following ways:
a. A historian invents speeches or orations which an sup-
posed to have been delivered by great men of history just
to
o project
Pojd hisin own rifullrry Or
o{o philosophy id!6
or ideas.
b. Anecdotes are created to enhance the prestige of an adored
hero.
c. Original works of great men am edited and corrected
for poor grammar but in so doing, distortions occur.
The corrected copy may no longer contain the original
idea.
There have been important documents which have been passed on
33 genuinely original with the real authors which have been discovered
T be either forgeries, hoaxes, inventions, distortions, or incorrect bor-
.- ',tip. There are many examples of these anomalies.

bter132i Criticism

Internal criticiun is the mown of determining the true meaning

and value of statemerus contained in:a document. Internal criticism is
panthe, ifefforts aremade to discover the true meaning of the contents
eldocument: it is negative, if efforts arc exerted in finding reasons for
••:cs5eving the contents of the document.
48

ttk$6 tud qeh^ l:d !dic6 Mr *

4 internal eriticam. Certain principles have tob be
Principles of
d&r4 fidr,
applied in Internal criticism. among which are tu
the following: (Woody.
cited by Good and Scan, p. 199)
lbddd.ed@edr'h!dk
I. Do not read into tank; documents the conceptions of later
times.
2. Do not judge an author Ignorant of cenain events. necessarily.
because he fails to mention them (the argument ex silenlit), or
that they did not occur, for the tame reason.
3'!fuiEr4BhDk'(6Mfu
3. Undermtimaiing a source is no less an MX than overesti-
mating in the same degree, and that is no more virtue in
drn4ocF'brd.MhriiEibdyte!:e
placing an event too late than in placing it too early by the same
number of years or (emetics.
4. A single true source may establish the existence of an idea, but
other direct, competent, Independent witnesses am required to
Iiletuqr ydq ! otctuiau
prove the reality of events or objective facts.
5. Identical errors prove the dependence of sources oneach other.
ora common source

6r6{!dbdeqrd!Fid'dgft
6. If witricom contradict each atm- on a amain point. one omit
other may bc me, but both may be in error.
7. Direct, competent. Independent witnesses who Teton the same
(vitro] fact and also many peripheral matters in a casual way
hqeedb'stshBdd'4rc.i'.
may be accepted (or the points of their agreement.
8. Official testimony, oral or written, must be compared with un-
fuBhqllEg6i&fudeftmft
official testimony whenever possible, for neither one nor the
other is sufficient
0. A document may provide competent and dependable evidence
'^fu8}@4.d4ddcFdse
On certain pninLC. yet tarty nO weight in respect to others it
mentions.

zrcd kf&r rtrk.',

.t 4.ri. problems dof internal criticism, some
.Speellic $m! of
or which eo
w6d arc an-
9dhgl'hFd.edludd!
swered In pan by the processes of external criticism, arc as follows:
{fu'tr.dbyfud9qp,!o)
(Chapin. cited by Good and Scales. p. 21X))
I What
1. wdftrenstffrF@rlmdr w
did the author mean by this particular statement? What
bildGlia!Jn4!fufuB'EEd
is its real meaning as distinguished from its mete literal
meaning?
,we!!g@e6d.hgdi!h1
2. Was the statement made in good faith?
 49

a. Had the author interest in deceiving the reader?

b. Was the author under pressure to tell the untruth?
{v4hdldbyanFdyoajgdybdde
c. Was he influenced by sympathy or antipathy to tell the
untruth?
d. Did vanity influence him?
e. Was he influenced by public opinion?
f. Is them evidence of literary or dramatic motives to distort
the muh?
3. Was the Statement accurate? or more particularly:
a. Was the author a roorobserver because of mental defect or
abnormality?
b. Was the author badly situated in time and place to
observe?
c. Was the author negligent or indifferent?
d. Was the fact of such a nature could not be directly ob•
served?
e. Was the author a mere witness or a trained observer?
4. When it appears that the author was not the original observer.
it is necessary to determine the truth and accuracy of his
Sources of information.
The literal and real meanings are usually the same in modem
documents but this was not always so in old documents. Even the
Titeral meanings of statements in old documents is hard to determine
because of the presence or unfamiliar and obsolete terms and reference
to institutions. customs. and traditions which are unknown today.
The competence of the observer must also be considered. The
MrdoNdaodFtr
observations d*of should
of a competent observer $0I be eb{,h@c{&i(
given mom credence
than the observations of a casual observer because the formerQUI focus
his attention to the more significant aspects of the situation observed
which the latter may not be able to do.
Tests of truthfulness and honesty. The potentially competent
witness may actually know the truth, but for some mason may reveal it
only in pan or in a distorted form. The following questions am tests of
truthfulness on the part of the author of a document or observer of an
event. (Hlffi.cidbysee,r$)
rd (Hocctt, cited by Sanchez. p. 36)
1. What is the personal or vested interest of the author?
2. To what race, nation, party. region. sect. social level• economic
50

group, or profession does the observer belong, which may

introduce bias or prejudice?
3. To what extent is the statement a conventional form where set
formulas rather than we sentiments are expressed?
4. Is there evidence of vanity or boasting?
5. Does the author want to please some particular individual,
group, or even the general public?
6. Are exagge rations or embellishments in the form of literary ar-
tifices and rhetorical flourishes employed to produce the de-
sired effects?

T&@n{r.eid$ tus!hc@rnd
Then: are many examples of these sdc&Mda
factors making the author of a
document or observer of an event tell the untruth. (Good and Scales, pp.
203-209)

Causative Interpretation of History

'there an: some factors that am believed to cause the happenings of

historical events. The following are the theories and schools of causal
interpretation of history.
General philosophies of history. There are at least two distinctions
*odag!fudrhjh9l'rydhsryd!$dit*i@Ld
between a general philosophy of history and a specific school of
historical interpretation. The first is that general philosophies of history
are broaderinscort than specific schools of historical interpretation, and
the
se second tusod dih4hrsd oqemddsunerE
3@d Lis that general philosophies of history do not lend themselves
to pragmatic tests of workability. The following arc thc general philoso•
phies ddrycdd
of history: (Nevins,
d@!ddery: |2 sdrr. p. 214))
0r4i3. cited by Good and Scams,
1. The Greek and Roman historians viewed Fate as controlling
human destiny.
2. The Christian philosophy of history was based on the dominant
ideas of divine concern for mankind and of changes in history
as slowly tending toward the progress and universality of the
true religion.
3'^@d!govddatE']!4li'isary'e€ldd
3. According to Voltaire's rationalistic theory, the events of
history were attributable nom design butte chance or fortuity.
4. Hegel's doctrine was that every epoch in history was inspired
dfuodb'!d.sli!F'
and dominated by some specific idea.
 51

r. frbla@rqd.'E@a{dd6eq,
5. The Darwinian theory of evolution, as applied to history.
means that in social institutions. as well as in the animal
rhdd,ddde,t)ddbturrd6dL
kingdom, the mile of the survival of the finest applies and that
-qd.llt'I*!ddd4'Fdobldt
acquired chamacristics of society arc passed on to succeeding
generations.
6 e buFrb$e\) Bqbu
6. The Marxian philosophy applied n* d
cl mode of
$drd tob history Is that the
gdlel'fulbF|ndt,&hidfuPd
production in economic life primarily determines the general
character of the social, political. and cultural proms.= of life.
dd,in9ufu@M1.ildbd4!
which shills as the economic foundation changes.
7 tu & vdd
7. Since the inhllqlr 6
wroder+rer3
World War of 1914-1918 ar rhydun-philosophy ex-
teer..6dnidd &d4d@
plains history as a series of pulsations. the swing and counter-
d!.lb'(@ldol.lrydr@4i4
swing of the pendulum. a series of summer-fall-winter-spring
seasons, with the present period representing a very bleak
season In civilization and world affairs.

q8r0!a/'@r'olMdr'.rkit. 1t 6r.6r n 6
Spec& =boas of historical interpretation. The following are the
9d6.*Md&oicdhk4|[6(M'ddbycsdd
specific schools of historical inlametation: (Barnes. cited by Good and
crates. pp. 215416)
r. The
1. @d.itrdqr,
tu personal. n.Fdb,
hioe,...01th,..11, or "great-man" theory isleb
the best
llE.dkbph|udb'bdqlld
known and has been emphasized most by the conventional
bffi'lMh*'clFdcd6n&e
historians. It holds that the greatpersonalitics of history are the
dn.dt1e6hdsid&Yd@.dde
main causative factors in historical development, and that
d'Fryt6bEbblnrhl
history is collective biography.
,.fu''&lMstfulldh@tsheidUMryt@&
2. The spiritual or idealistic interpretation of history is found in
edoqd{dtrdfusFad4n6p!4d.
the discovery of spiritual forces cooperating with geographic
ddlibbFd6dyFlddbBd
and economic factors to produce truly personal conditions. and
in human activities, finding expressions in social relations for
o* complete
d. mere
the rdtdb or
@d4 subjection lfu to5 human
lhrd nature
of physical tu
welfare.
3 ft
3. The scientific and technological theory views human progress
'd6loddidoddtury*$rm5r@
as directly correlated with the advances in natural science and
fub3r@i{i,46'![|qdliqsaol.n0.
technology, emphasizing that die prevailing state of scientific
@ld&dtr!ddllbk@fuq[drfu&
knowledge and its technical Interpretation will dctamine the
d'tl&d!l!*ftdEfu
existing modes of economic lift and activities.
4tddded|l@fucldh
4. Th economic school of historical interpretation contends that
the prevailing type of economic institutions and processes in
dc}{b!6xciu4!!l!1#&!jMfu
society will. in a large measure, determine the nature of the
resulting social institutions and culture.
52

5. The geographical theory holds that the actions of man cannot

'ee.D,dde}M@eafuo.M.rd
lfu'fu'rdqdr&l&frdnc.
be fully understood or adequately described when divorced
l@enph,'dd4
from thcir physical setting.
6&stbcFdldtqeqfuFdt
6. Sociological envapmation of history draws from sociology
{ed@dcutddru'deEt@)r
(the science of the life and activities of men in groups) a
ddeolb!\.@,dddEor@'th{N
knowledge of both the causes and results of group life as the
basis (or a generalized view of the social process and of social
causation.
7Dtrbd'@tauqobq!&d&'a1&.
7. The relatively mcesu synthetic, eclectic, pluralistic. or "colke-
tudyeurd"rMryis€Eddft tu,d[.Ed
tivc psychological" theory is considemdthemost inclusive and
dhF4',Folld.d@rdqbul4de
most important type of historical interpretation, holding that rx
i4bE@ddenifubddndc'6d
single category of causes is sufficient to explain all pluses and
F@dbhdGtb@4'ldddd,@sM*
periods of historical development, and dun only the collective
Fd.raorsFd!@aqd'-dfue
psychology of any period is strong enough to dominate the
attendant historical development. 'therefore, the new history is
necessarily eceleede in approach and Interpretation In contrast
b6de6id*d6tqddffi'dd
to the older conventional history which overuses= political
causation or holds the historical development Is entlmly arbi-
trary.

@deslEhtuadhyreiubi,rrs, rrw*.
tu writing the history of any institution. region, or whatever
Anyone
n9rqdeffidFdi.dt
may use any of the theories and specific schools of historical interpreta-
tion but the most adequate is the eclectic approach because surely, many
factors play 'MNMall( roes in making any historical event happen. One
fua'Eddeftlfu@'dtrGlfuE6di4
facux may bedominent but other factors (=tribute theirslum inmaking
an event occur. It is more accurate to say that the seven definite schools
{adfullte.edo!d,.t&Eu5iL!!
of historical interrertarion "art not mutually exclusive but in a large
measure supplemcmary "

Synthesizing Historical Events

In writing a hidtlry. Mere arc certain problems or processes

iddlq16-dIdlwi4
involved =long whiCh am the following:
d4itth
t&uatu'ru and
likruification pdq. Hi*a
qd definition of she
tu problem. History writing 1nn4
MGid,,folddfuce'l'e.futrF64d
'!
Involves identifying and defining the pathless Theft the problao must
be delimited to a reasonable scope. Perhaps, it is wise for the researcher
6&rF.edaFftld@
to select a problem which his professional competence may enable him
6dk'fudl6das hFdmtfu.EqFi!e'
to tackle. There am hinaiical research problems that arc very complex.
06h@dddubtrdfuNe4&
even incapable of solution. and the re—scan:her should be able to deter-
e!tdd,ddrfuLb<4*old6L
mine a kind of problem which he is capable of salving.
 53

rtudbt@@
Fornudation of hypotheses. After identifying and defining his
Ftu,tuMidrNktuBlfubh4du@
problem, the hiamical researcher should formulate his hypothesis or
hypothesestoguidehim inhisinvcsligation. Without any hypothais,he
db!d46rfue6]}fth,Albfufu
would be searching for facts aimlessly. The hypotheses should state
exactly what historical data have to be found. It should be noted that in
historical research, the hypotheses need not be expressly stated. me
ainc@docnd'fteFili4dfujAllryxftu&
specific questions raised at the beginning of the inquiry serve as the
hypotheses. Forerarnpleif onemakes a researchon and writesa history
lEefus@:s;
about the Fit-American war. one hypothesis may lx the following: Why
tt'.FIMb6&ldhfu ful En;;
were the Filipino forces defeated by the Ahdfu
American forces? This question
0hrF6sFtuodddyrtutuhEbbidiEe
or hypothesis points out exactly what dam have to be found: die data
sq'}'ft61i'fubEeaddd
showing why the Filipino forces were defeated by the American forces.
Inductive -deductive reasoning. In inductive masoning. related
Fiue&!o6dbJHobq]m!
particulars are given first, that lead to the formulation of a generalization
but. in deductive masoning the generalization La given first before giving
.M'
the particulars. Example; In the hypothesis "Why were fuEjbh;
r@ the Filipino
6er eft dbytu Ahou 6udu sF ktu it
forces defeated by the American forces during the Ed-America
Fr n war?
"Generally, one historical event isnot made to happen hy Only One cause.
there must beseveral causes. So, in determining why the Filipino forces
{d FrqiN
were overwhelmed by the American forces, several points have to &
@ be
considered. Had the Filipino soldiers inferior arms? Did they lack
d@r n dnd
adequate military dr."d o@ o;4
ry training? Did !\q lack
Dd they r&' efficient military organiza-
Ddd.yLrrrlhdrqfd---.d! vsih;d!
o@rDid they tack an effective unified command? Was there enmity
tion?
e6ifuh4!iJefu hsdqFdl rhrq;
between President Aguinaldo and his military generals? If the answer to
all these questions is yes, the inductive generalization would be: During
rhu@r di
the Fil-American war, the Filipino soldiers hadd inferior arms, lacked
dqqrnd@d,4,rfd.6eD
adequatemilitary training, lacked efficient military
r organization, lacked
effective unified command, and there was enmity between President
ri ucd
Aguinaldo and his r.d ;d,L.r"n.i e tu
hr generals and nA west defeated by the
ad hence, they
Mddi!d
^ede roe. Going deeper stifi, it may be asserted that the
c@&cF,itr. i
American armed forces.
rqr
Philippine hr *a;L
tuD@ Army atrthat irerd 6i6rr
tu time was only barely
bFr oneG year old and not much
r&4Fd'ryhtrbue,;Lkr;.tu,"notu
@ be expected from such an army in the face of a well organized, well
could *tr
armed force like the American Army.
If the deductive method of reasoning is used, the
* generalizati
*,.,_ on
dleifualF@mdfoc@Uofr
could "**"""""."^ ",;*,"."..
be: The Filipino armed forces could not stem the advance of the
American armed forces due to the former's inferior anus, lack of
adequate military training, lack of an effective military organization,
lack of effective unified command, and there was an enmity tctween
d_6 @;eF1
President Aguinaldo and his generals. Besides, then Philippine Army at
54

dEetFdfu
that time was barely one year old and not much could be expected from
sixth an army in the fate of a well organized. wen armed force like the
American Army.

Historical perspective. Them are two ways of evaluating historical

oi@'ehn@td
events. (inc is to evaluate a historical event or practice in terms of
@htsirtbudfu'@didG,pdei
conlcmporanaMSeveilLS.conclitions,prasliCes, and traditions existing at
the time the event occurred and in the same environment. The second is
jdee@br@dDendryd@,odtu,@iG,
b judge Me event in terms of present day events, conditions, practices,
to
d d i
@dos and in tenor Or
and traditions d*
d thOSes*drs
existing b other places *hd
in otur d6 e
which are
better known. '!m
hefull!fu,.fu@chsoleLldsfoq'vb
In the first method, "The cruelties of the Inquisition. when
measured against the practices of the Middle Ages, are believed milder
tutuEdeffiI!)li@uckrh{uj
than those of the contemporaneous civil law, unjustified as such excesses
seem in the light of twentieth-century standards. It is not passible to
naDE,MtlherydlbbJ4d/4&D'yddlFtre
accurately write a history of Tibet by applying the psychology of the
Western world; to evaluate Japanese music according to the conventions
of European music; to judge Egyptian pictorial art in terms of classical
an, the list goes on. The so-called brutal policy ro ofdEaq
Englanddbwdtoward
Ireland in the time of William Pitt must be evaluated according to the
difuudu4'6BddlwiddyMlsFljm4leby
conditions of 1798 when Britain with only twelve million people lay
between a hostile France of twenty million population and a half-hostile
Hdddh:tr@Y4b4fuliigtrgdsdnslddd
Ireland of six million. Yet, in evaluating the events and figures of distant
times and other lands in terms of their contemporaneous setting, a few
dnedNk,l@dDMbhddlbpttud4'ldqldybd
fundamental standards should be held absolute and applied equally to alt
modern ages, especially to murder, robbery, and cruelty which are
d,$ 4fu'M1," (6ddscs'pAz.z)
cdn* against humanity." (Good and States. pp. 223-224)
always crimes
The above view of evaluating historical events in the distant past is
ulpd d qd{,tu ar historical practice inircE
irb*d rde
nos accepted and evaluating
most rns pb( inh terms
one place
d|plfui@Jtlpb4bsoeHo*e*idlfuI
of a practice in another place is to be avoided. However, this author
a{bjldgdhtf,s
believes that a historical event in the distant past may be judged in terms
of the present ora historical event 'none region may be evaluated in terms
dodLdNdbhh'h@d{pl0eqrcljdb.sutlinFd
of conditions obtaining in another place or region for greater impact
dfuj4qdfujFfoNdd!qdfurff'd
and understanding of the significance of the event. However, the
ddElsbed'&'adel@ri@tod.m'r
standard must be clearly set up and the comparison is made not to
condemn nor belittle theevent or practicebut to have a better perspective
nitr!Ededby
of it For instance. we understand better the significance of die trial by
odrb o6rdi trwoD@nfrdar@dty
mipd@ if we compare it with our present-day
ordeal in pre-Spanish Philippines
Jddqld tugdsiddcjdddFdqdtuFd!tu
judicialsystem. Judged againstthe judicial practices at thaiperiod. adatu
 55

d4idery'sdbdpbrq.mEddhr@d
who required robbery suspects to each pick up a stone placed in a pot of
htu4'edft 06dMy$tud gdry@yde!4d
boiling water and the most scalded was found guilty may not be judged
dbeGE'auiqgl416vNo\r*ofuddgltd
cruel because he was using a system which/was considered right and
fttsdesh!d
practised by all other dams. We have to evaluate the practice in terns of
d@nry j!&cide6{'cc$dry
our present-day judicial system not necessarily to condemn or to despise
qtu a
the old system but to realize how much better ourorjlddn
judicial system isi8 as
rfu!Eq['we9}fu(dno!fud&dtry!d6td!
gractisedpresendy. Wesay that a catainmountainuibe is very primitive
and backward compared with our own, but this should not make us
daiEesLfr3&16G![dobdigdwD(l$hw
despise the tribe. This gives us an understanding of how much we have
rsdsfu,'€r:,lMy'Ajlddy'{
pmmr-ssed socially. economically,politically,and educationally. Again.
suppose wc evaluate Japanese music in tams of our own. Of course wc
sec di fferences that make us feel that our music is better. However, we
ought to know that to the Japanese, their music is better than any other
if Doubt best in the world. From the evaluation we learn a very important
fact, that even among nations Were are individual differences.
c.MfuqpfuI.dv4n
Central theme or principle of synthes is. In writing the history of
some events, institutions, or regions, there must be a central theme
around which the hitory is woven. For example, in writing the history of
ft Fnte .s! {!ii spir the
the Filipino revolts against Spain, od,r
d! central theme
dene Or ri.rrr d
oi principle of
synthesis may be nationalism or love of freedom. This may also be the
central theme of the history of our fight for independence during the
American regime.

Guidelines to Effective Writing of Historical Research

There am certain guidelines to an effective writing of historical

research among which are; (Good and Seeks. pp. 225-232)
1. Mastery of materials. Effective modem historical writing
shows evidence of scholarship, research, and mastery of mate-
rials, presented without ostentation.
Historians have a good mastery of their materials before
writing their historical report, not necessarily memorizing the
facts but a full knowledge of the events they are writing about.
Mvnbddtu !,edr5 nln be
May it be added that the materials must {ftdq rlE
E authentic, genuine
and adequate.
,. wdlisdk eedtu
D6E note-taking has
2. Working outline. Before FE far,
hs gone tu, ar prelimi-
Nnnr
nary outline is necessary to guide the selection and arrange-
ment of notes; then, as the accumulated material is digested, the
outline can be revised radically as necessary.
56

@9*.ldd4d!t}'rlfuDdbrc'
Like any other writing activity, a historian must have a
good working outline before starting to write. A working
outline shows the direction toward which the writing is heading
b^FddiloilE!€.t)tr@'berd!4d
to. A good working outline gives continuity to the writing of
tic historical report_
3. ,d',!ldfufuryb!Ds@M4l!rc
Progression. Good history has progression: that is. it moves
forward, although it does not show in mechanical fashion the
dtd(:dqe,ededbboollld
original condition, the action, and the results. This movement
dp@dojdqdq!6qenEidrdrft
of progression should employ a thesis or principle of synthesis i!
!lbqdo!@b.4Iee..tll'&.t@
as a theory of causation to explain the cause-effect relation-
slripa
bmd4fi@'hEDa&bgid@ol
In writing history, them must be logical sequences of
evens. The causes and their effects; the effects and their causes
Elj'3i6dEd,ld'ftliytdefuodL
must be given due emphasis. The why's of events must be
stressed-
4. .,rtue,r,4F?r,'4d
Emphasis on major elements. Theeoijstudbeypi@
majorelements in any piece
of effective writing, historical or otherwise. stand out in bold
relief like the large cities, rivers, bodiesof water,and mountain
ryor4^plMg@rgdd4I4d
ranges on a map. A good working outline, a guiding thesis, and
!re detailed
more retu
&atu generalizations 6r h
for the bljf dd
major sections or h
of the
d&ldrbelrmcMdd6llt@d
wok arc essential to the aozamplislunent of this purpose and
be$fuodftddfunqd'lllce
to the subordination of the details. This frequently mesas that
!dd4''sj6&lndb!il:@b!d
painstakingly gatherrA data must be discarded to promote
condostarion and
^"d^6dpdedbpldb!o,d precision, and to prevent too many daails
from crowding off the scene, the main actors and events of the
narrative.
5. /'ol@4d
Art left!@EdbsrndPtudt
o f narration. While the purpose of history is not primarily
boljd*bdcg6i@clsi6yFd6i@
to entertain or to please. there is no mason why good history
should not possess literary excellence. Both the science of
l!:ddelb'ddfue.sdfu
research and the literary art of narration axe essential for
lllrehdddft!@dd@.I4
effective historical work. The concept of history as an art.
l!ryd.,dd&sfubeFrdd[4bbrd3
henvever, should not be muted to the poiru of filling in missing
adfuced4d&digM&dyfue
details through sheer play of the imagination, merely for the
&dmdffidt}Ilury,atuerds0ir
sake of completeness and symmetry. as does the painter or the
poet therefore, certain gaps or missing links may be a charac-
teristic of authentic history.
6. b@a&d4Md''L'^lffido466
Dramatizadon, rhetoric and style. A historical composition
can be written simply and clearly, without exensive dramali-
 57

dGqlggddbdldtro@!ode4Fjb
zadon, exaggerated rhetorical flourishes, or undue appeal to
the emotions. in other words, historical writing should possess
fuctrryEddodisi$ryDllubeldfudc
the characteristics of a good story. Dramatisation and rhetoric
E6qedyaedoEvhIundgfudfudlh$
are frequently overdone when narrating the splendor of kings
demEdedcnF[in{dhlqib4
and the noise of battle in political and military history.

Deficiencies In Historical Research

fulbFModl@clDid@El@difioid
Borg has pointed out some typical errors found in historical
ildfuby'fu5!Js!stld@bq{cdb'fuEl
research conducted by graduate studentsin education: (Cited by Manuel
and Medel, p. 31)
I. A research area is selected in which sufficient evidence is not
available to conduct a wonhwhile study or test the hypothesis
adequately.
2. Excessive use of secondary sources of information is fre-
quently found in studies not dealing with recent events.
3. Attempts to work on a broad and poorly defined problem.
4. Historical data am poorly and inadequately evaluated.
5. Personal bias tends to influence thc research procedures.
6. The facts are not synthesized or integrated into meaningful
generalizations.

Characteristics of Historical Research

Historical research has five characteristics according to Helm-

stadter. (Cited by Treece and Treece, Jr., pp. 167-168)
1. Observations in historical research cannot be repeated in the
@lEIIWsBhbEbryqF^hr\d&$Fs
same manner as in laboratory experiments and descriptive
surveys.
2. The researcher must find satisfaction in spending vastMOMS
of time in the library and In pursuing minute details in relation
to the topic under study.
3 bsod.r project
3. Aa historical rolo. isbusually dNd
6!!rr conducted byby one @o
@ person.
1^h'pfu*nFtd9u'4s4.-hfuid!I!db.
4. A hypathesis isnot always necessary in historical research: in-
ferences am made more often from the bits of information
ldldbFile4!silEld*ipdo!dft40'qN
gathered
situation.
to produce the general description of the event or the
58

fuqn6gjyLd&lfurprdbL@Ede
5. The writing style of the written report tends tobemoreflexible
Ixcausethe researcher wishcs topresent the facts and informa-
tion in an interesting manner.
@dq e ob d
@ are often ideas,
h addition, data
6. In d
rd4 concepts,
!q,!.!l. and opinions
oddos and
hence, conclusions, generalizations, and inferences become
subjective. M'*hrBderffilddrd s.ood!
$htdiri No two investigators would reach the
tu sameconclu-
sions in a given instance.

Importance of Historical Research

Historical research is important due to the following:

id'd&@fulAFd.lid{hde.wfrIfr.
1. A study of the pastmakes people understand the present better.
6Fddyfurd6feciaqe',I!drodre'Dc
especially the factors affecting the present For instance, the
Philippines is a Catholic nation because for more than three
centuries she was occupied by Spain, a zealous Catholic
propagator, and she will remain Catholic for a long, long time
to come. "History has a threefold purpose: giving us a
knowledge of the past a better understanding of the present,
and a means of predicting the future." (lacuesta, et al, p. vii)
HsbicdidmssA4irlfurybrcb@M!
2. Historical information serves as a preliminary to reform. Mis-
takes of the past may be avoided if we have a knowledge of
them.
3. People become more open to change if they am well informed
about the past, especially about tragic events.
4@hendi.ado4*.ftondbddof*rpl.
4. People art: motivated to respect the contributions of the people
deslofursnDdd's'sBdy6sed
of the past ID the present state of things, especially those of
heroes.

When to Use Historical Research

Historical research may he utilized when it is desired to write a

history of any of the following:
l.Aq84s{iicdEldd&'s,'rhifufu'L:w}'
1. Any geographical area or place, say, a historical sitc,barangay,
town, province, region, country, or the world for that manes.
2fu,ldbd@,'.$d'rd!6trdd4lxdi'
2. Any institution, say, a school, a club or association, courtship
and marriage or any other custom, the army, Christmas,
government, communism. Christianity, etc.
3. Any important historical event, say, the Battle of Bataan. the
 59

Leyte Landing, the Liberation of Manila, all of which

occurred during the occupation of the Philippines by the
Japanese during the World War 11, etc.

AGIONS FOR
QUESTIONS $@Y AND
FOT STUDY AD DISCUSSION
DI*US$ON
▪ What is mcant by historical research?
How is a problem or topic chosen for historical research?
• From where arc data for historical research gathered? What are the
sources?
:61@dluJ}d6}qtd@trciu?byhtnldLt$l
4 How are data analyzed byexternalcriticism? by internal criticism?
c Why is it necessary to utilize external criticism? internal criticism?
c What auxiliary sciences are useful in determining the authenticity
et historical documents? How arc they used?
rit-nes the general philosophies of history as the causative factors
of historical events.
.i$jldlM'6d6cn6i!ldQsdinodcdimDcb
L Explain die theories of the specific schools of historical interprela-
tal
▪ Gtie the guidelines to effective writing of historical research.
altat arc the characteristics of historical research?
- WI= could be good objects or topics for historical research?
 61

55 DESCRIPTIV
Df,SCRIPTIVE
E RESEARCH
RESEARCH

Meaning of Descriptive Research

A&!NiepfuEdhsd'oc'shenrd
Although descriptive research has only one meaning, several
stathomhavedefineditin theirovmseveralways. Borneo( thedefinitions
re:
MhddMde.DdNdlrtd|6Ehdldw
Manuel and Medd define descriptive research thus: Descriptive
Is:search describes what is. it involves the description. recording.
dFl!dhEae'oidfuFdlfu.onsl6d@
acalysts, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or 'wo-
rsts of phenomena The focus is on prevailing conditions, or how a
pmrson, group, or thing behaves or functions in the present. It often
dvA&elsd6Fblq{tffioleddM*L
±volves some type of comparison or contrast. (Manuel and Medel,
r3)
Aquino gives this definition. Descriptive research is fact-finding
r$d4datu4rcdotr tudsddgMhscdE@a
with adequate interpretation. Thedescdpelvemelhod issomethingmom
d erd
rd beyond just d
jlndata-gathering: the
&k{tuDg tu latter
b,ar is
L not reflective thinking nor
=earch. Thc true meaning of thedantoallected should be reported from
+Fbld!L''|6d'cd$debhsdFqdfu
to point of view of the objectives and the basic assumption of the
?'tsleKIfufdMbsldlyr&l
ptoject under way. This follows logically after careful classification of
r.a. Facts obtained may be accurate expressions of central tendency. or
kviadon, or of correlation; but the report is not research unless discus-
sion of thosedata isnot carried up to the level of adequate interpretation.
Dam must be subjected to the thinking process in terms of ordered
masoning. (Aquino, pp 74)
Descripdve research is defined by Best in the following way:
kipdwtudddbdh@$lunni!@.
Descriptive research describes and interprets what is. It is con-
=led with conditions of relationships that exist: practices that prevail;
beliefs, proms= that are going on: effects that am being felt, or [sends
am developing.
The process of descriptive research goes beyond mere gathering
dd|qdd lbfuedorodbltrfudd;
ace tabulation of data. It involves the elements or Interpretation of the
cdg@d.(ltdfutMu'fr6eild0te
weaning or signifies= of what is described. Thus description is often
62

o'Ud*do'Fnsd@diN*iqqIIIS@
combined with comparison and contrast involving measurements.
dNifid@'nl@d@dqddm'(cjdb's.Jqla)
classifications, interpretation and evaluation. (Cited by Sanchez, p. 83)
hoebin@@rMroretuarF6ir
In other words, descriptive research may be defined as a purposive
Iro$ dsdsiq, {n'iq, d dds4 tu tu dFtrtis, and tabulating data about
process of gathering, analyzing, classifying,
FJlb3oddoqrdAuldipnr<5$.'ld'dan
prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes, trends. and cause-
effect relationships and then making adequate and accurate interpreta-
tion about such data with or %%idiout the aid of statistical methods.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

&qdv.M16hffuyiEfudci
Descriptive research has the following characteristics:
kiptrtEdisnjtrrvdj!{dtdotr!dfu
1. Descriptive research ascertains prevailing conditions of facts
in a group or case under study.
ftslw'dftEsdEqqu!'ulrc'deo,kdpdlo
2. IL gives either a qualitative or quantitative, or both, description
of the genend characteristics of the group or case under study.
3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized.
fu'ddifuddid.da]dso6i.14bEd!
4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made
dtutusqpDs$tursrrbbN,icF;q.
and the change or progress that took place between the periods
may be noted or evaluated for any value it gives.
5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two groups or cases may
be made to determine their similarities and differences.
6. The variables or conditions studied in descriptive research are
not usually controlled.
bidfu'fodi6'q{diesdni.cFdycrcs
7. Descriptive studies, except in case studies, are generally mac-
sectional, that is, it studies the different sections belonging to
the same group.
8. Studies on prevailing conditions may or can be repeated for
purposes of verification and comparison.

vjq'ryfuqIdl&fusdlklDlh.ll€ad
Value, Importance, and Advantages of Descriptive Research

fu4&debpoll,@ddlolgddedlds@M
Among the value,importanceandadvantagesofdescriptivemethod
of research arc the following:
I. Descriptive research contributes much to the formulation of
principles and generalizations in behavioral sciences. This is
especially true in causal-comparative and correlation studies.
 63
When several inquiries register the same findings on a certain
subject, then a principle or generatintion maybe formed about
that subject
kdts$rcsd@dea'6ulhbiic.sd{!@bl
2. Descriptive research contributes much to the establishment of
standard norms of conduct, behavior. or performance. This is
especially true in psychological testing, as for instance. norms
in an intelligence test Normative standards am based on what
am prevalent
3. Descriptive research reveals problems or abnormal conditions
so that remedial measures may be instituted. It reveals to us
what we do not want, what we Want. and how to acquire what
we want.
4. Descriptive research makes possible the prediction Of the
future on the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, cone-
lations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward cenain
issues. For instance. the winning candidate in an election may
be predicted on the basis of a survey.
5. Descriptive msearch gives a better and deeperunderstanding of
a phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth siudy of the phe-
nomenon.
6. Descriptive research provides a basis for decision-making.
Business managers often base their decisions upon business
etelq.cqlm!Fa[}hlkllsdyel}!F
researches . Government policy makers usually rely upon
e$d4EtnsLin36IDd4hD{d!ddna!
descriptive investigations for making the needed policies.
In education, the curriculum has been constructed based
upon descriptive researches in child and adolescent psycho-
logy.
7. Descriptive research helps fashion many of the tools with
which we do research.such as, intruments for the measurement
of many dingS, instruments that are employed in ail types of
quantitative research. Ibex instruments include schedules.
checklists, score cards, and rating scales. Descriptive studies
contribute to the development of these data-gathering devices
inhotllidhuAltrBnediEdjddsdftrfuD'
two ways—first throughcreatingdirectly a demand forthem,
and second through providing the normative. standardizing
procedures by which the scales am evaluated and calibrated.
(Good and Scales, pp. 75R-259)
64

Techniques Under the Descriptive Method of Research

There am three. techniques under the descriptive method of
research: (1) the survey, (2) the case study. and (3) content analysis.
Survey, otherwise known as normative survey, is a fact-finding
ny$sd4&d!.AEcjt+tbdo
study with adequate and accurate interpretation. It is used to collect
demographic data about people's behavior, practices. intentions, beliefs,
attitudes, opinions, judgments, interests, perceptions, and the like and
lhell suck data are analyzed, organized, and interpreted.
Case study is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth
study and analysis of an individual. institution, group, or community.
"J)rdel,shduid!d.idiulb!gDlAuenh@'
Differences Between Survey and Case Study
Survey Con Study
1. The group surveyed is 1. Case study may involve and
usually large. usually involves one person.
2. The number of aspects or family, small group, or small
variables in the life of the community.
gmup surveyed is limited. 2. Usually all aspects or vari-
3. Cause.cflbct mlationships ables in the life cycle of the
arenotgimemphasis. Aim case under study are Inclu-
of a study may only he to ded.
determine status. 3. Finding the causes of certain
4. Representativeness is im- phenomena is always a part
portant and is given empha- of a case study.
sis. 4. Representativeness is not. im-
5. Curiosity, interest, or just to portant- The results of a
determine noun or status single case study do not
may initiate a survey. provide Certainly that the
case is truly representative.
6. Onlyconditionsor practices
present during the survey 5. Abnormalities or undesirable
are considered except in traits or conditions usually
comparative studies when initiate a case study.
present conditions are corn- 6. Data about thecase from birth
pared withconditions in the ororigin or evenof the future
past. are considered.
 65

Advantages of the Survey Approach Over the Case Study Approach

There are certain advantages of the survey approach of research

over the case study approach among winch arc the following:
1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against
which the behavior or perfnmunce of an individual can be
judldol4!q]dFqhlioeL'fun4egtrJ]].
judged or evaluated. For instance, if survey reveals that the
typical kind of marriage is monogamy. then a man with two
wives deviates from the standard.
2. The results of a survey may be used for prediction. This is
especially iruc in correlation studies or even in status studies.
Forexample, studiesthew that there is asignificant correlation
between NCEE percentile ranks and college grades. Ilene:, a
student with a high NCF.F. percentile rank is expected to have
high grades in college wort
3. Survey makes possible the fonnulation of generalizations
because the sample has a high degree of representativeness.
This is especially uue if the sample is adequate and proper
sampling procedures am used in the selection of the samples.
4. Survey reveals problems for which timely remedial measures
may be instituted.
5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey.
6. The instruments fur gathering data are easy to determine.
consuuet, validatc,and administer. Thesurveyinstremeros are
usually the interview schedule as well as the questionnaire and
they are very• similar if not the same in structure.

Disadvantages of the Survey Approach or Technique. Although

them arc advantages of the survey approach there am also disadvantages
such as the following, the first three being given by Simon: (Treece and
Treece, Jr.. p. 150)
I. Lack of manipulation over independent variables.
2. One cannot pmgressivcly investigate one aspect after another
of the independent variable to get closer to the real cause.
3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of
several independent variables when there is multivariable
causation, especially when two independent variables are
themrelves highly associated.
66

4. Survey approach yields a low degree or control or there is no

control at all over eatnineous variables.
r. tutu! rqsffirdEqyidqr
5. The instnunent for gathering data may lack validity, reliability.
4.Eriditq,
or adequacy.

Types of survey technique or approach. The following= the types

o@eFdj4!@fu
of survey from which the researcher may select one depending upon the
situation, his interest and goal, professional competence to tackle the
w*'dfu4j!ry61!':(].l!edTnc'I'@trl.la)
work, and financial capability: (Treece and Treece. Jr.. pp. 151.154)
1. Total population survey. The entire population is involved in
thc survey.
2. Sample survey. Only a sample or portion of the population is
involved in thc survey.
3. Social survey. The investigator researches on the attitudes and
behaviors Of different groups of people.
4. School survey. This is used to gather data for and about schools
and to assns educational achievement and education itself.
(Sonic or all aspects of the school may be surveyed: qualifica-
tions of teachers, methods and techniques of teaching, facili-
rrelt]t,m
ds, achievements drorft
ties. tui t4d\4j!oi dnhi
in the different subjects, admini-
of pupils h
stration and supervision. curriculum, teacher-pupil ratio, and
the like)
5. Public opinion survey. This is used to gauge the reactions of
people towards certain issues or persons. (For instance, people
may be asked in a survey how much they agree with the way thc
President is running tic government)
6. Poi/survey. Thisis a survey in which the respondents are asked
if they arc voting for a cenain candidate in an election. This
survey is used to predict the chance of winning of a certain
candidate in an election.
7. Market survey. This is aimed at finding out what kinds of
people purchase which products, and how packaging, advertis-
n6dd rt€( buying,
r|Dis affect
ing, and displaying 6
ldi d jdl€afu
ey4, prices, and sso on. Artrdo
Allied to
e
tu Isb the motivation
this i!fty rbd e
nd{roo survey inbwhich the subjects are asked
why they purchase certain commodities.
R. Evaluation.urvey. The researcher looks back to see what has
been accomplished and, with a critical cyc, evaluates the
 67

s no (milts whether Meyer° satisfactory or not, with theend in view

of making imprcwentems.
dity, 9. Comparative survey. In this survey. the results from two
different groups,trxhniques, or procedures arecomparr.d. This
may be used also in compare the effectiveness of a new
Vices procedure with an old one or with a standard, or two new
n the procedures may be compared.
the W. Short-term survey. In this survey, data are collected over a
;4) period of weeks, months, or even years but the period should
cd in he less than five years.
I I. Lontterm survey. Any survey conducted for more than five
on is years is a long-tenn survey. The best example is the survey
made by Tcnnan about exceptional children. it lasted nearly
thirty years. Termanstudied his subject:during their academic
:and
careers on through their academic life to find if giRcd children
accomplishanymorethannommt children. The difficulty with
xmls s\!F
this ldq$is the!a
type of survey bn of
attrition d the !!n4\ through
6csubjects o4h
tself. sickness, death, moving to other places, refusal to panicipate
Ally longer. and other causes. Change of attitude due to matura-
sell'• tion and education has to he considered also as a difficulty,
plus. the high cost involved.
and
I3. Longitudinal survey. 'Ibis is almost the same as the long.term
survey. An example of this is the practice of economists to use
ins of time-series analysis in which they compan; data collected at
eoplc present with data that were collected sometime in the past. The
ty the researchers may carry out such studies by asking, their subjects
questions about a FXLSICVelll and compare their responses to the
isked present affairs of things.
This 13. ["rocs-Seinional survey. In this type of survey. several groups
anain in vndous stages of envolvement arc studied simultaneously.
In studying the effects of smoking for a period of twenty years.
ids of i Ineuse the longitudinal survey. m.c. son with the subjects who
rents. h*i!!just started
have ldd smoking
s {o! and rdr them
id study ror,!q'r
hctr for twenty years
rqLa
icd to before the results could be determined. In the cross-sectional
asked survey, we do not wait for the end of twenty years. We simply
pick out people who have ken smoking for the last twenty
\rtrft@,sr@qeh!
years and another group who hadrrc,$not smokeddat alliur$bn.
and subject
iat has
es the
ss!i!sfugigidP!!]i.n&.$o6Ids'o!ls'icl
bothgrOupsto arigidphysical diagnosis to (indent the physical
conditions of the smokers and the non-smokers.
68

Allied to the cross-sectional survey is the cross-cultural

survey. In this survey. groups of different cultural back-
grounds may he studied. For instance. a Christian community
and a Moslem community may be studied to find out if they
have similarities and differentr-s; a Filipino fanning village
and a Japanese farming village; a Filipino market place and an
Indonesian market place; and the like.
In addition, the following are included in the list: (Manuel
and Medel, pp. 34-35)
14. Job analysis survey. This provides information on the general
duties and responsibilities of workers. their education, train-

"g-r*i'.*. oe,uu*'r*au' ^,
ing, experiences. salaries. types of knowledge and skins, and
others that help administrators or managers in setting up
training pmgrams and recruitment policies.
15. Community survey. This survey provides information on the
rdo6d@d6c@NoLyicdd@rb'ncn,ioA
various aspects of the community: health, employment, hous-
ing, edutation, economic resour,:c.c. delinquency, family.
population, other social problems, and so on.
16. Correkuion muck This is a study drat shows therelationship
between two or more variables, that is, how a variable varies
with another. (Good defines correlation as the tendency for
aqFd{goe.. j@h$oqnoasi4bL4
corresponding observations in two or MOM series to Vary
together from the averages of their respective series, that is, to
r.*..*'"r. ".r"..* rc-i r r!).--"-t".tr
have similar relative positions. (Good, p. 134) For example, if
two tests have a high correlation, one who gets high in one test
will also get a high scum in the other.

Case Study and Case Work

Case study involves a comprehensive and extensive examination

of a particular individual, gmup or situation over a period of time.
(Mckcc and Robertson, 1975). Young (1966) defines cast study as a
"comprehensive study M a social unit be that unit a person, a social
institution, a gmup. a district, orcommunity." (Cited by Sanche; p.43)
Good and States define last study as that method which takes
llrokrd$(lgtr{tdrc'o0cdqosj!1d@lEIioFcafu
aceountof all pertinent asp easof one thing or situation, employing as the
unit for study an individual, an institution, a community, or any group
considered as a unit. The case consists Drum data relating to somephase
 69

ttal of the life history ofthe unit or relating to the entirelifeprocess, whether
adc- the unit is an individual, a family, a social group, an institution, or a
aity :'D@iyft!@ejqn!!6tr0dJoDhid]qdred
oxnnumity. The complex situation and a combination of factors
hey fddhft3iqb4bl@dlhdbes'efuqijdg
evolved In the given behavior are examined to determine the existing
saws and to identify the causal factors operating. (Good and Scales, p.
Jan 726)
Case study may be defined then, as an extensive and intensive
uel xrvestigation of a unit represented. whether the unit is an individual, a
amity. a social getup, an institution. or a community. the aim of which
s to identify causal factors to some abnormality or deficiency and to find
eral
al recommend a solution, a treatment, or developmental procedures.
ain-
and Case work. Case work. on the other hand. refers especially to the
c up !{bFqd. dtshqr
xvelopmental. adjustment, remedial, or corrective procedures that
:,ropriately follow diagnosis of the q!$ d J rilrd@r
s4 causes of maladjustm ent qor ofd
storable development. For example, sad;il case work consists of the
a the
sac-vises and procedures necessary in rendering service, financial
ous-
assistance, or personal advice to individuals by representatives of social
nily.
so:odes, with due consideration of established policies and individual
sitd (Good and Scales. pp. 729-730)
Iship
Case method. Case method has been employed to describe a plan
arks
X' organizing and presenting instructional materials in law. medicine.
y for
sxial work, and even in education, psychology. and sociology, where as
vary
&role, the case materials used are theproduct of case study investigation,
is. to
p. 730)
if
e test Case history. Case history is a biography obtained by interview and
ter means, sometimes collected over the years to enable us to under•
the problems of an individual and to suggest ways of solving them.
4.2.:n an (1973)dented case history as the complete medical. psycho-
"r. -al. social history of a patient." Psychological test data, personal
ation scents. and transcripts of psychotherapy sessions are all part of a
time rn0q lnud ;
e history. The case history method is mostL frequently utilized in
r as a -rebopathology and social casework for diagnosis and prognosis.
axial Sanchez. p. 44)
143) Clinical method. Clinical method is defined by Peter as "a process
takes 1.5 which we collect all available evidence social, psychological, alu-
as the srhrps;elui
=tonal, biographical, and medical, that promises to help us understand
Pol&P r individual child." Every child who is referred for ev aluatiou should
Plum =drive careful diagnosis before recommendations are made. This
70

means that information about him is necessary so a case history is drawn

up. Then after the sl tidy of a number of cases. the clinician orsovintogist
may formulate theoretical principles or generalizations about some
aspects of behavior, In this way, the case history method becomes a pan
of the broader clinical method. (Sanchez, p. 44)
Who should be studied. Generally, children with some forms of
abnormalities are the subjects of case studies. These are children with
exceptional abilities, very high I. Q., or children with problems or
deficiencies. For example, them arc grade six children who can already
perform some college work, but there arc also children in grade six who
cannot even mad. There am alsodelinquent children who can be subjects
d1lsrsodycidm'nlp]'soLOdtrtdhdiq6.tJ$
of a case study. Children with physical and mental handicaps are also
included in the list.
Social groups. each taken as a unit showing some kind of abnor-
ndirc5 or
malities hlqLllrN{i
q matadjusunents mayno b be dc sbjc! of a case study. Ex-
the.subjects
amples arc drug addicts. alcoholics, chain smokers.juvertiledelinquents.
families with a high crime ram, depressed areas.txuructunities with a high
crime rate, and the like.
Kinds of Information needed in care studies. A complete case
history or biographical information containing all kinds of information
about the subject of a case study is needed. The following is a sample of
a case history or biography:
1 Identiffing
1. tutL' ttur;r@...a h44L
data: name. MU. date r.4ephredhh
of birth. age, place of birth.
telephone number if any.
1 Identification
2. and sweetensofcl
n4ltuqt@rtusaren the.r.ihr^ ry3t6@36
problem— any symptoms of
@P!]d\J.ldd'$fudwA''@lrteJhDijp!
complaints about health. school work. family relationships,
abnormal behavior, work, delinquencies, etc.
3. Health and development( history details of birth whether
normal or caesarian; attended by doctor, nurse, or midwife in
a hospital or a home; or by a "hilot" at home; ay abnonnality
at birth or congenital deficiency; was growth and maturation
rate in infancy, childhood and adolescence normal or retarded;
serious illness, and kind of treatment, if it was a physician
or herbal doctor who treated, accidents met and treated by a
doctor or "Mot"; vision, hearing. tooth, sricech, and height-
wip\dic@!roql@dbsdq.dcf^s{l
weight ratio; malnourished and loss of appetite; frequent
headaches and insomnia; any organic malfunctioning such as
weak bean, kidney trouble, or stomach ulcers; etc.
 71
gory is draw:
t Family history— abnormalities among ancestors, patens, and
NsocinlugiF
siblings; health history of family, transmitted tendencies of
about some
some kind of sickness or physical deficiency; education of
:corm* a pan
paroMS, brothers and sisters; attitudes of members of family;
family pressures such as pressures to finish certain kinds of
mu forms of chores or pressuresonsome do's and don'ts; numberof people
:hildren with 4sererr.trtrnNrdn,oNr(41!!,djr\iherq
in the family. if h. is nuclear orextended; cultural adjustment or
problems or DJrrj!\h5;rqcqhdsqrircdcdi
maladjustment; akrbshsi
if one orboth parents are dead; relationships in
o can alreaM the family, if spouses are always quarreling and also the
rade six wh: children: if spouses are divorced or separated and with whom
robe subjects thechildrenareliving; if it is a family of delinquents flea family
caps arc also of good and bright people; etc.
5. Educational history — cannot mad, cannot do simple mathe-
nd of ante- matical computations, low grades, no interest in school work;
: study. Ex- delinquent behavior in school such as loafing, bullying, steal-
delinquents. ing, Me; promotions and failures; attended so many schools
:5 with a high and changed course several times; quality of schools attended;
relations with teachers, administrators and co-students; disci-
replete case plinary problems committed in school; extra-curricular activi-
information ties; honors received; grade or degree finished: etc.
5 a sample of 6. Social history— church membership, attendance, and involve-
ment; plays normally with others of his own age; membership
act of birth, in civic organizations such as Boy or OM Banns; YMCA,
masonry, Mc; membership in gangs (barkada) whether whole-
some orotherwiseespecially those engaged in drug addiction.
:ymptomsof
gambling. holdups and robberies. heavy drinking; involve-
lationships.
ment in brawls and melees; bumming operations; kinds of
friends; involvement inillegalorillicitlovc affairs; frustrations
inh whether dealt by others; cannot Ft along with others; suspicious,
midwife in temperamental, and quarrelsome; always wants to he alone,
abnormality etc.
I maturation 7. Economic history — economic status whether low, average or
or retanted;
high; kind ofjob and sized( income; cannot stay long in ajob;
a physician mimics willingly or grudgingly even in doing chores at home:
treated by 3
kind of house whetherm ade of light materials, one mom affair,
and height-
or strong materials with many rooms; living in slwn area or
e: frequent flush subdivision; facilities at home, with television or radio
ling such as
sets, refrigerator, electric lights and other appliances or very
bare with modem appliantros; satisfaction in job and salary;
72

in labor-management relations such as strikes,

FioNdnhhlhstFi{l*iol$dA\dk!.
panicipation
etc.; if environment is teeming with jobs• if there is scarcity of
jobs available, me.
3,qeedfu@
8.Psychological history — personality traits such as mental
pat-
ability, special talents, interests, skills, moods, emotional
terns, desires, needs, extroversion and introversion, domi-
nance-submission; how leisure is spent and hobbies; attitudes
towards sex and movies and television shows involving sex;
eelwodp!fuhedfuoi<@1tre6
deprivation of parental love and affection especially if both
parents are working and only maids take care of the children or
lack of parental guidance; mental abnormalities due to frustra-
tions especially due to frustrations in love: undue frustrations
due to failure to get the professional course most desired or
McLB:ncldihbn,id6&bn!dcqF
other desires; mental abnormalities due to traumatic expe-
riences'. etc.

Daza-gathering kainiments. Almost all data-gathering devices arc

used in collecting data for a case study. The interview is very important.
All persons who may be able to shed fight on the problem are inter-

"l*d @m"EdkqDab!-d.lAdl*sh
viewed. Long probing interviews may be conducted especially with the
patient himself.
Another imponant tool isobservation. This involvesobserving the
patient's behavior for an adequate length of time and some other
'Ud\sqqfuad4!&l{gho
observable conditions that might have contributed something to the
DdjMcn deFdfr FtrqDri
maladjustment of the patient The1ircperson making the case study may act
t.FddFa{l)llsrbenoEetrdwmdsoeidotr
as a participant-observer to be more effective in his observation.
Th questionnaire is another instrument. This is given to the patient
himself and to some people who may be able to contribute something to
the discovery of important data about the case.
R!dqlddeednhicdbhpdm'6dfu
Psychological testsarc alsoadministered to the patient for informa-
tion about his problem. Mental ability tests and otherplehological tests
aFr!LyhpoldErstutrendd]rryd'6'dL
especially the projective tests Mc the thematic apperception test and the
fufud!a6l*dbfuldd
Rorschach test am administered to the patient in order to discover the
psychological causal factors.
Anecdotal recants arealso useful. These arc records Of signifier=
aspects of the patient's behavior when he finds himself in different
situations and in his unguarded moments. These arc, of course, the
results of observation.
 73

tu'!ri@261@edl,!€dtutur
AutobiograPhics, too, am rich sources of information about the
of @iddbFlfu'*h6lddfuft@deEL
patient and his problem. When the patient writes the story of his life he
usually includes those incidents that have great impact or consequcace
his life and these may reveal at once the cause of the ortolan. Liule
@[hl.deryd.dchli@delddUc
upon
tal
incidents may also have some cumulative effect which may create a
it- problem which cartnot be ignored later on.
les Other devices employed am the checklists, score cards and raring
:x; scales. Letters and notes to and from the patient and his diaries may also
1th Ll'hd4d4e€'6ndtdb$ddh!fu
help in diagnosing a case. Cumulative records in school and in guidance
or and muscling offices ate valuable sources of information.
a- Needless to say. all pieces of information are carefully and ar.cu-
ns
Or
fuiddk&e'ld'eIrisjid@dtrd
Witty recorded. Statistical pmadures am then applied to analyze and
organize or minimalist the data in which case frequencies, types, trends.
c- M-.*'-oh"feb"-"""*Mfu*..e
uniformities, or patients of behavior am revealed. Them serve as the
basis for resolving the problem or conflict. This is inteaprcting the
evidence available.
:rc
.k&4*tud4dt&@.d.,!!r. lt bts!arE
Characteristics of asadifactory case study. The following
ft are the
Mji6'nturycsid):
characteristics 0r'ftd,sddbvcd
of a satisfactory case study: (Maxfield. as cited by Good
he and Scales, pp. 731.732)
1. Continuity. Them is a desirable continuity of information as
he 6rdbadJwiedB'msqsEBdb&d
for instance, that provided by two successive psychological
cr examinations at an interval of a year. and by an elementary

xt
d@iIdhdhbF6ruuhsgitu
school mural in relation to pert-Quante in high school.
1 c6rrte|s afas
2. Completeness of data. The potential range of information
includes symptoms, examination results (psycho-physical.
nt health, cducatirmal, and mental, and history (health, school,
to family, and social aspects).
3. Validity of data. For instance, a doubtful birth should be
a-
is
tddtuld
verified htd4iq.
through the dcEpr@
birth registry, and @dbt
employment record by
reference to employers.
C
rte 4. Confidential recording. Educational workers have something
to learn from medicine with respect to the confidential nature
of professional records; the difficulties of individual teachers
mt or pupils in elation to discipline, failure, achievement, or
em
thc
nfu'i}ddbEgds@lsd'hHd!be
mentality should be regarded as professional problems to be
treated in a confidential manner.
74

5. Scientific synthesis. This is an Interpretation of the evidence

that is more than a mere enumeration of data secured; it
embraces diagnosis in identifying causal factors, and progno-
$h]elitrbdLtthdol&danod!d!Ei
sis in looking toward treatment or developmental procedures.

Social skills of care work. The social skills of case work, with
!ddr! reference
particular @e inb adjustment
djdlhd! procedures,
Fuua include: (Strode and
Strode as cited by Good and Sates p. 732)
Social insight a complex cotton* of great importance in meeting
administrative, supervisory, teaching, and organizational pmblems in
welfare agencies and social services
eF,}dJud!c@hllsolrc'dEtsoplcfd
Empathy- social understanding as to how other people feel
Sociality-positive behaviorof deftness and spontaneity in friendly
relations with others
Communication - the process by which we transmit experience or
share a common experience
.4q4'n" acting
Cooperation- &1'uq{ldlryj! t{withi others
or working jointly drud
.4ri4!4o,- social
Purriciparion s(dinteraction {idi a!group
N@ad within cmpddd di meted to $nc
b some
end, or sharing a common experience
Organization-the proms of systematically uniting in a group the
Fdhtr!hFidPtrdnarr&h*jnL
persons who participate and cooperate in working inward a common end
Social Counseling - Assisting the client to formulate and analyze
his problem, explore resources, determine a course of action, and SCCUTC
needed services
Guidance for creative achievement - to liberate the powers of
individuals for their own happiness and forcontributions of social value.

rhod.ot.6f
The cycle of case maydor.6!,qr G&idysd
and case work. Case study and case !o*
!s work
@@{jnleDqre!p!edg!!j
are complementary. They go together usually and help each other.
Analyzed in specific terms, the complementary steps in the cycle of case
study and cast work arc as follows: (Good and Scales, pp. 732-733)
1'k$bi6irttfrh'ilddfugillfopbohc
1. Recognition and determination or the status of the phenome-
non; for example, reading disability.
2. Collection of data relating to the factors or circumstances asso-
rid the
ckrd with
ciated tu given
siri phenomenon;
d@.@4 factors rsh associated
sdd with fr*
tldvdifrlry{E0d4dh0dtryn4&rtrsld'ha|
teaming difficulty or reading disability may be physical, intel-
kbj,tsdgqtJ.dodod'$ld.qcNilmd
lectual, pedagogical, emotional, social, or environmentaL
 75
:4X 3. Diagnosis or identification of causal factors as a basis for
it remedial or developmental treatment: defective vision may be
0- the cause of difficulty in reading.
4. Application or Mint/Sill or adjustment 111C3SUICTt canted./
th
trd*$ $rn!r
fitted eye glasses Ilew the
may remove s&
s! cause ofd poor
Fr performance
tstrsm@
in reading.
ad
$bq!o!6]1t,4!bdd.Di@6elr€egc*d6
5. Subsequent follow-ups to determine the effectiveness of the
tairmctivc or dcvelopmenml measures applied.
rig
in
CONTENT ANALYSIS
Content analysis as a research technique deals with documentary
fly materials that are already existing and available, It has been defined as
follows: "Content analysis is a research technique for the objective.
or systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of
communication."(ilcmison. p. IS)Sinix content analysis deals with
documentary materials. content analysis and documentary analysis arc
one and die saint: thing.
nc
Characteristics of Content Analysis
he
nd From its definition, content analysis has the following charactcris-
74 tics:
ue I. It it objective. Like other research techniques. content analysis
must be objective. Them should be no bias involved in the
of selection and classification of content to be analyzed, in its
sampling design, and in the interpretation of results. To be
objective, as much as possible, all items and aspects in the
fik content to be analyzed must be included and all must be placed
Cr. under appropriate categories. Whenthere is a large volume of
tSe documentary materials to be analyzed and sampling is neces-
s$d.qlFroi!|sdsqi^lDs|b4prdo6q
sary. the valid principles of sampling must be applied. Other•
IC- wise, the materials selected for investigation may have some
tendateies toward certain conditions that may adversely affect
the flue findings of tile investigation. Also interpreting the
ith
Eqr6,drjcdyirynN
results, oclnd us
e observed
objectivity must be a h{h
much sF$ide rr
aspossible. The
perceptions of the researcher must not be influenced by factors
el- ebehcdl@soifurciqwcy@ubd!
other than the nut outcomes or the true frequency counts of die
BilMbgtqlldib
variables being inquired into.
76

2. Ir is systematic. Content analysis must be systematic and so it

must follow the steps of the scientific method as follows:
recognizing and determining the problem, forming the hy-
pk*eh,Fss'&{'bcry*o*.de$qe
pothesis or hypotheses, doing library work. designing the
study, developing the instruments, collecting the data. ana-
lyzing the data. making conclusions and recommendations.
These will be shown in the illustration of aline& analysis to be
made.
3. Is is quantitative. Content analysis of documentary materials
n@ids6fb@J@5dlw]!!iclnn
is quantitative because interpretations and conclusions from
the findings have to depend almost entirely on the frequency
counts of the items or avects studied. The occurrences of the
itcm, aspeeL or phenomenontote studied have to he tallied one
by one and, upon the frequency of theoccurrencesdependsthe
analysis and interpretation.

Steps in Content Analysis

As has been mentioned above, content analysis of documentary

materials must be systematic. Hence, it must follow the scientific
method of research. The steps follow:
I. Recognizing the problem. Suppose the problem recognized is
the commission of errors of students in composition writing in
the fist year high school.
2'Ffu4fur9ofu6
2. Forming the hypotheses. lit non•cxperimental research, the
h,pllx$Fv.iohqGfui6dfflGhqdo[
hypotheses are written in question form. Hence, the questions
that may be asked are: (a) What art the most common errors
committed by first year high school students in composition
d!41(b)ft'dlghefuslMIIlsd6cdnl}
writing? (b) What might be the possible causcs of the commis-
sion of such errors? (c) What measures may be adopted to
minimize the commission of such errors?
3. Doing library search. One purpose of library search is to look
6'1{4&id6t@&daGlod,rofulddde
for some guides in conducting the study. If other studies of the
same nature have already been conducted before, the protw-
dams used may as well be the guides of the researcher in
oanducting his research. The second purpose is to find out if
el?rid}gld!@dtr$'8ftfuM@
thesamelindings will result, andifso.generalizationsbased on
a wider basis can be formulated. The third purpose of library
 77
it search is to avoid duplication of other studies. Thcre is
is: dpkloiIjdybbn*iuEscpted
duplication if a study has been made in the same place and
ry- !5'{esemdJ']!odd!'hqudi
using the same materials. To avoid this. library watch is
he DeCeSSary.
ha-
4. Designing r. study.
,dirdrs the d, Tbisrir isr\detcmtining
rd.mhhc the d ftcr
dEdifferent
procedures to be followed in the study. The instruments
be
for collecting data moat he determined. If there is a large
volume of documentary materials, say five hundred com-
its
ran
FslbcbL{&}d''b!4dfun&L4ld
positions to be examined. then sampling must be applied
in the selection of compositions to be included in the
cy study. Needless to say. sampling must be done properly.
he The statistical treatment to be applied must also be
he decided upon. The method of data presentation must also
he be designed. be it textual, tabular, graphical. or 311 of the
One.
D4.b|b'h.l!||fu
5. Developing the instrument. This is for collecting data. In
content analysis, a tally sheet or checklist may be prepared.
The instrument must contain all the items or aspects to be
try studied. A sample follows:
fie
EtMc@rtll''nslwEi'].ibl'duur
Errors Committed by First Year High School Students en
is Composition Writing
!in A. Agreement between subject and predicate
(I) Subject is plural. medicate is singular
the (a) Subject is a noun
ins (b) Subject is a pronoun
Drs
€) sdj!4 isn singular,
(2) Subject pdiq€ isn plural
r;&kr predicate lLd
on (a) Subject is a noun
(b) Subject is a pronoun
to (3) Subject and predicate arc plural when both should be
singular
of (a) Subject is a noun
he (b) Subject is a pronoun
(4) Subject and predicate are singular when both should be
in plural .
: if (a) Subject is a noun
on (b) Subject is a pronoun
try B. Tenses
78

(1) The simple past tense

(a) Present tense is used instead of simply past tense
(b) Future tense is used instead of simple past tense
(c) Present participle is used instead of simple past tense
(d) Present progressive is used instead of simple past tense
(c) Past progressive is used instead of simple past tense
(f) kFtulhLhldL$addr
(0Past rjer,aoe
participle is used instead of simple past tense
(2) 'Mc simple present tense
(a) tu simple
(r) The sinde past ird d.Nfr ar
bE Isr used
a( tense uld instead of present tense
(b) Future tense is used instead of present tense
hs,lddr. s!dr(crdrNdrDe
c) Pieseni participle is used instead of present tom
(c)
(d) Present progressive is used instead of present tense
(e) Past progressive is used Instead of present tense
(f) Past participle is used instead of present tense
(MOM items or aspects should be added. The list should be
complete in a real investigation)
6. Collecting the data. TO miturate, content analysis is quantita-
dye and so tallies have to be made for each type of error
committed. If there arc filly compositions to be studied, they
are examined one by one and the types of errors committed are
taliiel one by one in the tally sheet or checklist. When all the
compositions have been examined and all die types of errors
have been tallied, then the tallies for each type of error arc
counted to determine the frequency of each type of error.
? i4t:tu&tu r d! for
7. Analyzing the data. 'rake 6i filly
d granted that
s{rr iiy compositions
ahtssni$
have been examined and the data collected are as follows:
'types of Enurs Committed Numbers of Number of
Students Com- limarS
mitting Errors* Committed
I. Present tense used instead of past 15 49
2. Future tense used instead of past 10 35
3. hldsidptqdh$ddpola
Present participle used instead of past 36 281
4. Past participle used instead of past 45 375
5. Present progressive used instead of past 19 50
6. Past progressive used instead of past 21 51
Total 841
Note: Mere is no total due to multiple responses.
 79

In analyzing the data, the types of errors may he ranked to

determine what types of errors were committed foremost, or frequency
percents may be computed to determine the greatest portions of errors
committed. Roth have been applied to the data collected as follows:

Types of Number of Percent Rank Number of Percent Rank

Errors Students Base = 500 Errors Rase it 841
Committing Committed
Errors •

Error No. I 15 30.00 5 49 5.83 5

Error No.2 10 20.00 6 35 4.16 6
Error No, 3 36 72.00 2 2$1 33.41 2
Error No.4 45 90.00 1 375 4439 I
Error No. 5 19 38.00 4 50 5.95 4
Error No. 6 21 42.00 3 51 6.06 3
Total 841 103.00

Note: *There is no total due to multiple response.

It can be seen front the data that in the use of the simple past tense,
the filly students committal a total of 841 errorsof different types. The
most nwnbcr of errors committed was in the use of the past participle
instead of the use of the simple past tense. The number of errors
committed was 375 or 44.59 percent of to total errors of 841 and
committed by forty-five or 901/0 percent of the students. This was
followed by the use of the present participle instead of the simple past
tense. The number ofenors was 2R1 or 33.41 percent of the total errors
and committed by thirty-five or 70.00 percent of the students. The other
typeset emirs were not serious. For instance, the third in rank was the
use of only fifty-one or 6.06 percent of the total errors committed by
twenty-one or 42.00 percent of lbC students. The fourth in rank was
the present pmgressivc instead of the past. The error; were fifty
or 5.95 percent of thc total errors and committed by nineteen or 38.00
percent of the students. Next error was the use of the present instead of
the past The errors were forty-nineor 513 pereentof thetotalerrors and
commiucd by fifteen or 30.00 percent of the students. The last type of
error committed was negligible. The mist were onlythiny-five or 4.16
percent of the total errors committed by ten or 20.00 petteni of the
students.
80

It should be natal that the two biggest types of errors were the use
de
of the past d the
Dd and pt$! participles
h present i6Ld of
tsidrb instead dthe!ndllc!*!]e
simple past tense.
There could be two general causes for which the leather needs to pay
diligent attention to. One is that, the students may not know how to form
the correct past tense of verbs. The second is, and this is more important.
that the students may not he avian: of the fact that they have to use the
simple past tense for cenainspecificeventsthat occurred oncein the past
The distinctions between the past and present participles and the simple -
past tense of the verbs must be given stress in teaching.

8. Making conclusions. Generally, conclusions am answers to

the questions raised at the beginning of the investigation.
Besides, they am based upon the Malice:1.s of the study. One
conclusion that can be drawn from the above content analysis
is: The biggest types of errors committed by the first year high
school students in composition visiting am the uses of the past
and present participles instead of the past tense.
9. Making recomnumiatinns. Recommend:010ns am made to
solve or help solve the problems discovered in the study.
fiesideS, Malllllllendations arc also made for further research
on the same study just finisited. The mcommendadons that can
be drawn from the study just compleux1 may bc (a) Theteacher
should stress the distinction between past and present part'.
ciples and the simple past tense. (b)Funher research should be
conducted to affirm or negate the findings in the study.

Applications of Content Analysis of Documentary Materials

There are many applications of content analysis and they am very

imponunt Among the important uses arc the following:
1. Analyzing to determine the educational, political. sociologi-
cal, philosophical, psychological and other ideas of real
authors and thinkers, based upon their books, essays, poems,
diaries, novels, plays. speeches, and other writings.
2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional
materials as a basis for curriculum construction and develop-
ment and as a basis for the selection of textbooks and other
instructional materials for the different curricular years of the
educational ladder.
 St

3. Analyzing the achievements of studcrus in the different sub-

jects todeterminethe types of enors theyCO=141W as a basis
bre'ldd{Fr@ddCfuo
for making remedial teaching programs and for cunieuluro
developmat
4. Analyzing the different writings of students such as essays.
^41'l{etrldd@dlrldd.d4.
onFldfrI!4d4*6'eb@fufrn
compositions, poems, stories. letters. etc. to determine their
yid44de'b&dekhqblb'dsllgdtrl(
writing aptitudes, levels of their vocabulary and spelling gills.
ahcfu&ig']''qm'fu6ihl4!d@d
PS bases for designing pmgrams for further development.
5. drb3fuosdBdr$Dd't,.ds'
Analyzing school records such as class records, report cards.
enrolment lists, grading sheets, cumulative records. etc. of
different schools and SChnal systems with the end In view of
&d..frq''&LFc!."*Idqrdrd
adopting thccommon.mattical.cconomical,and useful school
moods.
hrdstudjE sdDk'tsof td&hld d
6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and
dd'@widedhiowdd@i4n06yd!bd
school systems withllsecnd In viewof adopting more valid and
practical objectives and practices to attain the same ends.

@|Efurye'qdd!@M!,tqbd'd.t
Other auras that may be inquired into through content analysis arc
edu!!6llll'rGde'.6dy16lll|M
radio and television programs. either cross sectional or longitudinal:
GhilleFld
newspaper moons concerning certain issues, as for instance political
dircldlrydled@FtrFlddc'hFl*
issues: readability of books. newspapers, inagazincs,ett; the presence of
certain items in newspapers and magazines such as crossword puzzles.
mazes, comic strips, etc.; movie films for certain issues; an works; and
many °Mem

dT
OlP,sNN FOR STUDY
QUESTIONS A} DNNN
SIUDY AND DISCUSSION
lE4l-ftD.loicdbllEd
1. &robin the meaning of descriptive research.
2. Characterize descriptive research.
3. What are the values or advantages of descriptive research?
4. What techniques of research um used under descriptive research?
Explain each.
5. Differentiate between nonnative survey arid case study.
6. What am the advantages of the survey over case study? Its
distdvacugcs?
lknfugqtdq!''F?Ed&dd6Nh
7. What arc the survey technique types? Explain each at in what
SilliOnOn can one he used.
S. Be able to define case work, case method, and clinical method.
82

9. Who should be subjected to case studies? Why?

o@$di,ltye
10. What arcthc kinds of information needed in case studies? Whyare
such kinds of information needed in cast studies?
11. What insuumetus are used in gathering information about case
siudics?
12. Characterim a satisfactory case study.
13. What social skills are needed in a case work?
14E{'hocqdcdcocsMJdoesd
14. Explain the cycle of case study and case work.
15. Define content analysis. What arc its characteristics?
16. Explain how to conduct content analysis.
17. What are the uses or applications of content analysis?
 83

BnttlMeNtel
66 EXPERIMEN ttsrlnctt
TAL RESEARCH

The experimental method of research is defined by Good as a

method orpmccdum involVing the contml or manipulation of conditions
for the purpose of studying the relative effects of various treat:nem
applied to members of a sample, or of the Rune treatment applied to
members of different samples. (Goo), p. 216)
Manuel and Medel explain the experimental method of research in
the following way. The basic purpose of experimental research is to
discover the inlluenecof oneor more factors upon a condition, group, or
sintation.purpose of which is thdisawer"whar will be." It describes and
analyzes variables in carefully controlled conditions as a basis for
inferring or concluding. An experimental research, therefore, consists of
manipulating an experimental variable under highlyir3ht controlled ad.
adptrd condi-
dons to determine how and why a particular event occurs. (Manuel and
Medel, p. 32)
In dbcrlods'
h other dts'D.jd research
words. experimental ll!{y@b,uqljse-
e\!46 ist !sibighlycontmlled-proc
dure in which manipulated treatments or actions from a factor or
@tiqdLdtcqFjn{dqee
condition, called the experimental or independent variable, am applied
upon another factor or condition, called the dependent variable, to
determine to effect of the former upon the bum all other factors or
variables being kept constant or equal so that any change in the
eF qilobLrsshEdcetbtrq
dependent variable is attributable only to the experimental or independ-
ent variable.
A variable is anything tha may changeor may beelumged fmmone
condition to another, eitherqualitatively or quaruitatively. Examples am
age, height, weight, method of teaching, language. time, etc.
An independent variable is anything, condition, or process which
s controlled and manipulated by the experimenter and applied on
another thing, condition, or process (dependent variable) intended to
eve or produce a change in or reaction from UN: tatter.
A dependent variable is anything, a condition, or process exposed
id@dvdl*e
n or upon which treatments or actions from the independent variable are
84
qsgshdcd@ie[lddtL
applied. The response of or change in the dependent variable is
measured and some statistical methods am applied to determine the
effects of the independent or experimental variable.
Hlei!(ryinde lndo $pN*stoddA!
Hen: is a very simple nlustration. Suppose su&d
Student A and Student
B are in the same grade level and have the same level of mental ability.
Student A is given three hours to study a cenain lesson and Student B is
!\n1{oj$6os@djfu@ebstrfudq!i.giyc,tsJie
given two howa to study the same lesson. Then they arc given the same
test on the lesson. When the test papers of the two students are scored,
n{lAsaib!&srMst&B'fttdd@&d'satb
Student A gets a higher score than Student B. The independent variable
*dnhhbrldhJ
which is {Ftusr. isr time
manipulated by thee experimenter d. and
M the eFdnL
tu dependent
variable is achievement. The result of the experiment infers that the
ho$.fu6ncotrnF{iol@dyln
longer the time one is given to study a material, the higher his
achievement is on the material in terms of test scores.

Concepts on Causation
According to Estolas and Boquircn, there are three concepts of
causation as follows: (Estolas and Boqui reit pp. 142-143)
1, One-to-One Relationship. Aocording to this concept Of causa-
tion, for every panicularcaustnhere is a corresponding particu-
'db(wrysituFqs@ldqeNFdhg!fu
lar el feu_ One independent variable causes an effect upon one
dependent variable. This one-to-one relationship especially
exists in the physical science field. For example, when one
stands on theplatform of a weighing scale, the balancing scale
pointer is raised. The weight of person Ls the cause and the
raising of the balancing scale pointer is the effect. Another
q@d!nihmi31Nett.!6jrdwidjenojfuc
example is when a glass pitcher is filled with ice, moisture
gathers on the outside pan of the pitcher. The cold emitted by
the ice is the cause and die condensationof the watcrmolcculcs
on the outside part of the pitcher is the effect
2. Two-variable Relationship. This involves two variables caus-
ing!oddqa,oe!!nLLIcl6@djEI6}d!5!
an effect upon one variable. A glass container as well as a
wooden one have the same size and amount of water. When
|o@!dda$ti4e!dd6ptsd}&dcoljDr
stories of the same size are each dropped into each container.
the water in the glass container rises higher than the water
in the wooden container because of the porosity of the latter.
The stones cause the water to rise in both containers but the
porosity of wood retards the rise of water in the wooden
*Ontainer.
 85

Anothcrexampk is thehand water pump. The rising of the

xtrfudft(da'tr!uFLlo6doE'i}cin4dJI
water, the effect, depends upon two factors, the amount of air
pressure and the tightncssof the rubber ring around the piston's
base, as causes.
1c@llaRrda\^|
3. Complex Relationship. This is a case where two or more
variables cause a single effect For instance, behavior, which
is an effect, is causal by cultural background. socio-economic
status, residential arcaethnicorigin, andmany others. Achieve-
ment in school is affected by several factors such as intelli-
gence, adequacy of facilities, effectiveness of teaching, envi-
mninental conditions, and some others.

In addition to those relationships given by Battu and Require%

there arealso cases where one variablecauses two or more effects. Take
sca.d$ er surLci!helps
the case of sunlight Sunlight o
duumanufacture food through
rcrpNplants
photosynthesis but it also causes evaporation which kills plants unless
sufficiently watered. Liquor satisfies a man's certain desire hut it also
makes him drunk weakening his mental faculties and capacity for
inhibition making him prone to committing violent. acts. Water does
several things to the body among which am supplying liquid to body
cells, helping in digesting food, helping in the excretion of wastes from
the body, satisfying thirsts, and some others.

General Distinguishing Features of Experiments

The general distinguishing features (characteristics) of experi-

ments are as follows: (Estolas and Boquiren, pp 141-142)
I. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of
quantitative entities.
2. Observations arc done under controlled conditions.
3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.
4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the
classroom, or in the field.
5. Laboratory experiments arc intensive and exacting.
6. Most often experiments am limited to a small numberof cases.
7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.
86

Experimental Designs

The following are the more commonly used experimental design

in the educational, social, psychological, biological, or even in the ogre-
industrial fields:
A. \rltz.@@
Single rilih.da Designs
Factor Experimental D{iNB
1. Single groupwilltonlyaposnestde.cign. Thisinvnlves a thing.
person,orgroupsubjectedorexposed toacertainexperimen
factor for acenainperiud of time. Then, after the experimenti
period, the subjects or students exposed to the experiment
factor arc givcnapost test. Theachicvement of thisexperimm-
lal group is then comparixt with the achievement of amour
group with similar characteristics and studying the same sut-
ject matter under customary instructional methods but unex-
posed to the experimental factor. Any excess of the achieve-
ment of the experimental group over the achievement of tte
normal group is considered due to the experimental factor.
For example, a leacher uses praise in one but not in tk
other of her two classes who were not sectioned on in"
selective basis and are taking the same lessons. At the end ,i-
a grading period, she compares the achievements of the ow
classes. Any excess of the achievement of the class with prer
Over the achievement of the class withOut praise is consider
due to the use of praise.
Another example may be in ramiins, A farmer has tw.:
plots of equal size and having almost the same characterisia
He plants the two plots with the same variety of rice and he us--
€rulidhmeolMmlrdE
fertilizer in one plot but not in the other. At fuqd
Al the ]:
end of to
fanning period, he cpmparcs the productions from the t'
plots. Any excess of the produce in the fertilized plot over i
produce of the unfertilized plot is considered due to tie
fertilizer.
In biology, if a rat is fed with a certain kind of drug, 27
abnormality in its behavior which differs markedly with =
behavior of a rat fed with its normal food is considered c
by the drug.
The defect of this design is the absence of control over
variables involved. This is why, when interpretation is mar
 87

of the result, variables that may have undue influence in the

experiment should be given due consideration.
2. Single group with a pre-sect and a post-test design. In this
design, the group is exposed to a certain experimental factor.
However, before thestart of the experiment, the group is given
a!EB'!eft$b]dnftlbbcsdbe$Fi
pm-test about the subject matter to be covered in the experi-
ment Then after the experimental period, the group is given
the same pre-test but in a different form to avoid the effect of
practice. This is the post-test. The excess of the results of the
past-test over the results of the pre-test isconsidered caused by
the experimental factor.
Example: Suppose a new technique of teaching how to
solve verbal problems in mathematics is to be tested. Before
the start of the experiment, the group to be used is given an
achievement test about the problems to be covered. After the
experimental period the same test in another form is given to
the group as a past•tcst. The difference between the means of
the scores of die two tesLs after applying some statistical
methods will reveal if the new technique is effective.
Suppose that in animal pmduction, a new swine feed is to
be tested for its nutrition value. A group of piglets is used.
Before feeding the piglets with the ^!q)d.L3Lsl[d
new feed, their weights are
taken. Then they am fed with the new feed. After the
experimental period of feeding, the weights of the piglets are
taken again. The mewls of the two sets of weights am
computed. After the application of certainstatistical methods•
it will be known whether the increase in wcighls of the piglets
is significant or not, that is. whether the rew feed has a great
nutrition value.
3. Maichedgroupsdesign. Inthisdesign,twogmupsare matched
',d.J3d9JJ6l3ih.nd!i!j.!!o!o{ntoldjql
in age, sex, grade level, mental ability, etc. One group, called
the experimental group, is exposed to the experimental or
independent variable while the other group, called the control
group, is not exposed to the experimental variable. After the
qFfudFid.J!'!!!D45.E8iYqfus@d
experimental period, the two groups am given the same test
.M&ft j{,ntusdidddq cFid. i na'
covering the subject matter studied during the period. It must
be noted that all other variables except the independent vari-
able are kept constant or equal during the experimental period.
{
88

Any excess of the achievement of the experimental group over

the achievement of the control group is attributed to the
dFfudI&d(cm(F''},7lddudM
experimental factor. (Garrett, pp. 213-217 for statistical treat-
ment)
EslleA!4dd!ftIftn€dleF@Jed
Example. A candidate for the master's degree conducted
anexperiment to find out the effector guidance and counseling
upon the teaming process. She formed two groups of pupits in
which one pupil in one group was paired with another pupil in
the other group having the same sex, age, mental ability, and
economic status. One group, called the experimental group,
}Ngfu$ldb6lio!trtjj4dd4e@dmsul
was given guidance and counseling during the experimental
period snd the
while the other group, called
ts;ddbeoh4@q $c o'hi
control gmup, d not
!tur was @'
exposed to guidance and counseling. All other variables such
as lemons, tests, time spent for study, method of teaching. etc.
were kept equaL After the experimental period, the two groups
were given the same test on the subject matter covered by the
two groups. The result was that, Mete was a significant excess
of theachievementoftheexperimental group over die achieve-
ment of the control group and this excess was considered
attributable to guidance and counseling.
Another example is in agriculture. A fanner wanted to test
the effectiveness of a fertilizer. So he prepared two plotsof the
same fu &!ljqLb( !&l ( kplmdsl
@c size d6 with four
6U replications in each plot_ He planted the
!:@lddyddeodtqdod{giojfordjq
same variety of Ike and kept all other agricultural practices
4dsd6Wdiq'jds'ii'rFn'oiddc$i'.c
equal such as weeding, irrigation, preparation of the soil. etc.
He also saw to it that the fertility of the two plots was the same.
After the harvest, it was found out that the average of the four
Edred@ in the
replications ; 4Fhdid rh
tu experimental plot had !4drd, qces
hd ar significant excess
over the average production of the four replications of the
control plot_ This was due to the effectiveness of the fertilizer.
In both experiments, the two-tailed test was applied.
LRoM.dhlll3.4furh!4luld4l9rkfr'dglg'
4. Randomized multigroup with a post-test design. In this design,
them am two or more experimental variables to be tested. So
groups are formed equal to the number of experimental vari-
eftoBkd.d@qcaigdMnltb
ables. The members of each group are assigned randomly to
Mr@dte!F'fuqFdEd.{hi@]uo
their tr.sp.r..dvc groups. Each experimental factor is appliedon
the group to which it is assitmed. All other variables, whatever
activities they ate, am kept equal in all the groups. After the
 89

qtsd'deid,
experimental period, thec@eai otur6es d.i
same test on the lessons taken hyd
by all
the groups is given to all of them. The experimental factor
assigned to the group with the highest achievement is consid-
ered the most effective, the experimental factor assigned to the
group with the second highest achievement is the next most
effective, and so on. (Garmtt, pp. 276-295 for statistical
treatment)

sqF! endDed'$d4rrMF
rtu,tcr Suppose duce methods of Leading mathemat-
Example:
ics arc to be tested, Methods A, 13, and C. Three groups whose
member; arc assigned randomly are footled. The numbers of
members in the groups may be unequal but for convenience
they should be made equal as much as possible. The three
getups, studying the same topic, arc taught under the three
different methods, one method assigned to one group. After
the experimental rxwitul. the three groups are given the same
test. The results of the tests am subjected to some statistiCal
procedures, usually analysis of variance, and the relative
effectiveness of the methods will be known.
In agrit.mllum, suppose three kinds of fertilizer am to be
tested for their relative effectiveness. Three blocks ofland with
the same tenuity arc prepared with four replication plots in
each block. All other fanning practices such as preparation of
the soil, irrigation. weeding, application of the same insecti-
cide. etc. are kept equal. The blocks are planted with the same
variety of rice and the three kinds of fertilizer in die same
amount are applied each to one block_ Thc productions from
6! blocks
the u@b with slr (llrc arc subjected to analysis of
!0$$rjluie{LFnd
PLd their replications
variance and the results or the computations will show the
relative effectiveness of the three kinds of fertilizer. (Gomel:
and Gomez. pp. 9-24)

5. Randomized multigroup witha pre-test find a post-tem design.

This is the same as the design in No. 4. The only ditTerence is
that, there is a pre-test After theexperiment the results of the
pretest and those of the post-test am subjected to some
statistical methods. usually the analysis of covariance, and the
relative effectiveness of the three methods will be revealed.
(Gallen, pp. 295-303)
90

B. Two Factor Experiment

Factorial design. A factorial experimental design is a two factor

experiment in which there arc two experimental factors involved. For
instance, we want to know the performance of a group of males and
females in a teaming situation under theefrects of6!ryjRg[4nLbc
varying amounts of the
same drug. In this experiment, there are two factors — sex, male or
female, and dosage, the amount of the drug measured in milligrams. In
our analysis. we are concerned with differences in learning related to (1)
sex, (2) theamount of thedrug taken, and (3) the interaction effect of sex
and drug. In this experiment, we have to make a two-way classification:
classification ofdata according to scx, and classification of the same data
according the drug dosage. The achievement scores of the two groups
after they have taken a post-test arc subjected to analysis of variance
which will reveal whether there is a significant difference between the
learning capacity of males and that of females when under the effects of
!'n4&rFrdlcr4N.qivhluqdlrLerrn.&t toric
varying anrounis of the drug. and whether them isa significant difference
between the scores of the whole group under the effects of the varying
amounts of the drug, and also the interaction between sex and drug, that
is, if the two factors helped each other. (Downie and Heath, pp. 21R-221)

The Experimental Plan

There is a definite procedure in conducting an experimental sway

in education, psychology, sociology, industry•. and in other fields. The
steps follow:
1. Determining the experimental problem Or topic. This is
defining the problem. Is it determining the effectiveness of a
teaching technique? Is it finding the effect of staggered
pmctice? Is it finding the effect of maturation upon under-
standing? Them are a lot of other things that can be studied by
means of experiment. Apply the guidelines in selecting a
research pniblent.
To illustrate, a doctoral candidate who is a Spanish profes-
sor wanted to know the level of effectiveness of cach of the five
methods of teaching Spanish grammar, namely,
a. The use of pure Spanish with drawings to illustrate the
meanings of words especially action verbs.
b. Inductive method withEnglish as a medium of instruction.
 9!

c. Spanish grammar rules translated into English with gram-

mar ;malysis,
r d. Spanish-Tagalog and vice-versa translations, and
c. Dialogues in Spanish memorized.
He also wanted to know their comparative effectiveness.
2. Surveying related literature and studies. Reading about re-
lated literature and studies will give the experimenter a better
understanding of his problem and experimental design. The
formulation of hypotheses, methodology, selmtionofsamplo;,
experimental design, statistical procedures, etc.. utilized in
related studies will serve as guides in conducting his experi-
mental study. Among the related studies reviewed by the
doctoral candidate, to mention a few, arc the following-.
a. AmparoTorms de Otterrem,"Some Problems in the Learn-
ing of Spanish in College," (Unpublished Master'sThesis.
University of San Agustin, Iloilo City, 1954)
b. Leticia H. Calderon, "Propased Methods in the Teaching
of Spanish in Secondary Schools and Colleges in the Bicol
Region." (Unpublished kholer's Thesis, University of
Nueva Caceres, Naga City, 1955)
c. Lilia C. Fernandez, "Problemas dela Enseltanza de Es-
panol en has Universidade.s de Filipinas." (Unpublished
Master's Thesis, Colcgio de San Juan dc Letran, Manila,
I9M)
d. Antolin B. Martinez, "A Proposed Course of Study in the
Teaching of Spanish as a Second Language. with Some
Methods of Teaching at the Philippine Military Aca-
demy." (Unpublished Master's Thesis, Baguio Central
University, Baguio City, 1971)
3. Formulating the hypothesit or hypotheses. Those are ques-
Lions which are to be answered by the study; they are tentative
conclusions about the outcomes of Meexperiment. They must
be testable, that is, they may be accepted as true or rejected as
not we. Hypotheses an; usually stated in the null form in
qFbdfrdi6tru,ljd3nl!F!{siorsc@d
experimental studies. Examples am hypotheses for the experi-
ment mentioned above:
92

1fun!9(*de''E.dhssPiihb&*i4d
a. The five methods of teething Spanish to be experimented
upon are not effective.
b. There am no significant differences in the effectiveness of
the five methods.
4. r&tubiqeq{w
identifying dwtuB.
the experimental tuidtT
variables. The d\d
independent vari-
eveqiidddFdea!&1d4cod.6!o
able will be applied and expected to causes clumgeoreffect on
the dependent variable. Both the independent and dependent
variables have to be identified. This will help the experimenter
in making his experimental design. In the experimental ex-
ample, the independent variables are the five methods of
teaching Spanish and the dependent variables am the achieve-
ments of the sample students.
5. Select the appropriate experimental design. The selection of
the experimental design depends upon the expected outcomes
or what the experimenter wants to find nut In other words, the
design that will best test the hypotheses should be selected. In
the example, theexperimental designs selected and used were:
a. For determining the effectiveness of each individual
method the single group with a pre-test and a post-test
design was used.
b. For determining the comparative effectiveness of the five
methods, the randomized multigroup with a pm-test and a
post-test design was selected and used.
kkuhttut4,vL
6. Selecting
6. the.ample. The iblj. isI composed
1e sample mtsd Ofd$bi€B
subjects for
students to be used in the experiment. The sample should be
representative, large enough, and selected properly to be able
b!]rcddElhUesdEdtrJolihde*e!r.E
to give valid and reliable generalizations. in the example, the
crdl'dd€isquedftsigfu€dfu4iBb
experimental designs requite that the assigning of students to
the five methods of teaching Spanish must be randomized. The
experimenter used all the tivesectinns of nursing students M a
!iwd'd4spod}zne^endb6.d*Lddd@
university taking Spanish 2. He assumed that the distribution
of the students to the five sections was random enough because
it was done on a first-come first-served basis and not on any
*14!Eki!o&g,oDlasFuId9Njhqld
selective basis. One section was opened for enrolment and
when this was filled up, the next section was opened for
enmlment and when this was filled up, the next section was
opened and so on. The professor employed the raffle in
assigning the five methods to the sections.
 93

7. Selecting or constructing appropriate IIIMUMCIUS to measure

*ec&@tulfuqffii'M
the results of the erperintou. Choose or construct instruments
that will Meant aatrately the outcomes of the experiment.
fuftlilMldbhDtfu!lddlyddld!!
Pretest the instruments to Insure their validity and reliability.
hsqFrL!.!EqFjFrulN6boldrelhstsis
In the example. the experimenter constructed a test in Spanish
grammar and administered it to a group of students in another
talkie and correlated the scores of the students with their final
grades. The coefficient of correlation (validity coefficient)
was SI which was sulxstantlal. The reliability coefficient was
.68 computed by using the split-half mtiliod_43
8. Conducting the experiment. The experiment must be con-
ocd@e!heatstridd4h&d1i!&'
ducted according to the experimental design. In the example.
the experiment lasted one whole semester. To be sure that all
hrog'rc€lL€hgryo!d'mqFimlE
the proper procedures in carrying out an experiment were
followed, the professor himself handled all the five sections
teaching Spanish 2 grammar by means of the five methods,
each method was assigned to one section permanently. Since
non-experimental factors may seriously affect the results of an
!Fd@,bw@lfuKi!14tei6ored!,
experiment, he saw to it that extraneous factors enumerated by
Manuel and Medci (Manuel and Mcidel, pp. 40.41) weir taken
care of:
a. History. specific eventsbetween the first and second meas-
urement in addition to the experimental variable. The
dramatic landing on the moon could affect the measure-
ment of a new Physics course on the attitudes of the
students. (Fortunately, no dramatic historical event °G-
arnett during the experiment)
!d6'fiol4ldf6di..dilFfu
b. Maturation. biological or psychological processes which
operate with the passage of time, regardless of events.
Students grow older, hungrier, more timed and which may
nnei 4e'
E mistaken as
be $ the
6! effect of
d the .rFfus|L stimulus)
,e experimental *dhd!$
(dEtuE3!br.e,lbIa4nyrF
(One semester cannot be long enough to cause any appre-
dd.MddqFfbbddd'r'Fb&fu
ciable biological or psychological changes in the students
and the professor saw to it that the students were well fed
bfcp]4hdd!dN$5d]!ddMbhdeft
before going to their classes and he tried hard to make the
class work as enjoyable as possible)
c Testing• the effects of taking a test upon the scares of a
"di{'d.fud'$qrEWftaGd1
second test. In various types of tests, the scores in the
r 94

second test may be anributable to increased awar

eness of
|Mdglsqhkn Ed
item design or better Insig
' igh d how
ht on trv tofurespond the
I,. second
--;
time around. (To remedy this, the profeeor admi
nistered
nI&r€ jEh+lnqlh@&.tr'i;
the same pre-test after the experiment but in di( (tren
t form
to avoid the effect of practice)
d. Hines in the selection of respondents
in the comparison
0!r!F
grou $&Fihm
ps. Anrrn4ndbkhhi,;d;
experimental group may have volunteered for
n lledq $bh8 d6
the experiment exhibiting effects not
@ruk ; e, antributalik tob the
experimental factor. also known n the ilawthorn
e effect.
J|-k&x"l.tdd.'.'..;
(There was no bias at all in the assigning of the expe
rimen-
''m*.-u!"
tal subjects to the five methods of teaching
Hd:i.ub(f*..4'dkiq's@lh
grammar)
Spanish

.n*,4dryd4blrt'ole.mfudi
e. Experimentalmorsality.lossuf respondents from the com-
!*@ 6""dJ'".*d^,d-,,';
parison groups. (Fortunn.ly, no one dropled out
during
c56F!tud€l.ri]@n..d;!.dl]ddi
the semester when the experiment was being cond
ucted)
f. Interaction effects, which represent
',"...-,,.4...,,.'",'"""..^.",*..-"
ui{q!rrnroh,,!rk,"uradE";_
effects or the experi-
mental factor and some other variables such as ex
petimen-
lid settings, reactive effect of testing, and prior
treatment
&rtnlE ftFrc@sbrtu;,tu-*
interference_ MK professor saw to it that all
non-experi-
!fr..ds.6 dd''.k,yf^1".,d;
maul variables that would ad.. enelyaffo:t the resul
ts had
to be kept equal as practicallyaspossible among the
groups
N Annc6!6No r.(hr. .p!;rdi_;
such as time. multiIons of the rooms, the
giving of praise,
€es&nsb Nn!u0,, @;;!;;,
keeping absences to de minimum. non-scolding
of stu-
@!aruddF*.e
dents asmuch as possible. the giving of quints
rreddizB;rb< anii tests,
and other C12010003 practices)
9. Measuring the results and applying suuistical proc
edures.
;"fl.;ii'Jl";1t'ii ,,f
After the experiment. the results have to be mea
-*,1'lf"itrtri#'#H
*,,u."!d'b".b*4d,dbfu ]8d.,].'tr;
statistical meant have to be applied codetermine
sured and
their signifi-
cance. In the exenple.to meanie the remits of the
experiment
tr'ffiHhipffifrtri}:#H
Me experimenter administered a ins-test to the
dents) and after the experiment he administered a
same pm-test hut in different form. then he appli
subjects (stu-
post-test, the

;u:ilTl;:'fffflit J;lTs;1,-,;
procedures to the achievent scores of the students.
ed statistical

To determine the effeaiveness of 06method of

Matting
Spanish grammar, he applied the
so-called one-tailed test or I-
tem- Since it is not within the scope of this book

#tffiHil},#*#lflii$
to show the
complete process Of contouring the I, a good statis
tical hook
shOuld be consulted. prferably Garrett. pp. 134-
139,226-228.
 95

To determine the comparative effectiveness of the five

methods, the experimenter applied the analysis of covariance.
Again a good statistical book may be consulted preferably
Garrett. pp. 295-301
ro Prr4tufqoddlt{p'h r tr,4stu6@,&
10. Writing the report of the experiment. Whatever the fonn, the
{d6d6&tFi}g[Nresdc'cihqhldn'@
report about the experiment mug be made either in thesis form
or otherwise. The results or findings, especially, are to be
reponed.Thercshould be a complete report of the experiment
from the selection of the problem to the mponing of the
findings. From the example, two of the many (Wings are here
reported:
! $dobsEnBrsis{Qru rr,ydt@E:N
a. The following strategics were found highly effective: pure
s}iih{jdd'4iCltndMhFq]t$,&d
Spanish with drawings, inductive method in English, and
spurtrETjlhtusdjli
Spanish-English translation.
b. There is sibmificant superiority of pure Spanish with draw-
ings over Spanish-Tagalog translation: Spanish-English
translation over Spanish-Tagalog translation: and Span-
isE4LililjlJh'otldJo$€isbsii.ic
ish-English translation over dialogues in Spanish memo-
rized.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. Explain the process of experimental research.

2. 1)ifemntiate between independent and dependent variables. What
are their functions in experimental research?
r Explain
3.E\t!! the dtr u, concepts
6e different @ruN onq causation.
ssdli
4. Give the general distinguishing features of experiments.
5. Explain how the following experimental designs are conducted:
a. Single group with only a post-test design
h. Single gmup with a pre-test and a post test design
c. Matched groups dcsign
d. Randomized multigroup with a post-test design
e. Randomized multigroup with a pm-test and a post-lest design
f. Two factor experiment
6. ffu.@hsdpLs;
Describe fully the activities in each step of the experimental plan:
a. Determining the experimental problem
b. Surveying related literature and studies
c. Formulating the hypotheses
d'@f,4fu*iDlMldfu
d. Identifying the experimental variables
qkdgft{lryie.*;nd&ig
e. Selecting the appropriate experimental design
1. Selecting the sample.
g. Selecting or constructing the measuring insuument
h. Conducting the experiment
i. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures
j. Writing the experiment report
 1

97

77 COLLECTIO
cot,!,EcrroN oF DATA
N OF DATA

Data, plural for datum, are a collection of numbers, quantities,

facts, or records, used as bases for drawing conclusions or making
inferences. (Good. p. 155)
Ddi am
Data yh, research
w what I\l!4r is* searching
Ldrh! for rft and !ftr am
ad which $b€kr tob
14 subjected
analysis, statistical procedures, and interpretation so that inferences,
principles, or generalizations are drawn, Data also reveal unsatisfactory
conditions that need to be improved. TherE4dnd@de,dis
application of newly disco-
vered facts and principles to remedy unsatisfactory conditions becomes
the basis of humanprogress and the improvement of the quality of human
life.

Classification of Data According to Source

Data are classified according to source as follows:

1. Primary data. Primary data arc those gathered front primary
sources. The primary sources are as follows:
a. Individual persons
bo!4jldruFqo{4;d6s$dsssklis
b. Organized groups or organizations such as associations,
fraternities, schools, business firms. the church, army,
navy, air force, government, law making bodies, family.
tribe. etc.
C. Established practices such as marriage, religious rites,
legal system, economic system, democracy, system of
morals, ctc.
d. Documents in their original forms such as the Constitu-
tion. laws. orders, proclamations, treaties, contracts. cen-
sus and all kinds of original records, letters, diaries, ctc.
e. Living organismssuch as animals, fowls, and lower forms
of living organisms.
98

f. Man-made material things such as buildings, machines,

weapons. artifacts, appliances, roads, bridges, dams, radio,
television. electricity. etc.
qNlddi.udpisonrsUdnoiqdD'
Natural objects and phenomena such as rain, wind, ty-
ptui.{!d
phoon. a!&!r j. mountain,
water. eanhquake, man u snow,
wc..r etc.
Data from the last three sources arc nonverbal (con-
crete) data.
2. Secondary• data. Secondary data am those gathered from
secondary sources. The secondary sources are as follows:
a. Books including dictionaries. encyclopedias, almanacs,
etc.
b ldh*r
b. Articles published in h4MG,
porcsbod journals, magazines.
0 professional twr4
^dtr!6
newspapers, and other publications.
c. Unpublished master's theses and dissertations, and other
studies.
d. Monographs. manuscripts, etc.
c. All other second-hand sources.
Secondary dam am verbal (written) dam.

Advantages of primary data over secondary data: There arc

ccnain advantages of primary data over secondary data among which
arc: (Bacani, et al., p. 21)
1. The primary data frequently give detailed definitions of terms
and statistical units used in the survey.
I rrs 4dlbturudrlr c{D{rr 3orirtrs
2. The secondary data have usually little or no explanatory thaws
and may contain clerical and typographical mistakes which
often arise from transcription of the figures from the original or
primary source.
3. The primary data usually includes a copy of the schedule and
a description of the pmcedurc used in the selection of the type
of sample and in collecting dm data. This gives the user
an idea of accuracy, applicability. and limitation of the survey
results.
4. 'The primary data arc usually broke» down into finer classifica-
tions. The sceondarydata often omit part of combining catego-
 99

ries, such as showing barrios insteadof skios, or municipalities instead

of barrios.
MMt4 qr.otut e
Advantages of secondary data. There arc also advantages of
secondary data, among which are:
1. Secondary data are more convenient to use becaUse they are
already condensed and organized.
2. Analysis and interpretation are done more easily.
3. Libraries make secondary data more easily accessible.
Categories of data gathered from respondents. Respondents am
fuldudll}!F$tiqqs5dby!Efub$Pl,
those individuals who am asked or requested by a researcher to supply
data or information about his research problem. The categories of data
supplied by respondents are the following:
l.,qkft$itrI@hdoN.dedd@'dts@Fons
1. Pacts. These arc recollections, observations, and perceptions
of respondents about themselves and of other people. Exam.
pies arc:
!Rsddfuslq5$d{@ghiph'ragh
a. Personal circumstances such as age, sex, height, weight,
color of skin and eyes, color and nature of hair, facts about
health, datc of birth, place of birth, civil status, number of
children, present address, kind of residence and residence
environment, telephone number. nationality, race, ethnic
group. native language and other language spoken, educa-
tion and school, intelligence, character and other psycho-
logical characteristics, etc.
b. What they do such as habits and hobbies. profession or oc-
cupation, life style, plans and aspirations, social or er.O-
i@tgfu'e!nk6h.teLtnN!'rt$bodq
nomic status, membership in religious, professional or
civic organizations, activities, practices, and other events
in their lives.
2. Attitudes and feelings. These are the respondent's ideas and
thoughts about the research topic, and his personal feelings
about the worth of the hem being investigated. This may
include the extent of the respondent's attitudes and feelings
toward the issues or state of affairs raised in the research
problem. For instance, if a respondent is asked to give his
attitude or reaction toward pornography, he may say, strongly
agree to, favors it. or he merely agrees to. favors, or likes it;
100

or he may say that he is not sure of his opinion, that is, he is

uncertain; or he merely disagrees to. or disfavors, dislikes, or
hates it; or strongly disagrees to, disfavors, dislikes, or hates it.
3. Judgments. These data include the r espondent's ideas or
oliioe'qfolifu&ulhl,ha3l4ifulsfr'
opinion about, or his actual behavior, in a given situation. This
is what the respondents think a thing or situation should be or
what is. In this, there seems to be a standard, an ideal standard
that is. with which things, ideas, and situations are compared;
how far or how near they are from the standard. For instance.
if a respondent is asked how serious a problem is. he may
answer very serious, serious, slightly serious, not serious, or
ro'r d a! problem
not at all ladLa bto hnjqLL!'otr
rd*D according his judgment One 04sy
oD may say
a flower is ugly by comparing it with what he knows to he a
beautiful flower. We often hear of students being granted
honors because their performance has been found to be supe-
rior to the performance of average moderns. Wealsooftenhear
djdrn d!rcd
of judgments s4!4did' bdd
1ir courts and juries, board of
6 rendered by trial
I
judges sL4
j!r4! in public
FNr spanking
s oder,
contests, $!
!i eOtiteSLS,
singing rrory
dd$s. beauty
( 4$!idrr*chrc ci4 b$rjlrsGd\ rfa were
contests, and the like. In rendering these judgments there {er
standards used.
P',@1p,4!&njscdai€'.otcndF]li!dih
4. Psychomotor skills. These data refer to the manipulative skills
of the individual and his activities that involve his five senses:
sight. hearing, taste, smell, and touch. How skillful does one
operate a microscope? How well does he respond to sound?
to touch? In hem them is also an element of judgment because
the performance of an individual is usually judged in compari-
son of or with the performance of an average individual.
5. Results of tests and experiments. The results of tests and ex-
tstuwre{ryhFdndd{sFhrthtsFbhed
periments are very important data especially in psychology and
in the physical, chemical, and biological sciences. Much oldie
!i8tsd)![dndEb6crs][dt$idai
progn:ss of mankind is due to the results of tests and experi-
ments performed in connection with research. The psycholog).
cal principles that we arc applying today have been the results
of extensive testing. The potent drugs for the cure of different
dnefuhNeetrfuqdtrbfobFqlls4!!!u*
ailments have been the results of biological research testing.
The electricity, the engine, the airplane, the car, the telephone,
the sewing machine, and countless other inventions that are
giving convenience and comfort to all mankind have been the
gdtrdpfuld4$Fnnstifu!i!iddrG'
results of painstaking experiments in the physical science.
r

101

tu
dtudata gathered
6. All other
6. d er.a4
3e4a fromJra\the pd@and secondary
heprimary
^r\az8dtu *tu&d!$6rrtuqdd4
sources of data. See the sections for primary and secondary
data.

Selecting the Method of Collecting Data

There are several ways of collecting data among which arc the
following:
A. Clerical tools
1. The questionnaire method
2. The interview method
3. The empirical observation method
4. Thc registration methOd
5. Thc testing method
6. The experimental method
7. The library method
B. Mechanical devices: microscopes. thermometers. cameras. etc.
The choice of the method depends upon some factors such as the
nature °Mc problem, the popul ation or universe understudy, the cost of
the survey, and the time factor.

The Research Instruments or Tools

Instruments or tools for gathering data in research are of two

categories or kinds: (Treece and Treece, p. 49)
t. Mechanical devices. Mechanical devices include almost all
tools (such as microscopes. telescopes, thermometers, rulers.
and monitors) used in the physical sciences. In the social
sciences and nursing, mechanical devices include such equip-
ment as tape recorders, cameras, film and video tape.
In addition, included also are the laboratory tools and
equipment used in experimental research in the chemical and
6ob&ol!l!js,$!d]!hidlqsd{iojfur,
biological sciences, as well as in industry and agriculture.
2. Clerical tools. Clerical tools are used when the researcher
studies people and gathers dam on the feelings, emotions,
ldMqdtdpdrld
attitudes, and judgments of the!$bjo6 b!qDd6d
subjects. Some examples of
clerical tools arc' filed records, histories, case studies, ques-
tionnaires, and interview schedules.
102

Characteristics of a good research instrument. Among the

characteristics of a good research instrument are the following:
I. The Instrument must be valid and reliable. An instrument is
valid if it collects data which are intended fork to collect and
hqo.4}fofo$lbskddqL"ci6mnl4b
long enough to be able to collect adequate information to
cmpldefuladr{sNj!4o!ncflolJiI
complete the study or investigation. It is reliable if it is
administered to the same subject twice without any practice it
also gives the same result or measure.
Mt be
2. ItL must tud upon
k based 4or tu c@qtut ttwot
the conceptual q,tut
framework or what the
researcher wants to find out. A conceptual framework is the ^t
researcher's idea or expectation of what a situation should be
but he is not proving his idea or expectation to be true. He is
only finding out if it is true or not.
3. Jr nuts: gather data suitable for and relevant to the research
4d Data
topic. tu foreign
iodei oroi.!turcs
extraneous to
b the lMy or
rb study qbFc lld
topic should
i0'b&hdbys!fuMdroii\ar,6c4&i
not be gathered by the instrument For instance, if the topic is
about the teaching of scierme, the instrumentshould gatherdata
only about the teaching of science and not for the teaching of
English.
4. Urntar gather dam tharwould rest the hypotheses or answer she
questions under investigation. Testing a hypothesis is merely
finding out whether it is true or not based upon the data
gathered. If the Information gathered reveals that the hypothe-
r,*hi
sis istrue. then accepted, otherwise it is rjcd
6o iti isrrcedd,ldedcir hndrs
rejected. In studies
rhcrcDw@@Arsdi]Ffushld,ltsd'.
whcrc there are no expressed hypotheses, but only specific
questions am used, the data that should be gathered arc those
that would answer the questions. For example. if the question
asked is "How qualified am the teachers handling science
ebj,cd, only
subjects?", srytu&rd dd with
the data that deal *ur the &s$ earned
dc degrees c@d by by
futtrhetsdJl6c8d$cidLadoD'de'.ts6|ijq.
the teachers• their fields of specialization, their eligibilities,
seminars and special trainings attendtxl, and the level of their
nderyd!*$bsrE
mastery r should
of the subject matter boddroudd rkdddata
he collected. These
will answer the question whether the teachers are qualified or
not to teach science.
5. h!b!a*h4/Q?dtt.
5. It should be free from all kinds of bias. It should not suggest
414 n\tuNw*r
what should be the replies. Here is an example of a biased
@@o.AeFusi€H@oLhllbr-U@
question. "Am you using llapee toothpaste? If not,
*dfud@uPatNFusiq!.65*tM
what brand of toothpaste are you using?' This is biased
 103

because the mere mention of the word "Hapee" is already a

suggestion. To remove the bias the question should be "What
brand of toothpaste ate you using?"
hMtaturqtqw'Mqtutuq'@d
6. It must contain only questions or items that are unequivocal.
An equivocal question admits two or more interpretations
while an unequivocal question admits only one interpretation.
Hd|,ddd.ofsqlLdqdfu,].aer!
Here is an example of an equivocal question: "Are you
employed or not?" This is also called a double banded
question: Actually, these are two questions rolled into one.
The first question is "Arc you employed?" 'the second ques-
tion is "Arc you not employed?" The original question is
'hi;'AE]Dl{'s!bFl1'fuod3dq!db!*
uwdsrry"e.
answerable o"D"b
by "yes" or ft r.. q$"tuddb
"no" but the "yes" or "no" should be
qualified. The answer should be either "Yes, I am 'employed"
or "No. I am not employed." "Arc you employed?" is an
example of an unequivocal question because the answer ex.
peeled is definite. either "yes" or "no". "When were you
born?" is another example of an equivocal question. The
respondent may give only the month and the day of the month,
or he may give only the year, or he may give the whole and
exactdata. Tomakedtquestionunequivocal, ask for thecxact
datum needed. If only the year of binh is needed, then ask "In
what year were you born?" If the complete data of birth is
needed, then state "Give the complete data of your binh."
7. It must contain clear and definite directions to accomplish it.
Poor direction: "Please accomplish the questionnaire?' The
respondent does not exactly know what in do Ma:therm write
in4i6hwods.
his replies in words. inIDu l|o
numbers. or in ososrnbL
other symbols. Better.
Bctur
This is a multiple response questionnaire. Please read each
question carefully and then put a chetic mark before the item or
item following Width you think will best answer the quest
tion."
R. If the frectrwnent it a mechanical device, it must be of the best
or latest model. If it is a microscope or a camera, or a tape
recorder, it must be of the latest model so that it will gather
accurate and reliable data.
9. k muse be accompanied by a good cover letter. A good cover
letter in the form of a request should be made as cordially and
FljlLysstLbhlkscmsmdnoE!@1eb
politely as possible to make the insuumcnt more acceptable to
the respondents.
104

4t 44ed,
1n ItL must be
10. f possible, by qa bq
e accompanied, titpond.,b d4@
letter of recommen-
@rr'4@1hrdtu@tur
dation from a sponsor. A lencr of recommendation from a
!!(Mi4lbl6$.htru.elE&FA!N,
sPonS 0c, one who has some influence over the respondents.
may be secured and made to accompany the instrument to
ldfulblddododuEit1{4bhn
facilitate its administration or to insure its accomplishment
and return.

QUESTIONS fuR STUDY

OESTONS FOR SD DISCUSSION
STU'Y AND DBCSSON

I. How are data classified according to source? What arc the at Ivan-
taps and disadvantages of each class?
2. l6do[{d4deoegJMl@gFMoclBDl,i
What categories of data am gathered from respondents? Explain
cacti.
3. What am the characteristics of a good research instrument? Ex-
plain cach characteristic.
 105

88 THE
THE QUESTIONNAIRE
oUESTIoNNAIRE

Definition

A questionnaire has been defined by Good as a list of planned,

MeI$nbNnrd61ptr
^ssnwliEbbdfudbyfuallind'l,d,
sbdr
written questions Mated to a particular topic, with space provided for
indicating the response to each question, intended for submission to a
lueldI!,lDfua|!yonndyMh[huic$ryq
number of persons for reply; commonly used in normative survey
studies and in the measurement of attitudes and opinions. (Good.
p. 435)
In other worts, a questionnaire is simply a set of questions which,
whcn answered properly by a required number of properly selected
er06,ls@]yhie$ryhofrniqbdltblrc
respondents, will supply the necessary information to complete a re-
search study. The questionnaire is commonly used in behavioral
research or social research.

Advantages of the Questionnaire

Among the advantages of the questionnaire are:

t&qu'to@k!?4@@pdr
1. Thequestionnaire tuedEiEhrr
is easy to construe:. The rules and principles
of construction are easy to follow.
otu'&rr {4
'dr&p.Er M4ydee@48
2. Distribution is easy and Inexpensive. Manyof the respondents
@bE4Ldbr@t6d6cqsitqriiEciturtrai1q
can be reached by copies of the questionnaire eitherby mail or
by personal distribution. Besides, a small staff can be em-
pror!hdciiie'iliw{ r*l:5rspFjldrar4q
ployed in the distribution even if the research project is a big
one.
3. Responses are easy to tabulate. Generally, responses to a
qlejreob]bifiddjdifudd*0!!
questionnaire arc objectified and standardized and these make
tabulation easy.
turryodd
4. The resporickne J4164tq4
s replies arefree. tuqFtumrEdi6 rr
The respondent's replies are
of his own free will because there is no interviewer to in-
fluence him. This is one way to avoid bias, particularly tire
interviewer's bias.
106

.d@.t$dtubwe
5. Confidential tu@freely. Confidential
infomiadart may be given @dntd
Information which the respondent may not reveal to an inter-
*wD{EsfuMytrfuBpddaeidc
viewer may be given freely if the respondent can be made
anonymous. Much as theylike to reveal confidential informa-
tion, respondents are hesitant to tell the truth if they are not
made anonymous because they also want to save themselves
from embarrassment, indiconent, or trouble which may result
from their revelation of confidential data.
6. The respondent canfill out the questionnaire at will. Because
nobody is pressing him to answer the questionnaire immedi-
ately, the respondent can accomplish the questionnaire any-
where at any time at his Own convenience.
7. The respondent can give mare accurate replies. The respon-
dbdD.6!ghbddfu!€l'dh!Eriisdlg
denthasfimecmoughto thinkreflectively of his replies making
them more accurate than the result. of interviews where the
respondent is usually pressed for an immediate reply. He also
has time to consult his records if necessary.

,{,&44o'496lJ,fu14edid@dr
Disadvantages of a questionnaire. Among the disadvantages of a
questionnaire are the following:
1. The questionnaire cannot be used with those who cannot
Edry'nnw[e*d!l}e.}b{dydE
mad nor write well especially those who are totally illite-
rate.
2tr!ryEF)@yiddln&fuu'4igdfu
2. If many respondents may not return the filled up copies of the
questionnaire purposely or forgetfully, considerable follow-
ups arc necessary. This is mm if the returns ale not represen-
tative of the group.
r. r1ryld'dl6,mEd@,4n.lmb@-
3. If a respondent gives a wrong information, it Cannot be car-
Timed at once
4. A respondent may leave some or many questions un-
answered hpranse nobody urges him to do so or he may not
understand the significance of the information he gives.
J'fuFeGDqs!sds&€@eloa'd
5. Some questions may be vague and so the respondent may not
lIuMdrfoiG'EDlygiwh4qc
answer them or if he does, he may give wrong replies.
6ftMbdfuGq&$nddet&e@fu
6. The numtcr of choices may be so limited that the respondent
maybe forced to select responses that are not his actualchoim.
This is especially true with the yes or no questions.
 107

4.4sM
cNn@6 of a questionnaire. There am some SUN in the
ConstrunIon
rFdd qclotr'ritr, some
d a! questionnaire,
preparation of rere h
of which are Ow:rdDr4:
e4. ot following:
L&{!eryj@dhlEsbqE*'4je
I. Doing library search. Do some library research among studies
@bstrfuhrylrcNi(,lsfuL5
similar to yours. There may be some questionnaires similar to
what you want to use. lloy may serve as guides in cow:miming
yours.
TbF,pL9bfu
2. Talking to knowledgeable people. Talk to people who have
some knowledge about the construction of questionnaires.
You may he able to gm some kkaS front them
3. MasteringMe guidelines. There are guidelines in the construe.
tionolaquestIonnahe You 'CainMese from books and similar
studies in your library search and from your Interviews with
knowledgeable people, Master the guidelines.
wd14#s'ik
4. Writing $icftqlMd*t
the questionnaire. Write the questionnaire following
the guidelines as closely as possible.
5. Editing the questionnaire. Alter the questionnaire has been
finished, show It for correction and suggestions for impost-
odbF'}*h{b\'bIlJs|d4'ri@rcds
mem to people who arc known 10 pusses adequate knowledge
in the cortorusiion of questionnaims,especiall y to your adviser
If you have one.
6. Rewriting the questionnaire. Rewrite the questionnaire ac-
cording to die correction and suggestions.
7. Pretesting the questionnaire. This is called a dry run. This Is
'dd'{4dfu?ft!;@td!@fu!
the process of meastring the effectiveness. validity, and relia-
bility of the questionnaire, and determining the clarity of the
items, the difficulty of answeting the questions, the proper
length of time in answering. ease in misdating responses. and
other problents.
Theptocessisloadminister thequestionnairetom least ten
persons who have the same characteristics as the study sample
bllb{,i.lpdrlchfu'Bd'fu6b{'tr6
but who will not participate In the study. For Instance, if the
respondents in Me study are high school science teachers, the
FErytudjo&riddtud.
macs( reSponekna should also be high school science teach-
saforelniljdsd6!!!4!w6Dd
ers After the administration of the pretest. respondents must
be interviewed, aside from examining their mooniest° deter-
mine, among others. the following:
r 108
I
a^Etd"'&!ll1!GF6d/nfu&
a Are thedirections. staternents.questiortsandioritansdear
and unecynvocal?
bbhFfu{B!.|fufu@4d^aft4ll6
b. Do the questions gather the intended data? Are the replies
given those called for?
.'fudfui$lc!*Du,rdhNtd4@o€.
c. What difficulties arc encountered in answering the ques-
tions?
et. Are the respondents given adequate number of options or
d6fu*hd'{lxeM'.Pd
choices from which they choose their responses?
c. Is the questionnaire lea long that It creates boredom or is
Ils.kn6xuchbfrdot$6crcdBnd!4!u?
It too short that the Information gathered Is not adequate?
f. Ns/hat items shouldbe eliminated or Improved? What other
items should be included?

be@hsnryt&bfuFlBi.
Some of the questions that may he asked to the quest re-
spondents it the following:
a. Were the directions very clear to you? Were you able to do
exactly what the directions told you to do?
b. Did you undemUnd completely the questions or items?
hk'D@{l;#dld
Were that no vague questions or Items?
C. What difficultiesdid you meet in answering thequestions?
d. If the respondents failed to answer some questions: Why
did you not answer the questions?
qA.*g!gNllEts!{dpfq't!sffnd!
e. Are the spaces where you Vote your replies sufficient?
f. Are the somber of options from which you selected your
response enough? Were you not forted w select an option
which is not actually your choice because your actual
choice was not among the options given?
g. Is the questionnaire too long that It creates boredom?
h. What suggestions can you give in improve the questIOn•
mire?
, @i\tut etdblD
wrt$tto
8. Writing the questionnaire k in its final Jam. Alter making the
FFratu,tdttuiB dddlbtu:diqbe
^tudt4d
pmper corrections. adjustments, and revisions according to the
results of the dry run or pretesting. the questionnaire should be
now written in its final form.

,84@tu6&db44@@tu tuwd
Myer of question; asked in survey questionnaires. The Don Of
Fb&bsdltl&.'lryFFBt
questions asked in questomaires for survey purposes are:
 109
A. According tojorm:
r The
I. r&r!e4wrr). fth;dsddtu@bo,o@.
free-annver type. This is also called the open form, open-
r@e6l{rr!,!o!ddd.e$rrd!4dd tj@
ended. subjective, unrestricted. essay, and unguided response
type. The respondent answers the question in his own words
and in his own way.
Eei!j.:M}s}4wIeoNtbl,d4Fq'661
Example: Why do you use tooth paste in brushing your teeth?
2. The guided response type. This is also called the closed form
or resnieted type. The respondent is guided in making his
tpiy'ftEeMqMdtrlLridd@&id@
reply. There am two kinds of this type: recall and recognition
types;
a. Recall type. The replies am recalled.
fu'plcfus$pplydEhftdilqlMf0Ae
Example: Please supply the information asked for. Age
Sex _ Date of birth (exact) Place of
bin]i
hi{44/4'P&fuFlblcGFlg&glqd
b. Recognition types. The possible responses am given and
respondent selects his answer. There are duce types•
d'b
tu 1Ns, multiplec choice,
chotomous, d
doa, and n‘uhiplc rcsE
4urde response.
(1) Dichotomous. There am only two options and one is
selected.
Example: Am you married? Yes No
(2) Multiple choice. Only one answer is chosen from
those given as options.
Example: What is your highest educational attain.
menu_
l]ryNadedd!{&IbcyolGily
Please put a check mark before your reply.
Elementary graduate
High school graduate
College graduate
(3)
(3) Multiple 4@? rs
Mdrifuresponse. Two or 4roG e
ruE options mayy be
ormom
chosen.
Example: Why do you usetooth paste in brushing your
teeth? Place check marks before your choices.
It prevents tooth decay
It freshens the breath
It is soothing to the mouth
It is cheap
It is imported
ILO

a According
B.k ot4b&tuttuet,
to the kind of data asked for
a. Descriptive (verbal) data
What kind of house do you live in? Please check
_ Concrete _ Semi-Concrete Wooden
Bamboo _ _ , Others
b. Qaantyled (numerical) data
(1) How old are you?
(2) What is your average monthly income P
C. Intensity of feeling, emotion, or attitude
Do you agree to have only one day election, set for local and
national elective officials?
_ Strongly agree
Agree
— Fairly agree
Disagree
Strongly disagree
d. Degree t#'judgment
tule66llfu(dqdoi4dffi&dria,
I low serious Is the problem (drug addiction, drinking, stealing.
etc.)?
Very serious
Serious
- Fairly scrims
Not serious
Not a problem
fud4et&6frd
How on, at. arc alt facilities?
. Very adequate
Adequate
Fairly adequate
Inadequate
--_fu,al4l&
Very inadequate

e. Understanding
Elllli*fufuioh
Explain what democracy Is.
-v4dd4D
I. Reasoning
s'do'iaF&&dqbddl0,
Why do you prefer democracy to dictatorship?

.@htut^@4wto.. ---+ r
Guidelines in the formulation of questions for a questionnaire. It
MbdLbful4dmjt!r3d!l:dql!:b
had been said before that a questionnaire is a set of planned questions
which, what answered properly, would supply the needed data for a
 111

research problem or topic. Hence, the questions should be fonnulated

lD*llyd@ptdyDLeb&lr
properly and appropriately to be able to secure the necessary informa•
]tudotuGs.rdsid 5h'hqiuLirds$ldr
1ri The following arc useful guidelines in the construction of questions
lion.
for a questionnaire:
I. Make all directionv [gall and unequivocal. As much as
possible make all directions clear, definite, unequivocal and
brief. There should also be a direction for every type of
questions. See to it that the respondent knows exactly What to
do.
Example: Poor direction for a multiple response question:
Answer the farming questions.
Beuer. Choose the items or options that would best answer
the question and write a check mark on the space
before each option. You may have more than one
choice.
2. Use correct granunar. Puncuadon marks especially should
spliedprcFdlb0onsotoErdo
be placed properly to avoid misinterpretation.
Example of poor grammar. Please accomplish the question-
naire as soon as possible mtum
Better: Please accomplish the questionnaire and return it as
soon as passible.
3. Make all questions unequivocal. As much as possible make all
questions brief, clear, and unequivocal. Avoid making double
barreled questions, questions which can be interpreted in two
ways.
Example: Arc you employed or not? This is a double barreled
question because actually them am two questions.
One is: Arc you employed? The other is: Arc you
not employed? This type of question cannot be
uld
answered b, ritur
yes d
by 16 or @ !{ e0
no without qld
qualifying the an-
swer. lIyou answer in the affirmative, it should be:
ra,cndod rFu!\whe4FNq
Ys I am employed. If you answer in the negative
Yes,
the answer should be: No, I am not employed.
Example of a vague question: Am you a graduate?
Bdtriarc}o!hlhefodgdeb!(stsdlybc
Better. Arc you a high school graduate? (Specify the
course).
112

4. Avoid asking biased questions. A biased question Is one in

which there is a veiled suggestion for an answer.
tuPra bF!Fo)brrhdrsl r4 tubd
Example: Do you use Colgate toothpaste? If not what brand
6Fe?bfuqdoeblEld
do you use? In this qutstion there is a veiled
q!:*bd6Fa&llcfu
suggestion to make Colgate as the answer. The
-frtrA)dd6llrydFn
respondent may think that because Colgate is
!qd4itreb'mlF€dne*
mentioned. it Ls the best toothpaste and be has the
tendency to say yes.
Better: Which brand of toothpaste do you use?
owilt* tryq
5. Object* the responses. This is for the standardization of
responses and easier tabulation.
Example: Why do you use Camay soap?
It Ls fragrant.
makes my skin smoother.
It Is cheap.
It is available all the time.
It lams bang.
The replies can be cheekoi only.
6. Reiter all questions to the topic under study. All questions
'&d@fub&4.ked,',1|wfu
should gather data relevant to the study. If the study is about
the teaching of science, an questions should gather data that
have something to do with the teaching of science. If the study
is about the teaching of mathematics, all questions should
8defuh*fusi4b&fui*dj4d
gather data that have something to do with the teaching of
mathematics.
7. cN@bq.bdtqwtuw4M
Create categories or classes for approximate mincers. Thac
aqslsrtrhfrd&llrrq4awd{e
are questions which cannot be given ex as answers and so there
is a necessity of creating categories or classes to accommodate
the appmximate replies. Such sud]dlg{@upl4li4E
classes or groupings may be
qualitative or quantitative. Examples:

Qualitative 0441:fitatirc
flow efficient is your flow many sticks of cigarettes
teacher? do you consume a day?
Very efficient 0—4
Efficient 5 -9
Fairly efficient 10 - 14
 I
113
- Inefficient 15 - 19
- Very inefficient 20 - 24

C4q'e9M4lhb,tdv@F.sane\l'{
8. Group the questions in logical sequence. Some ways of
grouping am:
a Questions may be grouped according to the specific ques-
tions under the statement of the problem. All questions
that gather data to answer one specific question under
the statement of the problem should be grouped to-
gether.
Example: Specific question: How qualified are the teachers
handling science? All questions dealing with de-
g@!sndnqoro$od,.dold]!6ri
grees canted, majors or specializations, cligibili-
ties. seminars attended. special IT:linings attended.
t@[(qFn'ci!i{i!&jdLl*@Fd
teaching experiences,and aptitudeshould be grouped
together.
b. Questions that deal with items that arc logically and
usually placed together under a big category should be
grouped together.
Fxample: Questions about age, sex, civil status, date of birth.
place of birth, ethnic origin, native language, etc.
should he grouped under personal data.
c. In each grouping. easier questions should he asked first.
d. Questions should he given in successive steps if the topic
of study is a process such as baking a cake, constructing a
house, pmserving fonds, etc.
9. Create seicient number of response categories. This is to
make rosbiblc the inclusion of the correct choice of the respon-
dent. If the correct choice of the respondent is not included
among the response categories and he is required to make a
response, his reply would be wrong.
Bote of
Example riid number
d limited n nb of a5tseP clasd$i
d response hr!you
categories: Do
agree that the presidential form of government is
better than the parliamentary form?
Agree
Disagree
114

If the respondent dots not 'mow which is better, either he

dots not answer the question or if he is forced to make
a response, either reply will be wrong.
!mould be beuertomakeroom fora numberofresponses:
Strongly agree
Agree
Uncertain Or No comment
Disagree
Strongly disagree
ID. Word carefully or avoid questions that deal with confidential
or embarrassing information.
Example: Suppose a woman becomes unfaithful to her hus-
band and you want to find the reasons why she
became unfaithful to her husband. This is in con-
nection with your study of family relations.
Poor question: Why did you become unfaithful to your
husband? (This is already telling her that she is
unfaithful and this will surely cmbarrass her).
k]shlbrloooldde4i@A\*}
Better: What, in your own opinion, are the reasons‘why
wives sometimes fall in love with men other than
o!roM&$s lslF
their own husbands? r (Supply alli1sd6b reu
possible reasons
and she will choose those which she experienced).
11. Explain and illustrate difficult questions. Difficult questions
$d'A6$lhlloyq$ncwl@ij!tfucdhs
such as those employing some unfamiliar technical terms
should be made clearer by added explanationS and/or illustra-
tions.
12. State ail questions af firmatively. If negative statements are
unavoidableiunderlinethenegative wordto avoid misinterpre-
tation.
6iods]P@I^EN!e1fud!4!
Examples:Poor: Are you not swaying?
Better: Arc you studying?
Mdt as
13. Make 6 many 44ha as
h@! questions * r supply
4\ would sPty adequate ptw
eqwn informa-
n@/o
tion r. r&ir ne $dy n odJ s eq*L! as$ the
for the study. The study is only as complete su
completeness of the data used. If some important data are
*fuE.deloddrscilaa*rqnddldodo
missing, the worth of the inquiry is very much reduced patticu-
lady its accuracy and validity.
 115

\4MatiLrdlwdvpr.&bqliMo|ndlpkE\Wt
14. Add a catch-all word or phrase to options ofmultiple response
questions. This isnecessaryfor any additional informationthat
the respondent may want lo give.
Example; Why did you stop your studies?
I am too poor. I cannot afford.
I married early.
T 1051 interest.
v}lulily|$doi.l!@@fufr(*ial
_ My family moved to a place too far from school.
Others, please specify.
The word "Others" is the catch-all word.
15. Place all spacesforrepfiesattheietside. As muelt aspossible,
place all spaces for replies at the left side of the questionnaire
for easy tabulation. lb: spaces should he in a straight vertical
column.
16. Make the respondents anonymous 'This is to make them give
information more freely andmomaccurately Respondents arc
reluctant and even refuse in give information about confiden-
tial and/or embarrassing matters if they arc not made anony-
mous.

Some Problems with Responses

The following are some problems with responses to a questi Donal re

which a researcher has to consider czircfully: (Treece and TreeceJr.pp.
183.188)
1. Information fmm a questionnaire is either an opinion. mishiter-
prenatal, a guess. a bias, or an error. (I lere is an example: In
a study about the adequacy of library facilities, fifty students
rated their own shoot library as follows: 25 said that the
facilities of their library were very adequate, 15 said adequate.
I.CII gave a rating of fairly alle<111:14C, 12 gave a rating or
inadequate. and eight vizi). inadequate; If there was One correct
rating. the others were molt opinions. guesses. biases. or
emits. 1l only nmedy hem is to MI on the weighted
average.)
2. If there.spontlent is given several choices from whichhc selects
only -one answer, he may guess and accidentally choose the
right answer. 110W12VCI. if he happens to choose the wrong one.
116

MfudyfuidryftniLfultdllplc!
then the study becomes faulty. This is true in the example as
cited in No. 1.
er*i@oP]ddq.@}4qrcsq!ichit
3. Responses to open-ended or freeway questions arc hard to
fudftnfurgaiqn4o'!!\uL){ld}.fu
tabulate and when the TCScarcherCategoriwn subjectively, that
is, according to his own evaluation. he may introduce a bias.
4. If a respondent is forced to choose between or among responses
none of which he feelsiscomet, his answer would be incorrect.
To remedy this, add to the options a catch-all word such as
"Others".
5. Sometimes, Tr-monde= fail to include some items in their
answers. For instance, the question is "How many members
an there in your family?" They may fail to include the infants
or themselves.
6. Biased questionnaires influence responses. In a study, ques-
tionnaires were constructed to elicit harsh, lenient, or actual
4d@rce :4@errlsonmilins
opinions mgarding people who commit crimes. Each Eeh 6mform of
thequcstionnairewas administered followed by a standardized
attitude scale. Respondents displayed more lenient attitudes
after they were exposed to the lenient questionnaire. 'fite
people who received the harsh and neutral questionnaires
showed no change. Hence, the way a questionnaire is biased
can influence responses. (Dilichay and Jernigan)
fucrc$idA&t,Mdhlsddn*efualN
7. Some mspondents give answers that would make them appear
gdbfuEdbr,Mtrfu}hddIqdiN.
good to the researcher. If asked if they had mad a certain book.
they answer "yes" to make them appear as wide readers.
8. In a free-way question, the space allotted for the answer
influences the respondent's reply. If the space is small, the
respondent thinks that the correct reply is short but if the space
is large the correct reply is long.
9. The choice of words affect responses. In a study by Payne, this
was what happened. Two questions were asked:
r'hFldideuddfuB$oJJdb4M*ds
a. Doyouthink theUnitrA States shouldallowpublicspeeches
against democracy?
b. DoyouthinktheUnitedStatesshouldforbidpublicspeechrs
against democracy?
ftopFhde*bdd.hlfuwsru
The opposite of allow is forbid, but this was what
 117

tuaudo Response
k@
find Question Second Question Response

Should allow 21% Should not forbid 39%

Should not allow 62% Should forbid 46%
Nco*b
No opinion lt!
17% NooFim _!l!
No Opinion 15%
Total 100% 100%

6dy6tsmd4wry6bdl!hfud
Evidently there Is something very forbidding in the word
.bdd'h@pl.mhlncdyDEyhlrndr4
"forbid" that people arc mom ready to say that something
should not be allowed to he done than to say that it should be
forbidden. Payne also reports that them was a 19% difference
henrllE!Ffudd'ddbbc!
in the responses given when might. could. and should were

!h4.rqLDrsdtr,(M(rkqqid)tr*
10. If the question is not explicit, (Nat is, it is equivocal) respon-
denismay misunderstand the meaningof the iernsused. Inone
survey, more than a third of the public admitted that they had
no panicularconeept of profits in mind when asked"When you
sddFfu,wFluid4'd'oebM'd
weak of profits, am you thinking of profit on the amount of
sales, on the amount of money invested in the business, on year-
dl@'q'b1'fuetr6ote,di!fu
end inventory. or what?" The tenth was more revealing when
jjK!@ddtutoDdrdrsdi't! ek
almost as many said they thought of a year-end inventory base
(14%),h Imea
(r1*) as & h!ffi w
a the number whoh thought
dmd, oforthe investment base
(18%).
11. Sometimes, in providing a middle answer, definiteness is
edld ber
M broader replies
sacrificed but E 3lfu i@*M
Edrs are gained. Respondents arc
lrvsr4hddd44{rla
given the option of dodging an issue.
6!t'fup@!eubEdddL*'
Example: Do you approve the lifting of martial law?
Approve
No opinion
Disapprove
It is safer to say "No opinion, but that is dodging Inc issue.
b.el@ddjfuyr@utff|jb!ry.[
12. Sometimes a question may force an uncomplimentary or
undeki table choice on the pan of the respondent.
Example: Do you think the salaries of teachers like you arc
Ddbbdnd@rj61 bbd.
much too low or much too high? Due to sclf-
esteem, a teacher would not admit that his salary is
n*hebrfotddfldrfuh.dryt
much too low but would not admit that his salary is
much too high because he also wants an Increase.
118

Better. Do you think salaries of teachers like yourselves

arc: (Check appropriate point) much too
low, somewhatlow _ about right.
somewhat high much too high.
13. Sometimes, the order in a list of items influences respondents.
Generally. respondents choose the items listed first than items
listed somewhere else. This is true in multiple responses.
14. Sometimes, a respondent does not give the we answer if he is
asked a direct question especially if the response is embarrass-
ing, or it would hurt someone. or it may invite trouble. To
remedy this. make the respondent anonymous or promise that
any informalion about the respondent will be kept confidentiaL

.idFadMik
Evidence of Misleading
hs Questions (ftle !d
rrfrG Jr, p.
aNnbm (fleece and Treece rs)
F 189) L
1. All-or-none responses. If all or most of the answers are in the
same direction, such as all "yes" or WI"no". there is something
wrong with the question. An example is "Are you in favor of
good health?" Naturally the answer is"yes".
2. Considerableehfferenceinresponses when theOrder it changed.
This may he a change in the word orde r of an item or a change
in the order of the questions.
3. High proportion of omission or "no response." If so many
questions are left unanswered, either the question is over-
looked, or it is unclear, or it is offensive, or them is no place
whore to write the answer.
4
4. High Pryd -tur r know-
.t "don't
kr proportion of q tudr' rry
bntrecall." These
1@- or 'don't
responses indicate Madre items arc improperly stated or inap-
propriate. This is why pretesting is necessary to discover these
defects.
5,'q|'.44',oI14i4"44\*rrIj|nsjMiqldful
5. Highproportion of 'other" answers. This isan indicationthat
the choices or options for selection are either Inadequate or in-
appropriate. Enough options should be provided and their ap-
0@i!kc5lNde{MidcdlLly
propriateness should be studied carefully.
6. Considerable nwnber of added couunenu. If there arc many
comments on the margins or at the end of the items, this
indicates the enthusiasm of the respondent or weakness of the
 119

items. If the comments are irrelevant, the items AM either

unclear or the altemanves am inappropriate.
6frpkiltyrtF!ldylqbbeead,
Example: Why an: you studying to become a teacher?
The options or choices am:
love to teach children.
I can have a good job.
want to work in an office.
The options are inadequate. The respondent may add
"There are not enough choices" and then adds "This is the kind
of service I want to render to my people" Besides, "I want to
work in an office" is inappropriate because teaching is not
working in an office.

The Cover Letter (Treece and Treece Jr., p. 194)

Every copy of the questionnaire to be sent to a respondent should

be accompanied by a cover leuer which should certain among other
things the following:
a. The purpose of the questionnalm or study;
h. Who is sanctioning, endorsing, or sponsoring the study;
cs'adEb@slh0chEfinfuFedh'trq@s
c. What will be done with the information gathered by the ques-
tionnaire;
d. The mason why the respondent should answer the question-
naire and giving importance to the respondent;
e. The deadline date for the return of the questionnaire;
f. A guaranty of the anonymity of dm respondent and the conft•
d.jd![yof.hhft4@cd'yhin|
dentiality of die information given by him:
g. Anexptessionof gratitude for the respondenesparticipation in
the study: and
h. An offer to inform the respondent Of the results of the study If
he is interested.

The leuershould be written as couneously and cordially as possible

making it very personal and neatly printed or typed bearing the actual
signature of the researcher. The SpOnSOring or endorsing person should
be selected on the basis of his influence upon the respondents.
120
Rae is a sample cover letter.
Dear (name of respondent).
E.eEinlmdMIdlcdE!dyqtrtcH4d
Please be informed that I am conducting a study on the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A. In this connection, I have
constructed a questionnaire to gather infonnation for my study. The
investigation is important to the Division of Province A. In fact, the
Division slFjfu4
Di*hr Superintendent. Dr. b. (name olbb4 s4'@.r4 b
rl4d of Division Superintendent) has
trdb*lp@$lFu
encouraged me to conduct the survey and promised to help me get your
cooperation. (Please see his attached letter of endorsement). Your
FddFlblilb5d}b}*{ols|d4
participation in the study by way of answering the questionnaire is very
vital. Without it, thestudy will not be as complete as it should he. Kindly
fill up the questionnaire and return it to me using the enclosed, stamped
!ftr@
aNh envelope by
return r&,, ord give
by (date) e &dd ctuor
siE the sealed envelope rc $r.dehd
to your principal.
Please feel assured that your anonymity and the information you
b\ s! End with
str give will beetreated
will !16 the d!6, dtoddiq
se strictest confidentiality.
Thank you very much for your very kind response to my request
and if you am interested I will supply you with the results of my study.

Very sincerely yours,

(Signed) Researcher

Evaluating the Questionnaire

Scion: sending the questionnaire to the respondents, it must be

evaluated in terms of certain characteristics. Some of these are:
a. Is the questionnaire attractive?
h. Is it organized in its proper format?
ctfubssoFmdc.sdn'ro'bsDi!4!
c. Is the length reasonable, that is, not boring to fill up?
U. Am the questions brief, clear and unequivocal?
e. Are the responses objective requiring only check marks, single
letters, numbers or words?
f. Am the questions that am unavoidably to be answered in essay
form reduced to the minimum?
g. Am the directions clear and unequivocal?
h^t64|3s'oIt0lisd4utoddiFddfuHsi&?
h. Are thespaces for replies adequate and aligned at theleft side?
i. Am all the questions relevant to the study?
j. Are there enough and adequate categories for approximate
replies?
 121

k. Are all the questions worded carefully and in correct grammar?

I. Are all the questions stated in the affirmative?
n'AteEdrytdqpnFfoP!@ufut6&t
m. Are there adequate and appropriate options or choices for
multiple response questions?
Ik'*ce(itodophlr$fundplee@
a Arc them catch-all words or phrases for multiple response
questions?
okenvqs@'!on
o. Are the respondents anonymous?
p. Has the questionnaire been pretested and found to be valid and
reliable?
q. Is thc questionnaire free from all sorts of bias?
r. Are the data to be gathered by the questionnaire adequate for
the study?
s. Is there a good cover letter to accompany the questionnaire?

SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE
(Minus the Cover Letter)

! uo !]lM tu, this

6. granted that
!, is taken for
(It $s'b0iiE is* for
dr questionnaire d@ tu science
6r the
teaching in the high schools of Province A to h
be Nritsd ft
accomplished bv the
by
science teachers only)
General Direction. Please accomplish this questionnaire very
carefully and honestly and after three days it will be picked up by
somebody for the researcher. Please mst assured that any information
that you supply will be treated with the greatest confidentiality and
anonymity.
I. Educational Qualifications of Teachers
1. Please put a check mark before the degree to which your own
degree or degrees correspond.
BSE BSCE BSA
SEED BSME BS
AB BSEE MS
BSC BSECE MA
BSN BSGE Others, please specify

?.fu*Fuld@debafuidddFw*dJjdotr
2. Please put a check mark before the field of your specialization,
under the proper heading, either or whether it is a major or a
minor.
122

Major Minor Speel.19srion Moir Mina- Specialintion

Agriculture - Ettycal Eduadinn
Biology - Physics
- Chemistry &xis! Work
English - Social Science
Filipino - Values Education
- General Science Work Education
History Zoology
Home Economics Others, please
sPacifY
3. Pleascput a check mark before the kind or kindsofexamination
you have passed.
ftilpdrcBodxi@h0iqftlTefufclcD
Philippine Board Examination for Teachers (PBEI)
Civil Service Examination. Suh-Profenional
Civil Service Examination, Professional
Certified Public Accountant (CPA)
Board Examination for Engineers:
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
(133CE)
rllMrdsciqedMlfudbd
Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engi-
-lehdsdoah(dEngbs'nE
neering (93MP.)
Bachelor of Science In Electronics and
GfiDqtld@htstgn4{usre)
Communications Engineering (BSECE)
Bachelor of Science in Geodetic Engineer-
ing (RSE)
Others, please specify

4. Please put a check mark before the number of years you have
brh44ud ldurc(uluM du)$btcd.
been teaching natural science (any natural science) Subjects.
0—4 15 — 19 30 — 34
5—9 20-24 35 — 39
10 — 14 25 — 29 ____ 40 — 44
5. Kindly put a check mark before the science in-service training
programs that you have attended and write the number of
times you have attended under the level of the program
whether school, district. division, regional, national. or inter-
national.
 123

School District Division Regional National Intl

- Conference
Convention
____ Forum.
LLCM)
Panel
Discussion
- Seminar
- Symposium
- Workshop
- Others, please
specify

6 My &
6. Kindly writed,k $qq tur! jold
bMthe titles
vdrdown dtuof the science books, journals,
owfu'deFdLEdoNddr@Edgd
magazines. and other publications which you are reacting or
subscribing to.

(1)
(2)
(3)
Etc.

Methods of Teaching Used

Please put a check mark before the methods of teaching you are
using and another check mark opposite the methods used under the
+EenabMgbfuvbacfushncM$d
appropriate headings tO show how effective such methods arc and
how often you am using them.
Use the following guides:

On Ef fectiveness On Frequency

VE means very effective VO means very often

means effective 0 means often
FE means fairly effective FO means fairly often
means ineffective S means seldom
VI means very ineffective NA means not using at all
124

Method Effectiveness Frequency

VE E FE I VI VO 0 FO S NA
- Cooperative
developmental
_ Deductive
_ Discovery approach
Experimentation
Field trips
Inductive
_ Inquiry approaches
Inviting resources
persons
_ Laboratory
Lecture _ _
. IsMure-demonstration_
- INock.ss approach
_ Project _
qr€'r@ sd
— Question and4!a
answer _
Recitation-discussion
Telling
- Others, please spwify_. _
III. Facilities
Kindlyput a check mark before the facility that isavailable and also
P['cMtEdomdtUdv'..6@etMqb
put a check mark opposite it under the appropriate heading to
describe the adequacy of the facility.
Use the following guides:
v^ncdr4dq!,.ftehcily6noE6u}hdfu
VA means very adequate. The facility is more than what the
students need and is functioning well.
V means adequate. The facility is just enough for the
needs of the students and is functioning well.
nscliy&o&
FA means fairly adequate. The
FA fref&ii,bdd,em9fu
facility is fairly enough with
a few units missing. Those available are functioning
well.
lhshequEudqdyocuhl&'ll,@b
means inadequate and nearly onc-halfof thestudents do
not have one to use.
VI means very inadequate and more than one-half of the
students do not have one to use.
 125

A. Laboratory equipment VA A FA I VI
^l.l@qnn@t
Barometer
Burner
Chemical supply
- Cylinder —
Dissecting set
- Electricity
Measuring insuument
for distance
Microscope
Pot boiler
- Running water
- Specimen
Test tube
Thermometer
- Weighing scale
Others, please specify
B. Instructional media
Projector
Transparency machine
Film
Slide
Others. please specify

C. Non•seaching aid facilities

- Cooling device
Chair, stool
- Laboratory room
Working table
- Lighting
- Others. please specify

IV
V. Problems Encountered in Teaching Science

Please put a check mark before the problem you are encountering
dlfu(uod!e4h@lklqr&*4o
and another check mare at the right under the proper heading to
describe how serious your problem is, using the following guides:
126

VS means very serious and the problem hampers the effective- l

ness of teaching to a great extent.
S meansserious and the problem hampers much theeffective-
E$dbtiqebfuoas@-bi
ness of teaching but less than w a great extent.
FS means fairlyserious and the problem hampers the effective-
ness of instruction to some extent
NS means not serious and thc problem onlyslightly hampers the
effectiveness of instruction. It can even be ignonxt
NP il4fu'iprcdofus@d@hcoddfo
means not a problem. The supposed problem dots not, in
any way.ltamper the effectiveness of instruction.

Problem Seriousness
•VS. S FS NS NP
- Inadequate supervisory
assistance
- Inadequate laboratory
facilities. Mention
the facility.

Additional list may be

used.
- Inadequate Instructional
media. Mention the
facility.

- Inadequate non-teaching
aids. Mention Mt facility.

Inadequate textbooks
Inadequate reference
manna's
- Lack of interest of students
 127

- AbSCMCS of all&TUS
Lack of comprehension
of students
Lack of Interest of teachers
, krdDa'rydobjd
Lack of mastery of subject
matter by teachers
- Others. Please specify

V. Proposals ro Solve the Problems

Please put a check mark before the proposals suggested to help

s'dh@6b'ltiFLltnedni*'edghu&l
Solve the problems. Then put another check mark at the rightunder
the proper heading to describe how urgent the proposal is.
Proposal Vory ;April Feirly Not Net
Urgent Irrapit Needai

- More supervisory assistance

More teachers should be
sent to settee seminars
Teachers should further
their studies in science
Purchase enough textbooks
Purchase enough references
--Eales4jjt{MB
Put up a good laboratory
MOM
- Purchase enough facilities
Mention the facilities
needed

An additional list may be

made if necessary
- Others. please specify.

(More items may be added a real questionnaire)

128

ac[oNs For STUDY

QUESTIONS FOR DrcnsnoN
s@Y AND DLSCUSSION
^M
I. Define a questionnaire.
2. What are the advantages of a questionnaire? its disadvantages?
3. Describe how a questionnaire should be constructed. Name the
sue.
4. What are the types of questions asked in a questionnaire
a. according to form
beddngb4crddbAuip
b. according to the kind of data asked for?
Give examples for each type.
I. Enumerate the guidelines in the formulation of questions for a
@6Dtfr Explain,
questionnaire. jMt,sdsiEdlneLsfoc4i4de
Bph justify, and give examples foreach guide-
line.
6. How do you know that a question is misleading? Give the
evidences of misleading questions. What arc their effects?
7. $1t@dEddlF]
Why is it necessary to accompany a questionnaire with a good
cover letter? What should be the contents of a good cover letter?
8. How do you evaluate a questionnaire? Why do you think it is wisc
to evaluate a questionnaire before sending it to the respondents?
 129

99 INTER VIEW
INTERVTEW

Definition

The interview is one of the major techniques in gathering data or

information. It is defined as a purposeful face to face relationship
between two persons, one of whom called the interviewer who asks
questions to gather information and the other called the interviewee or
4w!fulqbeD1t5fu6m!io!i*td6i
respondent who supplies the information asked for,

Purposes and Uses of the Interview

The researcher may use the interview in the following circum-

stances:

1. The researcher may approach and interview knowledgeable

people to enable him to gain Insight into his problem, the
variables he is going to use, the formulation of his specific
Fk.dhFd..''b,ddd..b,ek'. g;*U
questions and hypotheses, the statistical methods he is going to
utilize. etc.

2. The researcher may also interview knowledgeable people

e!hpr.on@dsJdq i.0@dlqB 0@;
about the properconstrucdon and validation of a questiOnnaire.
or who can make any contribution In the enrichment of his
study.

3 L.k tu & de
sbjld of the study
3. in cases when the Subject ody isi3 aa person l j9h
tsNr with some
signs of abnormality, the interviewer may wish to gain infor-
fu'Mdca4d'!h}td.d.didEE&G
mation from the overt. oral, physical, and emotional reactions
of the subject towards certain questions to hewed fora possible
remedy of the abnormality.
4. The researcher may also use the interview as the principal tool
&.hq tu i.
b gathering data fur his
in
-dy, * . .Dir*.;r d_
h, study or just to supplement data
collected by other techniques.
130
Advantages of the Interview
1. It yields a more complete and valid information The respon-
dent is usually pressed for an answer to a question which the
interviewercan validate atonce. Hecanprobe into the veracity
of the reply immediately. Hence, there is a higher proportion
of usable 'Mums.
2. The interview can be uscd with all kinds of people, whether
literate or illiterate, rich or poor, laborer or capitalist, etc.
3. The interviewer can always clarify points or questions which
are vague to the interviewee.
4. Only dminterviewee respondent canmake replies to questions
of the interviewer. wilikeinthecaseof a questionnairein which
filling up a questionnaire may be delegated to another person
or the respondent may be aided by another person in making
replies.
.5. The interviewer can observe the nonverbal reactions or beha-
vior of the respondent which may reveal rich pertinent infor-
mation. These are called subliminal cuts which arc "beha-
vioral or auitudes dial are not specifically stated but are
qdyJl$trgj.Ii+hdlehfu'oahfuNd'
covertly displayed. They include inflections in the voice.
manner of spmch, such as how hesitant the speakers are and
bPn!6mhsipfc!'!!!jayq|ujsq$!jootrl
how much enthusiasm they display when they speak; manner
inwhich they sit on a chair activity such as frovms,movements
of the head and hands; statements they make when people are
around; hesitancy in answering ceasin questions; and eager-
Gs tob talk about
ness (eh subjects
$d certain $rt4a while! ignoring did
r@d+ others."
'* Treece 1r, pp. 204-205) The
(Treece and 'r interviewer must be
skillful in reading cues. He may bring such subliminal cues to
the attention of the ivspondcnt to check if his suspected
recognition is correct and to alleviate tension. Interpretations
and predictions based upon nonverbal cues must be accurate.
otherwise they will tend to he biased subjective data.
6. Greater complex questions can be asked with the interviewer
around to explain things greater complex data which arc vital
to the study can be acquired.
7. There is flexibility. The interviewer can effect a modification
of the interview or any question if Mere is a need so that the
desired information can be gathered.
 131

Disadvantages of the Interview

1. Sometime, selected respondents are hard to contact or cannot

be contacted at all because of the distance of their place or duc
to some other masons. For instance. if a selected respondent is
in another country, it can be hard to contata him.
,'l!l@!i!i*viik$!nhtD!.n'jqdb
2. It is expensive if many interviewers have to be employed to
meet a target dam. The cost of training them and their salaries
would entail too much expense.
3. The responses maybe inaccurate if the interviewee has no time
to consult his records especially if the needed data involve
numerals.
4. It is time consuming if only the researcher conducts the
intcrvicws.
5. It is inconvenient for both the interviewer and the interviewee
in terms or time and sometimes in terms of place. The
interviewer has to travel distances.
6. Them is no anonymity and so the interviewee may withhold
some confidential but vital information, especially if the infor-
mation may possibly invite trouble. This is true if the informa-
1 Lion is about the moralityof an individual or the commissionof
graft and corruption.
7. There is a tcndcncy of interviewers to intmducc bias bccausc
they mayinfluence theirintervkweestogiverepliesthatwould
favortheirreseareher-employers. This may happen in political
• surveys where the candidacy of a certain person is involved.
be
to 8. If the interviewer modifies a question, the standardized con-
ed struction of the questions is lessened and, categorization and
Arts tabulation become a problem.
Ater
Type. or Classes of Interviews
wer
vital Treece and Treece Jr, classify interviews as follows: (Treece and
Treece Jr, pp. 199-200)

adon 1. Standardized interview. In this type of interview, the inter-

n the viewer is not allowed to change the specific wordings of the
questions in the interview schedule. He must conduct all
132

iffi5i'dd'fu!@9iffi,dEomldlPt
interviews in precisely the same manner, and he cannot adapt
q!1fufu+dicdd@drufubdg
questions for specific situations or pursue statements in order
to add something to the data. This is the same as the so-called
formal interview.
2. Nonstandardized interview. In this type, the interviewer has
@'l@Mno&dadbtrytvdftEd
complete freedom to develop each interview in the most
appmpriate insister for each situation. He is not held to any
*dftqddfu04e&'ddb'q$tfufu,e
specific question. He may revise, add to, or subtract from, the
interview schedule that whichhethinks isbest forthe situation.
This is the same as the so-called informal interview.
3. Sentistandardired interview. Theincerviewerisnequiredto ask
a number of specific major questions, and beyond these he is
nltc@jdFhld
free to probe as he chooses, There are prepared principal
questions to be asked and once these arc asked and answcitd
the interpreter is free to ask any question as he sees fit for the
situation.
4, Focusedinterview. Tins is also called depth interview. This is
similar to the nonstandardized interview in which no required
qwgtd$dtnr{db,ch@ryNqft!!@
questions should be asked by the interviewer. The researcher
asks a series of questions based on his previous understanding
dids[dfuiLoldoisF.ifulM*d!4b
and insight of the situation. Specific attention is given to
lFificbli€oftBft!ifuiqtfuld@@i6.
specific topics or ideas. The interview is focused on specific
qbdc4beh(s31dhdad!fth6nelb
topics that are to be investigated in depth. The interviewer is
thus able to direct his questioning to discover the kinds of
erFq d qF;lus tuhs h8!od
backgrounds5 and experiences that have influenced $*qbj4r
the subject
ctr6!diqturqrkdiirdiEalurbsqiiru
(In counseling, this is called directive counseling or direc-
tive questioning-to probe into the motives, experiences, and
problems of the counselee)
5. Nondirecdve interview. In this type of interview, the inter-
*{co!.ubj{!hrbddrilr wrbq@
viewee or subject is allowed and even encouniged to express
his feelings without fear of disapproval. The subject can
4rlhldi*so!|*.0!qilil4E5qq*fu'
express his feelings or views on certain topics even without
fi6Ebb@{@dq{@'iM@sWfuse
waiting to be questioned or even without pressure from the
interviewer, The interview= does most of the talking.
Theclinical interview used inpsychotherapy is anondirec-
tive interview. The purpose of the nondirective interview is to
saroopedst.@de tc,Ydqdestu
get a comprehensive plant of themotives,v alum and thoughts
dtu$bjdqllfu ftpdrobLbwone
of the subject or interviewee. The problem betels how to make
 133

the interviewee talk. Mother problem is that the question

asked may influence his point of view.

Manuel and Maki classify imerviewasurnerured, semi:fractured,

and wistucrured. (Manuel and Medd, p.49) Structured interview is the
sc
same as ddidibdvaqcM
s standardized interview as explained above, &&dr!lr!:d
tuLc the semistructured
interview is almost the same as the sanistandardiud interview, and the
unstructured interview is similar to the nonstandard' zed or nondirectivc
interview.
On the other hand, Good and Scatcs classify interview as follows:
(Good and crate, p. 640)
1. According to function (diagnostic interview, treatment inter-
view. and research interview, the last for gathering research
data)
2. According to the number of persons participating (individual
interview and group interview, in the hitter, several persons are
interviewed simultaneously by the same interviewer)
3. According to the length of contact (short contact interview and
long contact interview)
{ acod4
4. According to h
b the roles slDd b c iFtrwr
des assumed by die interviewer and r}r
-d the
interviewee in relation to the socio-psychological process of
Interaction:
a. Nondirecdve interview (uncontrolled, unguided, unstruc-
tured)
b. Focused interview (directive interview)
c. Repeated interview (This is done to trace the development
d!sdodoFyddogjcdlB'sdsbhv
of a social or socio•psychological process, such as follow-
ing the progressive reactions of a voter in making up his
mind as to choice in a presidential election)

The Interview Instrument

Them am two types of interview instruments: the interview sched-

ule and the interview guide.

The interview schedule. The interview schedule is the same as a

questionnaire. The procedures of preparing and validating an interview
schedule are the same as those of preparing and validating a question-
134

nairc. The difference between an irucrview schedule and a questionnaire

i8fudelo@lesfui!dbecAq!ldiieb
is that in the former, the question is read to the respondent for him to
answer and his reply is written by the interviewer. In the laver, the
respondent himself reads and fdlsoutthequestionnaire alone without the
aid of the researcher.
fud.^b3,d.ejfuniggdefudpfudd
The interview guide. The interview guide does not go into details
htod'@i&!drdfuefu
but it only provides ideas and allows the interviewer to freely pursue
kjbltyherum'
relevant topics in depth. The items provide for flexibility in the manner.
order, and language of queSuOiling.
The interview schedule is used when the researcher knows all the
ibNbehdldifujlbiqfudehytsd*'d*dtrc
items to be included in the interview about the hypotheses or specific
questions. The interview guide is used when the researcherhas a limited
knowledge or infon»ation about the topics to be msearched on so that he
needs more probing for an in.depth investigation.
Here is an example of an interview guide for gathering data about
the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Name (optional) Date

Address

Educational q!Jj'qd6 (of

e!€dod qualifications Aq[,
(ol faculty)

Methods and strategies of teaching

Facilities

Supervisory assistance

Problems encountered in teaching

Proposed solutions to problems

Implications to the teaching of science

 135
&4lbehce'("d6htlolq)
Steps In the Interview (Pointers in Interview)

The steps or pointers to be followed in the interviewarc as follows;

1. Planning step. (Preparatory step) Included in this step ate:
a Selection of the universe and the locale of the study.
b eiomrtu@d{sbymrde@dhr;;M
b. Selectionof therespondentsby any valid stmipling method.
c. Selectio
c. e r,* ofqrintervie
$isLbin ofd the type htrr4! rbiii,,
!hc6d standardized.
w whether
nonstandantized,semistandardized.focuscd.nondireetive,
etc. depending upon the nature of the problem or topic of
research.
i'h@is'hldonolwEkitrd.q$hdut
d. Preparation of the inarument whether interview schedule
or interview guide and validating or pretesting the same.
Selectingtheplacefiff interview. For guidance and counseling
asndF^h|func^l{ h i[q{{gfu gh.:
at well as psychiatric interviews, the interviewer can select a
very ideal place for the interview. However, in research in
general. t he interviewer may be required w go in the dwelling
places of the interviewees ono their places of work. The im-
portant ! rd@drci ;i,$aue4ouir
tstuiFrtur
point 'sum* the place of the interview should be as quiet
edoo\lol6Fstk}lbd" qis$,)c|lt!d;q'
and convenient as possible with the least possible distractions.
3. &tabu:thing roman. A cordial and friendly atmosphere must
be established between the interviewer and the inteiviewce.
The interviewer must introduce himself and his purpose as
cordially and politely as possible. If he has an I.D. he should
show it The importance of the interview to berth the inter-
viewer and Interviewee must be impressed upon the latter. The
ft,hr, turlhc
latter may have troL;4cqladr,
r Fft from
some benefit rtuh the interview or study or, if
sm istrDq
them *@6 q(h!a,n,- h"_,;--
none, he must have the assurance that no harm may
ef red'sqdjrdbihbdtuj
bnIt must be explained to him that the informa
befall him. oroodiii
tion he
will supply will be kept as confidential as possible and there
FdeIonp|fusqh]fuIM|ln'!ne4Fnml
will be a completeanonymity for him. Ile must he assured that
nothing will place him in any compromising or embarrassing
situation.
4. Carrying out the interview. Carry out the actual interview in a
polite, friendly, and conversational mermen. Praise and thank
the respondent for any important or vital comment worthy of
cFdr' rsrubq!6rirh<f
mrud. Ifrrespondent is unable to express himself for
mention h, lack
r of i"
hrrdsdiry(6!!rmi!i.rq(,,!k.h!,Eii
knowledge of some technical terms, the interviewer may help
him out but the interviewer must maintain his objectivity.
136

The interviewer must also be very tactful. If the inter-

viewee exhibits some signs of annoyance or hostility, the
interviewer must use all his resourcefulness to quiet down the
nerves of the respondent to make him cooperative again. If he
refuses to answer, do not press him hard to make one. Wait a
little, later he may give in. Explain to him that any information
he may give will be kept strictly confidential.
5. Recording the interview. Record the interview immediately
sr objectively.
but R@d
DbjerrdrRecord rdrwhat
exactly whdhas ui $i
ha been said by
by the &
respondent or any of It nonverbal expressions shown overtly
htdo@t'deefu+EblLdFr&s9[iwdt.H!
but do not write the interpretation yet. Example: Write "Hc
smiled" not "Hc was pleased." So much the better if the
interview is tape recorded or video taped.
6. Closing the interview. Close the interview with an expression
dFjN&d]hdines6rhdo@dsoblIldd
of gratitude and thankfulness for the information obtained and
the time sacrificed by the Interviewee. Make him feel that he
has played an important pan in the completion of your study.

What to Avoid in Interviews

Thcre are things that may spoil an interview and should be avoided.
Among these are:
1. Avoid exerting undue pressure upon a respondent to make him
participate in an interview. A respondent who is pressured
hdd@FdcLlrtrqiidtqFtdbl@D$Ealidb
hard to participate cannot be expected to freely give reliable
information.
2. Avoid disagreeing or arguing with or contradicting the
respondent. This may irritate him and as a result he may not
girc$oc
give riddomd@
some vital told*lq@ rdidd.
ffr fear of being contradicted.
infomtarion for
3 Avoid
3. A@dqty$unduly pressingt{.reea otbtubrry$
the respondent Hcnry
to make a reply. Hemay
give
3Q an hetu
inaccurate sw!!n
answer just b
to c@dt
comply.
4. Avoid' using a language well over and above the ability of the
zw@tr,!e6d(,Eg|s!&$q'6
respondent to understand. If the respondent does not under-
stand very well thelanguage of the interviewer, the former may
give wrong information or he may not respond at all.
5. Avoid talking about irrelevant matters. Talking too much
about irrelevant things will only prolong the interview. It is a
 137

waste of timc on the pan of the interviewer and on the

l)@n€tbnqfuj'FnulbuEEh'el
interviewee who may become impatient because he has some
important matters to attend to.
AwapbjEfufue.ifu64s@'
6. Avoid placing the interviewee in embarrassing situations.
Ei*sisfui6Mldd6oEqFi,1y6
Delicate things should be handled with can: especially if the
topic about is morality, integrity, or sexual habits. Avoid
irritating sore spots.
we\N 4rb@
7. Avoid appearing too high d@e
tu respondent in
above the b.tuLvb\
education.
^,,4
knowledge, and social status. This will make the interviewee
very shy and timid and rapport may not be established. Avoid
being to erudite.
Al@dbhEe.i.3!fuharfuJfu'^lad
B. Avoid interviewing the respondent in an unholy hour. Avoid
this especially when he is too busy attending to an important
mauer, or when he ishungry, or when he needs to take a rest or
take a nap, say at one o'clock in the afternoon.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. Define interview. What arc the tbnctions of the participants in an

interview?
2. What are the advantages of the interview? Disadvantages?
3. What am the types or classes of interview? Explain each.
4. What steps must be taken for an effective interview? Explain each
step.
5. Dacribethe instnunents used in interviews. In your own opinion,
which is better?
6. What arc to be avoided in interviews? Whyhysddfuglig&
should these things be
avoided?
 139

10OBSERVATION
10 OBSERVATTON

Definition

Observation, as a means of gatheringinformation for rescarch,may

be defined as perceiving data through the senses: sight, hearing, taste,
touch, and smell. The sense of sight is the most important and the most
used among the senses. Observation is the most direct way and the most
widely used in studying behavior.

Purposes of Observation
The purposes of observation are the following: (why observation
is necessary)
I.lTod!dee€d4ogeto\,ddd@'ldde
To enable the re-searcher to gather empirical data which are
difficult to obtain by other means. This is especially true in an-
thropological studies in which the life cycle, social and eco-
nomic activities, the motivations and aspirations, and other
practices of a group are to be described in detail.
2. To enabletheresearcheno gathersufficient data tosupplement
oiwdf';bfrlliisiq|b}diqh@!Fqfu'ru'
or verify information gathered by other means. For instance,
in a survey using the questionnaire, a certain library is rich in
its collections according to the respondents. An ocular
irydN may
inspection wit
n4 verify thiss d.in
claim b
to & or unqc
be true d adi
untrue. Addi-
tional information may also be gathered.'a.
3. To enable the researcher to gather information or data needed
to describe the aspect of a variable being studied which cannot
be described accurately without observation In case studies,
iorqa4rqrwtdtidhr!dFFddcc!s,(k.
forexampte, especially in clinical and psychiatric cases, obscr-
vation
wion ofdebhObrdtusjd h a1dd
the behavior of the subject is vital @r h3@ii3
tool in gathering
data for the case.
4. To enabletheresearcherto gatherdirectly primary data orfirst-
Mfuofutr6rNsM,6nn@md.ddpdo!
hand information for his study fora more accurate dcsaiption
and interpretation.
140

5. To enable the researcher to gather data from the laboratory or

deft46DqhqFiqudoknjdlnMh
elsewhere through experimentation. Observation enables him
to collect datatluough experimentation. Data gathered through
experiment arc more or less accurate, valid, and reliable
because the variables involved are underthe rigid control of the
experimenter.

Types of Observation

The types of observation are the following:

1. Participant and nonparticipant observation
a. In participant observation. the observertakes active pan in
the activities of the group being observed. The observer
lives and works with the group fora certain length of time
until he learns all the ins and outs of the aspect or aspects
akd'logfuulAfuFbgiss6ldyvb
he's studying about. Anthropologists do this usually when
they make studies about tribal groups.
However, participation or role playing is not necessarily
oDPld|i*Fs.debfuMbI@y.fud6de
complete; it is possible to take pan in many activities of the
group, so as to be accepted as a member, at the same time
to any on the role of observer and interviewer. The
investigator may disguise himself in such a manner as robe
accepted as a member of the group, although he may not
carry out exactly the same activities as the other ;matters
dftF4'bodqbel@pds!Fdci4
of the gimp, in order to be accepted as a participant
observer. If the members of the group have accepted the
Observer as a participant, their behavior and responses are
least likely to be affected by the presence of the investiga•
tar. (Good and Scales, pp. 649-650)
h. inhen!i.t!dds.Mi,edsdt}F@6}
non-participant observation, the observer is a mere by-
stander observing the gmup he Is studying about. Ile does
not participate in the activities of the group.
2. Structured and unstructured observation
ashcMds'diiouilehrri{lgsc
a Structured observation concentrates on a particular aspect
oil@de}deurydwd'btr1di8'
or aspects of the variable being observed, be It a thing,
behavior, condition, orsituadon. The items to be observed
are usually specified for standard tabulation. This is
usually used in non-participant Or controlled observation.
 141

b. In tutstructured observation, the observer does not hold any

ri1dtuidbeldsd air6q,&redt!4
list of the items to be observed. Anything, be it an object,
behavior, condition, or situation, which is relevant to the
research problem is included in the observation. This is
usually used in participant or uncontrolled observation.
3. Controlled and uncontrolled observation
rclmHohenlmnlsd}ldd4qPiidd
a. Controlled observation is usually utilized in experimental
studies in which the experimental as well as the non-
experimental variables are controlled by the researcher.
The experimental variable is manipulated by the experi-
menter to produce an effect or effects upon the dependent
variable. The non-experimental variables are kept con-
stant or equal in all aspects so that any change in the
&tsdq*dcn,dbukbtdybdeuF&d
dependent variable is auributable only to the independent
variable. Controlled observation is usually done in the
laboratory.
b. Uncontrolled observation is usually utilized in natural
settings. No control whatsoever is placed upon any vari-
able within the observation area. For instance, the farmers
may be observed as they work in their farms, the dwellings
of a tribal group may be observed as they are, etc. Uncon-
trolled observation is similar to unstructured observation
and utilized in panicipam observation.

Advantages of Observation

The advantages of observation are:

I. The investigator is able to gather directly, first-hand informa-
lblrft
tion about the idtdL of his sdy
subject dhis frsr d,ioqrioojj
study. This kind of information is
'br accurate. more valid, and more reliable than any informa-
more
doDldhedMghoJc.Ds!
tion gathered through other means.
2. The researcher can observe his subjects for as long as he needs
the time and as many times as he can for greater accuracy and
validity in description and interpretation.
3. Observation is a superior technique of collecting information
r@&,r.debyirdh n.Esn*
from non-verbal behavior and inartimateobjects. ft eded,
Theohserver
is in a good position to discern the significance of an inanimate
dlodrmld&hyiE
object or a non-verbal behavior.
142

4 ftr6jddtur{dryEh(,M6Ed
4. The subjects of the Inquiry can be observed in their natural
&ld4ddldd@dff.:livhelFdd
settings and this will exclude anificiality in descsiption and
furud@DshorddyfubFnd'ndllr
Interpretation. This isespecially true In participant and uncon-
trolled and unstructured observation.

Disadvantages of Observation

There out also disadvantages of observation among which arc:

1. In observation in natural se itings. there is a lack preempt upon
extraneous variables which may adversely affect the validity of
dia'rEd,le4!W@d'd$qh!mna.ftl
attributing certain causes upon certain effects. In fanning. for
lr!E.1iryb'dfu4Eldb'dbhe
instance. an increase in production may be attributed to the use
of fenidi 7C r. but that am other factors Urvolved such as snits
management. weed cowed. eradication of pests, and the like.
2. There is a smaller size of sample if the universe covers a very
wide area and the researcher cannot afford to observe a sub-
stantial area. This makes description and Interpretation less
accurate and less valid.
rL4l@brdtd6&ilddl6+dt
3. It is difficult to quantify data for standard tabuladoneveeially
h@oheidfu6dltehd
in unstruatued observation and when recording is done in Om
essay form.
4. Sometimes it is hard to gain entry Into the area to be observed.
This Ls hue if the research problem is a sensitive or controver-
sial one such as a study on prostitution. graft and corruption.
'id{EMhul!!JyFFdfuotrFl|ddnpd
nude colonies. and the like.
5. u ofofanonymity
Lack makes the observed subjects *Mqiq
lurotn.6eotu$ieB withdraw or
}affi3&id&lldEdffidjfut
keep secret SOMe vital but sensitive and controversial infomm-
d In6graft
ti011 d commtion,
Fh and Bbe. the
sdr'iliL for6rinstance, e subjects
sljcd may!j
become very secretive.

fulikl.lob@!AhlsdPll,l,c
Characteristic's of Observation for Research Pursues
(:'fuah&46oltt66,'6jtfu
Ch.vactengics that distinguish observation for systematic investi-
g'mlrll@m'Ed
gatiOnpurpOSeS illl@fuodry1dcld-s
may be differentiated from ordinary "looking around-as
follows: (Good and geloas pp 048.649)
r oretul@6Frr. o@roi d jd
1. Observation is specific. The
11! observation Is
tr specific, not just
r@rmudrtr&cdhrdGrr!\cGdtdfu 'Fdiq
looking around fezgeneral Impressions, with carefUllydefhaed
things to look for.
 143

2. Observation is systematic. Observation of behavior for re-

search purposes is systematic. not a chance "dropping in" on a
lliiqddru!limm!hrrttb!6tbyfu
situation at any time when one happens to be passing by. The
bsudd[d'dldoDFd&,fthbndM!\o'
length of the observation periods. the interval between than.
d&!mbeb.euyc!d,d rk@
and the number have been carefully planned, etc. There must
be a system in the observation.
3. Observation is quantitative. The ohmrvation is quantitative,
dyrrdrdtdseDh&rcrio,turpdcd''r
!fl with a tally of the number of instances a particular type
usually
of behavior huoccuned or sometimes the total duration of the
Fdd.dFM!lhFnddo@&qlm
particular conduct during the period of observation. or some
other countable or measurable charaaerinic: sometimes a
diagram is made showing spatial relationship.
4. Observation iv recorded immediately. A record is made of the
elleddbd'dgFryl,!FedE
observation immediately. or as promptly as possible, not en-
busting the molts to memory.
o&@fun&a.l'u4.
5. Observation is done by an ape's. The one conducting the
observation is capon. that Is, done by an Investigator who is
*ryddjqd'ut.wBn4e![s
especially trained for such work. While many graduate stu-
dents will not meet the amditions of this criterion. the differ-
€fuu.&fu,badlii6l@6h
ence between the observational skill of an investigator who is
trained and a person who is not trained, both In the use of the
d
x6rq4 and bin the
technique r. i tob which
d. field *Nd the
dr procedure {drd, Isk
@d!E isL applied.
sufficient in itself to make the difference between valid and
invalid results.
(In psychiatric and clinical cases, the investigator-oh-
server must be well trained. However, in onllnary community
and school surveys, the rcsearcher-observer need not be well
trains to be able to gather data for his study).
''dbb*b3e@cbid'I
oaMd lnb 6 tuI d tu ett
6. Observation results can be \.dtkd The msults
d checked and verified.
of a systematic observation of behavior can be checked and
Eitu @rd4 e
otur mated by
often e tud EdE ddtr
b/ comparing the results of different observers
o,!,,€ia&tu $bcH1bwti6d
or by repeating the observation. Suchcheeks, however. do not
llltGe@vde.bd4!64Fc
guarantee the validity of dhea observation, which depends
essentially upon the definiteness of the acts that arc to be
regarded as falling within the category under study. In many
.g'Yd'Bdfud'lFfudeq6
cases validity rests uldmately upon the consistency with
dldbtrdEdfu'Eds!6!d.e
which the findings of different research approaches point to the
same general conclusion. The reliability of observation of
144

behavior, however, can be determined and has often been

found to be satisfactory.

Recording the Results of Observation

Generally. the results of observation should be recorded immedi-

ately. There am some forms for recording the results of observation.
They are as follows:
1. The checklist. A checklist is a device which contains the items
to be observed and a space for number or cbcckmarks or short
verbal musics. (Bradfield and Moredock, p. 52) Below are
some samples:
acfudkvnijbaE.&kdb$@$|byib&
a.Checklist with short verbal entries. Suppose a boy is to be
observed in physical education. The items to be observed
.4]tdeMbbfudbyfuntgMed.loo
am listed down to be followed by short verbal description
of each item. See Figure 1.

Name Date
Grade Age

Direction: Give a brief description for each 'tan.

1. Typc of activity
2. Interest
3. Effort
4 Coordination
5. Posture
6. Skill in activity
7. Sportsmanship
8. Other factors

Figure I. Checklist for observation in physical education. (Brad-

field and Moredock. p. 52)
 145
al. Another example of a checklist with short verbid entries.

Name of Observed (optional)

Place of Observation Date
Direction for Observer: Give a brief description of each
item.

I. Type of fanning
2. Fanning tools
3. Work animals
4. Farming machinery
5. Soil fertility
6. Soil preparation
7. Crops planted
8. Water management
9. Pest control
10. Weed control
11. Fertilizer application
12. Harvesting
13. Farm strum=
14. Access road
IS. Other factors

Figure 2. Checklist for observation in fanning.

146

h. Checklist that indicates the presence or absence of an item.

Name of Observed (optional)

Place of Observation Date

Direction for Observer. Nil the space before each item by

a check mark or Yes if the item is present and No or
Icavc the space blank if the item is absent.

I. Type of farming dry wct _upland lowland

,'FlmiqIFLdoq_Eu*bceb
2. Farming tools plow
mudrake hoe bolo
3. Work animals carabao _oxen hors=
4. Farming machinery tractor thresher others
5. Soll fertility _very fertile _not fertile
6siFrydqjhdElddl#
6. Soil preparation _plowed _mudraked twice
a Crops
7. .qdAdplanted d( com
rice qde
@n vegetables
8. Water
management _irrigated _rain fed _pump fed
9. Pest control chemical others
10. Weed control chemical _hand _weeder
II. Fertilizer inorganic organicothers
12. Harvesting _by scythe _picking _harvester
13. Farm structures barn _shop animal shed
14. Access mad trail path _road paved road
15. Others (specify)

Figure 3. Checklist for observation in farming.

 147
c. A dichotomous checklist. In this checklist, there are only two
possible answers, yes or no; present or absent; etc.

Name of Observed (optional)

Place of Observation Date

Direction for Observer: Place a check mark in the space

under Yes if the item is true and place the checkmaric
under No it the item is not true.

Yes No

1. The type of farming is wet.

2. All needed tools arc available.
3. Work animals are carabaos.
4. There is a hand tractor.
5. There is a rice thresher.
6. "the soil is fertile.
7. The soil is well prepared.
R. The crop planted is rice.
9. The farm is inigated.
10. Pests are controlled by chemicals
11. Weeds arc controlled by chemicals.
12. The feniliaer used is organic.
IS. ❑arvesting is done by scythe.
14. There is a barn.
IS. There is art access road.
16. Others (specify)

Figure 4. Checklist for observation in farming.

How to design a checklist. The steps in the construction of a

checklist are as follows: (Bradfield and Moredock, p. 53)
r Enumerate
I. EDuncar0kesrred q5 (hdq6)roLdbd.
es ons
(listdown)thedimensi (factors)tobeohkrved.
2. Dcfme them very clearly. (What they are exactly)
3. Eliminate those that are vague or repetitive.
4. Arrange them on a sheet of paper in a manner most convenient
for observing and recording.
5. Include space for identifying data.
148

6. Try out the form. (This is called a dry run)

ki&hfuoftbd!dfu4ondp(@]m'
7. Revise the form onthe basis of the try out and yourexpel-imam.
8. Writc the checklist in its final forum.

2. Rating Scales
A rating scale is a checklist with an evaluation standard. The
types of rating scales are numerous but some may be given. In
observing a pupil's behavior, the following may be used:

Name of Observed Date

School Sex Grade Age

Example I

Direction for the Observer: Rate the pupil in each trait

listed by writing G on the space provided if the trait is good
and write B if it is had.

Health Posture Work Habits Grooming

(Many other trails can be added)

Example 2

Direction for the Observer. Put a check mark in the

column that best describes the activity:

Always Very Often Usually Seldom

Often
Attends classes
Recites in class
Studies lessons

(Many other activities can be added)

 149

Example 3

Direction for the Observer: ChOOSe the phrase or state-

6d!$d6badtEidlqdtilydtibft
ment that describes best the behavior or activity and write the
luudtudre@ewqidd &nghde
number of the phrase on the space provided at the right of the
phrase:

Never gives up, persistent 5

Persists until convinced he cannot make it 4
GG{!ryd€lroldd''',,'''',,'']
Gives everything a fair trial 3
Gives up easily even hefom a fair trial 2
Never attempts to try

Sports
Solving a mathematical problem
Memorizing a long poem

(Many more items can be added)

Figure 5. Examples of a rating scale.

Suppose fanning in a certain community is to be observed. The

variables used to rate orevaluate fanning paraphernalia and activities arc
satisfactoriness, industry, adequacy, fertility, efficiency, and appropri-
ateness. Suppose also the variables mentioned am divided into catego-
iss3dfud..I@eryo|gddol!ie@Dpilt
ries or gradations and each category or gradation is given an appropriate
or corresponding weight or rank value as follows:

Weight Categories

Very• Very Very Very Very Very

5 Satisfactory Inc/avian Funilc Adequate Efficieni Appropriate

Satisfactory Industrious Fatik Adequate Efliciall Appropriate

3 Fairly Fairly Fairly Fairly Faitly Fairly

Satisfactory Industrious Festik Adequate EfEcieni Appropriate
150

2 Ihtmois. Not Volatile Marie- kdrwknl Inappro.

factory Indio:aims QUIAC prieie

I Very Not Very Very Very Very

Unsatiske- incluarrious Unrollle Inadequate Inefficieot Inapprn.
Kay wall peiarc

Direction for the Observer: Put a check mark on the space

Nddqfurcighddldefut'M&s
provided under the weight OT rank value that which best
describes the item.

5 4 3 2 I

Fertility of the soil_

Satisfamoriness of weeding
Industry of farmer
Adequacy of Irrigation
Appropriateness of crops
Efficiency of harvesting

(Many more factors can be added)

Figure 6. A rating scads for observation in farming.

Npd,d.d.rdrAd JdrnroEos@h turumerd

Number of Categories or Subdivisions in Scales. The number of
categories or subdivisions fora ratingscale is indeterminate. In practice
the usual number is five, but there is no rational justification for
this. The maximum must be seven but again this cannot he justified. Ten
categories arc very unusual. The minimum number is two (a dichoto-
mous rating). The principle to be followed is that the number of scale
intervals should approximate the number of clearly discernible differ-
ences in the dimension being appraised. For measuring tasks that
require great precision a greaternumbcr of scale units may he necessary.
For tasks requiring less precision, fewer intervals are permissible.
(Bradfield and Morcdock, p. 58)

3. Anecdotal Forms

An anecdotal record is a cheddist that provides for less breakdown

of dimensions or facials and hence, much space is provided for writing.
 151

It minimizes the use of highly subjective impressions in recording and

rr(d objective &!drd!i
ddro instead ean diecd(
obtains trulir 6usi{ ! q
descriptiondof behavior. Following is an
example of an anecdotal record about a case study of a pupil taking
physical education. (Bradfield and Morcduck. p. 52)

Name of Observed

Direction for Observer:

In the space pmvided, scum observations that bear on

the individual's physical development and social develop-
ment Do not evaluate, but describe. Avoid vague words
such as good. soon. shy. etc. Enter statement of what
happened, or what you saw, as "Did three push-ups, and
couldn't do anymore," tried and started lighting when he
was called out" Date each entry.

Physical Development

Social Development

Figure 7. Anecdotal record for observation in Physical Education.

152

chluklgt'.lplry,.Elfull6qd..w'.dad
Characteristics of proper anecdotal recording. Proper anecdotal
rcdh!n!uBtd4{6}sclo]o*aAcid.culd|bddl
recording is characterized by the following: (Bradfieldad Moredock.
p. 54)
1. What is written down is what was seen or beard. Inferences,
or assumptions am omitted unless they are labeled as
s$$!.qsshBjlis!4lhidd[{!q&!|*d4
guesses,
inferences, guesses or assumptions.
2. The observer has determined what aspects of behavior am
related to the dimension tieing appraised. Ile observes these
only and records these only.
3. If the record is to be cumulative, a plan of periodic observation
and recording is established and adhered to.
4wodsdlllrqb6!{JGheshtlqfu{'vd
4. Words and phrases to be used are those with meanings which
are clear, and unequivocal.
5. Words and phrascs to be employed arc those drat are definable
intcnns oflhings rather than other words. Concretestatcmcnts
are prefened to abstract ones. For example, "Re became pale
and his hands trembled," not "He became disturbed."
6. Words and phrases that have strong connotations are avoided,
i.e. love, hate. insolent, courteous, loyal, dishonest, etc.
7. Words and phrases to he avoided are those which express the
obcrycr3jllFuhdrqiiq!tuidtrj4r*Fr+tutr
observer's judgment orhis opinion, and not just hisperception.
Among the frequently encountered, "judgmental" terms that
should be avoided arc these:
a. well-behaved e. industrious
b. delinquent f. nervous
c. aggressive g. happy
d. didn't uy

4. Mechanical Recording
A partial summary of the mechanical aids available for recording
include the following (Good and Scales, pp. 655-656)
a. Motion and still pictures;
b. Sound recording (tape or video-MOO;
c. A ono way vision screen or minor,
Aq experimental or isolation cabinet for infants
c. A photographic dome (witha one-way vision screen and tracks
 153

for movement of the camera);

f. An clectric•eyc ••ticket'• to count the number of autos passing
a given spot;
g. A counting apparatus at the gate ordoorto keep a current =Ord
of attendance;
h. An observer with a -ticker" device in his hand to count the
number of persona passing a particular spot;
i. A mechanical recording device attached to the radio at home f.0
indicate to headquarters that the radio is in use (or to record a
vote on questions presented over the radio, or to register the
extent to which the radio set is used);
j. A recorder of the number of telephone calls placed per month;
k_ An applause meter, and
i. An odometer on an auto.
The use of mechanical devices in observation entails some ex-
pense, but if the observer can afford, this assures a more accurate
recording. If the observer can replay the record again and again, hc can
have a mom detailed and more accurate observation of the different
aspects of behavior a:136yd to his objective. This is especially important
when the behavior or scene to be observed is a complex one and/or when
n&y$bhdosni}cmK}$Fc]Dtsdld@is
many subliminal cues may convey some important points.

5. Stenographic Recording
Some observers resort to stenographic recording when they want to
record the aspects to be observed as fast as they occur. This is good
especially in anecdotal recording because all the aspects to be observed
and heard can be recorded. However. transcriptiott has to be as accurate
as possible.

Making Observation More Valid and Reliable

The following must be observed to make observation more valid
and reliable:
L Use observation where and when other data gathering devices
cannot be used. There are behavioral activities where only
observation can be used for collecting data. Examples am
school subjects such as vocational education consttuction;
physical education, say running; music, say singing, drama-
tics. say acting; speech, say oration; etc. In farming, the
farmers may be observed in actual work for some data.
154

U&@fu@'qwuabfu(q
2. Use appropriate observation forms. Use the elseddist if yap
o6]d*ddrcDhliEdFniBiJqJldYE
objective data are to he gathered: the rating scale, if activities
or things am to be evaluated orrated; and the anecdotal record
if the activity is a complex one and it has to be observed in
action_ Use replayahle nicchankal devices for a more in-depth
and accurate analysis of the aspea of behavior observed.

i4odM7{.1,b!FFdt6eghndldy
3. Record Immediately. The purpose of recording immediately
what have been observed is to insure that the things observed
@tedEu4t trdb4okdc4r.@i
=recorded accurately. Haines observed arena recorded at
once. distortions may oaur in the recording and this makes the
&gl,dhllfulqeEr& F4dsr s d
data gathered inaccurate awl umeliabk.. Forgetting sets in
immediately after an activity and the observer has to record
first before he forgets.

,.d.w.rrdFdr' Rld4{'rr6qfud
4. Be asohjective °splodge. Recordexacity whatoccunrd and
rate or evaluate the nelson or araivity observed without bias or
preconception. The results of obixrvation and the study as a
whole will be faulty if biases or stereotyped conceptions are
allowed to interfere in the evaluation_

r&e6adM,6 bdE. t
5. Rase evaluation on several obserratitou In sciellOC, the
avenge of several measurements or trials is generally used as
the basis for a conclusion. This should also be so in observa-
tion. The avenge of several observations is admittedly more
accurate. valid, and reliable than the result from one observa-
tion alone.

aufror_s sr uuy AND

FoR STUDY
QUESTIONS FOR DrscussroN
AND DISCUSSION

I. How do you define observation?

2. Why is observation needed in research? What are its purposes?
3E\i]hlfrdiRr'lssdfd$ilhn'
3. Explain the different types of observation.
4. What arc the advantages of observation? Its disadvantages?
5. What am the characteristics of observation fur research purposes?
6. ',!'lr3dF'd
What are ate instruments for recording the results of observation?
Be able to construct each.
7. How can observation be made more valid and reliable?
 155

11TESTS,
11 REGrsrRATroN, AND
TESTS,REGISTRATION, AND
MECIIANICAI, DEVICES
MECHANICAL DEVIC!]S

Combined in this chapter arc tests, registration, and mechanical

devices. Discussions and explanations about, these means of collecting
data are not (oolong and hence. they ate put together in Only one chapter.

TESTS AS SOURCES OF DATA

Definition
A test may bc defined as a specific type of measuring instrument
whose general chanictcristic is that, it forces rcs-pOnScs from a pupil and
the responses are considered to be indicative of the pupil's skill,i.hvr
fu.4;rs{ knowl-
edge, altitudes, etc. Some examples arc true-false tests, essay examina-
tions. attitude scales, short-answer tests, mid-terms, finals, personality
inventory, etc. (Bradfield and Moredoek, p. 44)

Classification of Tests for Research Purposes

A. According to Standardization

I. Standard test. A standard or standardized test is one for which

content has been selected and checked empirically, for which
nouns have been established, for which uniform methods of
administration and scoring have been developed, and which
hry&sdvdliigh&sedobjecdr,
may 1,r56t
be scored with a high degree of objectivity. (Grand, p. 565)
In addition, standard tests are usually prepared vary cam-
fully}|rylF|(f.hlhlldtoFjEDl.!dd(@l
by specialists following ccnain principles of test con-
struction, given to a large number of individuals for the
establishment of norms, and tobc used fora longtime with the
group with which it is intended for.
E$Pjqrchtlig.@6c'4d1eh{Fid}
Examples arc intelligence tests. aptitude tests, personality
tests and interest inventories. For'nstance, an intelligence test.
116

is made for high school students, the test may be used fora long
lime for high school students but it cannot be used for other
groups of people.
Standard tests arc especially useful in psychological stud-
ies. They are used to determine the personality characteristics
rut
d people such
of hblkro,
5rd asa intelligence, aptitudes, h!4*, *irq.
!di!&s, interests, aChieve-
ment, mental abnormalities. etc.: they ale useful especially in
individual cast studies.
2. Non-standard test. Non-standard tests, as the name indicates,
arc not standardized. They are usually prepared byteachers to
measure the achievements of their students or pupils in the
$bt$s they
subjects e cri!.dhld;! ! Foobi Fi
6q am teaching for marking and promotion pur-
poses. Some examples of non-standard or teacher-made tests
are qay examinations
{E essay cqtqLr@ and p{ objective 86 such
r'6jdd! tests $Ji as ,tu! .r&.
a true-false.
till-in the blanks. multiple choice, matching, labeling, etc.

B. According to Function
I. Psychological lest This is a test that measures an individual's
6LU or
ability q personality
Fqhiu asa developed
rhldlFd by hI general drdqs
Fdr experience.
(fu.p$l)PlddogtdK!&joddj4d}dyN
(Goad, p. 56 l)Psychological tests arestandardizcd. Thetypcs
of psychological tests arc:
a MICEIVRCE AUL ThigiSaC0111pOilleleStMadeOf pans drat
have been found to correlate well with some practical
measure of intellectual ability, such as success in school.
(Good, p. 561) Usually this is called an I. Q. test and it
measures general mental ability.
b. Aptitude test. This is a test designed to indicate a person's
potential ability or cerfonnance of a certain type of acti-
vity. Examples am musical aptitude ECM. prognostic lest,
scholastic aptitude test mechanical aptitude test and the
like. (Ibid, p. 557) This test measures special talent or
ability.
Pg{ryfiry@fu'Lae!ddgdon!fu$@
c. Personality use This is a test designed CO measure some
aspect of an individual's personality. (Ibid.. p. 362) The
types of personality tests are:

o)R4',rluA'4fuc!dhqj!li4pd!d'
(I) Rating scale. A measure used in evaluating products,
attitudes, or other characteristics of instructors or
 •

157

learners. The usual form is an evaluation chart carry-

ing some suggestive points for chocking. (Ibid.. p.
440)
(2) Personality inventory. This is a measuring device for
determining an individual's personal characteristla
such as his emotional adjustmentor tendencies toward
ib$bmrtrhq;LqD{hr1r.R! breL.
introversionorextroversion; may be afrranged for self-
rating or for rating by other persons. (Ibid., p. 300)
This LeSt also measures dominance and submissive-
ness.

(3) Projective rest. A method of measurement of an

individual's personality in which the stimulus is usu-
ally unstructured and produces responses reflecting
the person's individuality. (Ibid., p. 300) The Ror-
schach Test consistingof ink.bluts is an example. The
subject interprets the ink-blob; and his interpretations
reveal his personality. The Thematic Apperception
Test consisting of standardized pictures is another.
nr oreDcrtupidlq
!bi4L interprets
The subject q
the pictures and hisotrrdi
r* interpreta-
tions will reveal his values, motives, and other upeers
of his personality.
d. Vocational and professional interest Inventory. This is a
test used to determine the extent to which a person's likes
anddislikes relate toagivcn vocation or profezion. (Ibid.,
p. 566) This test reveals in what type of work a person is
interested in, whether business. teaching, medicine,
mechanic, etc.
2. Educational test. This is an achievement test which aims to
measure a person's knowledge, skill, ability, understanding,
d od{urma
and other outcomes in $ljetr taught
ii subjects h school.
lu3itr in flbd.s
eLEd (Ibid., pp.
556-557) This test may be standardized or teacher-made.
Examples am achievement tests in Mathematics. English.
Science, etc.

Characteristics of Tests

Thereareoertainellaraaeristicsofa testwithoutwhichthe testrnay

not be useful The characteristics of a good test are the following:
158

1. Validity. Validity raters to how accurate a test measures what

it aims to measure. If a test aims to measure knowledge and
proficiency in geometry and it does measum knowledge and
proficierty in geometry, then it is valid. However, if it
sc,,lsh9HseldF6cocyirsh]st.6q
measures knowledge and proficiency in algebra instead, then
it is not valid. Some criteria to determine the validitypf a test
arc:
a. The test items are taken from the subject of the tea If the
test is about geometry, then the items must he taken fmm
gimmetry.
b. It mustcorrelate highly withasimilartestof already known
validity.
C. It must be able to predict performance of individuals in the
MC subject from which the test has been made. For
instance. if a student gels only 80% M a standard geometry
achievement test, he is able to get the same rating in a test
of similar nature in geometry.
d. The test must be able to place an individual in a group to
wddhtJl,eb$btu{€.!$M{rndry
which he really belongs, For instand, a standard geometry
achievement test has norms for fink second, third, and
ftld,qitghsb|$&i6scN*cixlbd
fourth year high school students. If the test is given to all
the high school students the second year students score
generally higher than the first year, the third year score
generally higher than the second year, and the fourth year
score generally higher than the third year students.
xdd'o'^Ni!diMtrig€dsEhry4hld
2. Reliability. A test is reliable if it gives the same measurament
to the same individuals or groups, that is, if the test is given
twice to the same individuals or groups after the lapse of a
ci'[F]dttfuqfulwodhn@eN'fuhjffi.
Certain period between the two adminisuatiotts. Fur instance,
if a test is conducted and the mean is 75 and after a certain
period the same test is given to the same group and the mean is
also 75, the test is reliable. Also if an individual obtains the
same score or about the same score in the second administra-
tion, the test is reliable. Some factors that make a test more
reliable are:
a. Adequacy, that is, the test is long enough to contain
properly selected rapresentave items of the behavior or
knowledge to be mr+nnred. The tcst items are proponion-
 159

ypiM@,tudebd6dhtuhjdn*rdid
ally picked out from the topics of the subject matter which
h.ubjq.d6d
* the subject of the test.
is
bobncdftydl$'1tr!Fsnet'hlcsrcE
b. Objectivity. that is. a test parer will give the same sdore no
matter who will score it, or scored by the same person at
different times. If a test is scored by Miss Ando and the
score is 85 and then scored by Miss Feriawithout 'mowing
the score given by Miss Ando and the 503M is also 85, the
test is objective.
c. The procedures in administering the test must be the same
whenever the test is given. Besides, the test must also he
g1!4u|&.fu!h!aodfusdscis,
given under the same conditions of the room.
3. Usability. A test is usable if it is easy ID administer. easy
score, economical (not expensive), them am norms to compare
the results with, and it is utile, that is, it is usable for the purpose
it is intended to perform.

Advantages of Standard Tests

1. Standard tests are generally valid and reliable.

2. Standard tests am accompanied by manuals of instruction con-
cerning their administration and scoring and so there arc no
problems on how they arc administered and scored.
3. Standard tests are provided with norms with which the test
€duGohrdDibEihqnE H{e,orFerioi
results are compared and given meaning. Hence. interpretation
of test results is easy.
4. Standard tests can be used again and again provided they are
not given to the same group twice or more. Ifilmy are given to
the same group repeatedly, their validity and reliability will be
adversely affected because of the effect of practice.
5. Standard rests provide a comprehensive coverage of the basic
knowledge, skills, abilities, and tuber traits that arc generally
considered as essential.

Limitations of Standard Tests

I. Since standard tests are intended for general use, theireontents

may not fully correspond to the expected outcomes of the
160

tllledod djd!. ot ldord $6r.4!N. f st

instructional objectives of a particular school, eourse, or sub-
ject This is especially true with standard achievement tests.
Hence, very enteral selection has to be done ifgandard tests are
to be used for measurement
2. Since standard tests an very objective they may not be able to
measure the ability to reason, explain, contrast, organize one's
ideas, and the like.
$dldtsdlhdghhfqlFrsnryb{lqd
3. Standard tests of the right kind for a purpose m ay bescaree and
hard to find.

Tests as Sources of Research Data

Generally, only standard tests are used to gather data in research

because of their validity, reliability, and usability. Non-standard tests
usually do not have such characteristics. Hence, the latter am not used in
research except when one warns m find out the level of achievement of
a cenain group in a certain subject. For instance. a teacher in geometry
wane m findOMthe level of achievementof his students ingeometry. He
administers to his students a standard test in geometry and his own
teacher-made test. Then hecomparesthe molls. If the two sets of scores
correlate highly. 1.111: level of achievement of the students is alright but
if there is a great disparity in the scores, there must be something amiss
in the instructional process.
Standard tests are very useful in research in psychology and in
psychiatryparticularly in individual ease studics. In research concerning
emotional maladjusunent standard tests are extensively and intensively
utilized. Results from standard tests usually form part of the cumulative
records of individual cases.
Standard achievement tests in the different subjects arc ellen ustal
N.fuldd!!9trd
in school surveys to determine the levels of achievement of the pupils or
students in the municipal, district, division, or national level as the case
may be.

REGISTRATION IN RESEARCH

Registration is a process of listing down items of the same kind in

Some systematic manner for record purposes. Registered matter may he
classified alphabetically. chronologically, qualitatively, quantitatively,
or otherwise. Take the enrolment in a certain school, for instance. The
 161

tu{r
students may rd
L listed down
nry be lrl at
e& alphabetically,r orqdiar4qnr
chronologically by r{
by year
at first. second, third, or fourth year qualitatively by course as B.S.E..
B.E.ED; B.S.N., etc.; or quantitatively by listing down fin* the course
vbethe highest
with er,hq' 6tro*d
di$L enrolment tu course
followed by the nd the
l{)!E with ud
tu second
highest enrolment., etc.
For purposes of research, the following are very rich sources of
data or information:
a. The Bureau of Census and Statistics, for almost all kindsofdata
about population, housing, industry. trade. etc.
b. The Land Transportation Commission, for all kinds of
vehicles: cars, trucks, motorcycles, jeeps. ere.
c. The Department of Education, Culture and Sports and its
49ryo6e.d$fut'@trcsiod!EtrL[sl'fin
regional offices, and schools.college.s, and universities (public
and private) where all ettmlmenis and graduates are recorded.
d. The Supreme Court and all lower courts of justice where
records of judicial cases are kepi
e. All police agencies and offices whcm all criminal cases are
recorded.
1. The Bureau of Health. where all births, deaths, and pathologi-
cal eases are registered.
The Securities and Exchange Commission when all trade,
industrial, and commercial establishments and other organiva-
dons, profit or non-profit, arc registered.
h. All other departments, offices, and entities of the government,
and private organization, entities, or offices where different
kinds and classes of data and information are registered.

MECHANICAL DEVICES

Mechanical devices for research may be classified according to the

area of research when they are utilized. The areas of reSearch where
mechanical devices for gathering data may be used are the following:
I. Social and ahicarionalresearch. The mechanical devices that
may be used to help gather data in observation and interview
am the camera, projector (film), tape recorder, video tape, etc.
The reader is referred back to the secdons of recording by
162

means by mechanical devices, what has been observed and

what transpires in an interview.
2. Biological andmedical research.lbcmostcommonexamples
=the microscope, X-Ray machine. ultra sound machine, and
other many sophLsticated gadgets.
3. Physical science research. Them arc machines that measure
oca'gtq.sF$a4.Ll{u]!ltsuc.ccd.joj{s'
energyor force, gas prr-ssure, liquid pressure, electrical energy.
etc.
4. Chemicalscience research. This is similar to medical research
aiqdyda{Ea4hfolhE'jbdh
particularly in drug research for the cure of ailments lure
$e, w4da edscrl@pb
cancer. Weighing scales are examples.
5. Astronomy, space and annospheric research. Examples are
the telescope in studying the stars and space and the barometer
in studying the atmosphere.
6. All others. There me countless gadgets and machines used to
study almost anything in the universe. The list cannot be
exhatadve. Theadvanceofscienoa and technology is such that
not hundreds but thousands of sophisticated mechanical tools
and instnuneres have been invented to gather data for research
purposes. Presently. we arc feeling and witnessing the tremen-
dous impacts of research in medicine, in industry, in warfare,
in space, and in other human activities.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1, Define lest.
2. How do you classify tests according tostandardization? according
to function?
3. duqdd@*src
What are the characteristics of tests? Explain each characteristic.
4hwhJ!3Ed[tdhial@ddt*no{!t'D}nj]
4. In what area of research are standard tests most useful? Why?
5. Why is registration also an important source of data?
6. Where can you secure the data you need? Enumerate the offices.
7. In what areas of research are mechanical devices useful in gather-
ing data?
8. How advanced is the construction of sophisticated mechanical
devices for research?
 163

12
12 SAMPLING
sAMPr.rNc

Definition

Sampling may be defined as measuring a small portion of some-

thing and then making a general statement about the whole thing.
(Bradfield and Moredock. p. 3B) For instance, one is buying mangoes.
He picks up one mango from a crate of mangoes and tastes it. Ti the
mango is sweet, then he concludes and says that the mangoes in the crate
are sweet although he has tasted caly one mango.

Why We Need Sampling (Purposes and Advantages of Sampling)

Ittt$ncdlobF'd,li,g.$rydlbchefu
There arc some advantages of sampling. some of which arc the
following:
1
I. kwt . makes
Sampling study of qa bp,
possible the \tutt.f
ne6 $iat tut444s
largeiteterogeneout
population. The universe ^z
or population to be studied may be
too largeor unlimited that it is almost impossible to reach all of
them. Suppose the age distribution Of the entire population of
the country is to be studied. It is surely very difficult if not
entirely impossibleto mach cvcryperson of the wholecauntry.
Thus, sampling makes possible this kind of study because in
sampling only a small portion of the population may be
involved in the study, enabling the researcher to reach all
through this small portion of the population.
2. Sampling is for economy. Researth without sampling may be
too costly. Take for instance that a study Involves the whole
population of a townof 70,030. To make questionnairecopies
for 70.000 issurclyan expensive affair. Thecxpcnses are even
greater if interviewers arc employed to interview every person
H,*ei s.d;g ..
or that group numbering to 70,000. However, sampling re-
duces the study population to a reasonable size that expenses
are greatly reduced.
164

s@t4 isfor
3. Sampling tut4wd kdfr d@'sp!ryEigh,hh
speed Research without sampling might be too
timeconsuming. To reach the 70,000 persons for an interview
would study entail a long time unless many interviewers are
employed. If a research takes a long time to finish, them may
be many Intervening factors that deter the researcher from
finishing his research.
4. Sampling is for accuracy. If it takes too long a time to cover
the whole study population, them may be inaccuracy. By the
time the last person is interviewed, the data gathered from the
first interviewees may be obsolete already so that the conclu-
sions are no longer accurate. The research must be finished
within a reasonable period of time so that the data =still true.
valid, and reliable.
5. Sampling saves the sources of dam from being all consumed.
The act of gathering data may consume all the spumes of
information without sampling. Suppose we warn to find out
whether bread baked in a certain bakery is delicious. Without
sampling, we have toconsume all the bread baked i n the bakery
before making any conclusion. In such a case, there is no more
bread to apply the conclusion to.

Sampling Concepts and Terminology (Babbie, pp. 141-144)

All the definitions here are front Babble although some explana-
tions am added for local adaptation
Element. An clement is that unit about which information is
collected and which pmvides the basis ofmalysis. They am the members
of the population. These are cenain types of people, families, social
clubs, and the like. Elements and units of analysisare often the same but
the former refers to sample selection while the latter refers to data
analysis. For instance, the families in a slum aura are the subject of an
investigation. While selectingthe families to be included in the sample,
they am called elements but when data have already been gathered and
being analyzed, the families are called units of data analysis.
Population. A population is the theoretically specific aggregation
of the elements. This is also called uiverse. Suppose a study is to he
conducted to determine the profile of the °allege students of a university.
The tetm population includes all the college students whether full timc,
part time. professional, working, male, or female students.
 165

Study population. A study population is that aggregation of

d@n tu rhd sdc d
''!,',?,!rdAjy@hfui3fuisg'4d
elements from which the tu sample *Is r@iry
actually selected. In the study of
College students, only the full time, male and female students may be
bddd'ddlnFsd6dqksdddfuiftdy@D
included, all other types of students excluded. This is the study popula-
tion which is often defined in the scope and delimitation section of a
thesis report.
Sample. These are the elements (people) who are actually selected
r Ddid@qb
to participate e6esrrd hesodt
or to be the subject In the study.
l4li{@]A$qpliqld'tddqdo*dfu!
Sampling writ. A sampling unit is that clement or set of elements
li4Ljtlli!l.,iq]c
considered for selection in some stage of sampling. In a simple, single-
stage sampling, the sampling units are the same as the elements. How-
ever, in a more complex sampling, different levels of sampling units may
ecnploFFqd4oliF!nl!$kalg
be employed. For example. you may select a sample of census blocks in
a!.D, {rd an sample
d{. select
city, then ddr ofdvhlh
$n!r. dof adults, which only the last of these are
.@qv4ld.!fu161
the elements. The first. sampling UAL is called primary sanoding unit, the
cenatS blocks; the second unit is called the secondary sampling unit,
lvtnrqt suti.
the households; and the third unit is called the final sampling unit, the
adults.
r@ri{1,@E
Sampling frame. A sampling frame is the actual list of samplings
@Br!ovudesdeorh.sFd6ldprc
units ^rmprhgtu@cntumddrindred
from which the sample, or some gage of the sample, i$rcd.
is selected. tIf
a sample of students is selected from a student roster, the roster is the
@p!4I@ell!!l!ul.lhlrisd
sampling frame. In a single-stage sampling, design, the sampling frame
is the list of the elements composing the study population.
Observation unit. An observation UTIII, or unit of data collection is
an clement or aggregation of elements from which infomtadon is
collected. The unit of analysis and observation unit are often the same
— the individual person —but not always the same. Thus. the researcher
may interview the heads of households (the observation units) to collect
information about all members of the households (the units of analysis).
Inotherwords, the observation unitsare the actual respondents to a study.
The observation units or respondents are the people who am interviewed
or who are requested In accomplish questionnaires for data collection.
Variable. A variable is a set of exclusive attributes. Examples are
sex, age, employment status, and so forth. The elements of a given
population may be described in temts of their individual attributes on a
given variable. Thus a researcher may describe the age distribution ore
dh(!sAldl.
population by examining the relative frequency of their ages. A variable
mustpossess variation. If all dements inthepnpulation possess thcsame
166

attribute, that attribute is constant in the population, rather than a pan of

a variable.
Parameter. A parameter is the summary description of a given
sdrtbia@dotrl$cqcsfued
variable in a population. The mean income of all the families of a city
is a parameter. The mean age of all the people in a city is also a parameter,
The age distribution of alt the people is a parameter.
Statistics. A statistics is the summary description of a given
vMLh1M9j9fule@efuoc!@
'dfu^gedk&lqhiry&Edpfud146
variable inasample. Thus the mean inoame computed from a sample and
e!$dfudotrddD!wPj.Fsdji
the age distribution of that sample arc statistics. Sample statistics are
used to make estimates of population parameters.
l4r4.z4slqpldE@!teerdeoi.nsqplc
Sampling error. Sampling error is the degree of error of a sample
sli$€fus4Fdso!4nid@@dFuiD,]r@tr
statistics when compared with the population parameter. For instance if
dtFp]fuII!{130dfu!e!Lh!,
the population mean is 80 and the sample mean is 40, the sampling error
is 40. The acceptable maximum sampling error is 5%.
x9@4d'?J@li,'^!uli!ltrl&Eptffirde
Representative sampling. A sample will be representative of the
population from which it is selected ifthe aggregate characteristics of die
j0pled0&1'{pfulbfugue4ga&tdllrdfude
sample closely approximate those same aggregate characteristics in the
population. Put in another way, a sample will be representative of the
population from which it is selected if all members of the population
have an equal chance of being selected in the sample. This means that
lsshe@M'd)
all characteristics (differentiated groups or classes in the population)
odbrFlddyryfur6e€3&
must be proponionally represented. If there arc 50% women in the study
population, there must be also 50% women in the sample. Suppose the
study population is 10(). 60 of whom are women and 40 are men. if the
sample is 20% of the population, then Mere should be 12 women are 8
men in the sample.
Confidencelevet Confident:clad is the degree of confidence that
a samplestatisticwill accurately fall within a certain or specified interval
front the population parameter. The interval, called the confidence
interval, is the range within which the sample statistics should fall. The
interval is expressed as plus or minus the sample statistic suppose the

' cendirdslddie,kfldr
sample mean is 75 and the confidence interval is plus or minus 8,and the
level of confidence is 95%. Then wesay that we are 95% confident that
ftFF|d@a@d!ljuip1sqfu
the population mean falls within plus or minus 8 to or from 75. Hence,
the confidence interval or range is from 67 to M. (75 — 8 = 67 and 75 +
8 = 83)
rryl4'4i6llidoi{'Asd|h3$!mIbsqP'
Sampling stratum. (an addition) A sampling stratum is that group,
section, or category of element; from which selection is made in some
 167

of r$d@bgh1d|8L@slhg'&@'I4lrrmie
stageofsampling. In asingle stage sampling, the sampling stratum is the
tue 0d4td uorq!. i od
whole population. However, h noE complex sampling, different
in a more
en
b&or5pllqtu Fu.'4prqydnrye
Dqe.hp1od.
levelsof samplingstrata may be employed. Forexample, you may select
r@d.dtusebdrd'y M dq spledtube
in,a sample of census blocks in a city. then select a sample
I of households
cr. iqjco.Jdhfuofu
from the selected blocks, and finally select a sample of adults from the
selected households. The city is the primary sampling smatum, the
census blocks are the secondary sampling .virantm, and the households
en are the final sampling stratum.

re Md6ds4rbs cdeu d ed{r,@ }{)

Principles of Sampling (Bradfield and Morcdock, pp. 39-40)

le
jA@ded4ildElddhgfi{ful6dodt'.is
1. Appraisals that involve sampling arecstimates and predictions
if only.
Jr 2. Estimates based on sampling arc least accurate when the
&6pki!!d!rcts mooi!,hobsdvhd{ede
sample is a small proportion of the whole and when the sample
is not representative. Conversely. estimations based on pro-
le portionately large samples and on representative samples are
MCA accurate.

(Sample means the portion of a population taken as the

s$ld0iqsEdr.
subject a@pbLEp@lkdr i;etu
of a study. A sample is representative ifit is taken from
all sections or groups of a population in equal proportion.)
rs!4lj4oqefugd.JqMFdspl4*.G
3. Sampling may be categorical or temporaL Sampling is cam-
FidresbPtnfupDtsdddl}r@@ds@
gorical if the sample is taken proportionally from categories or
@F. Ehrr vhd seL ! hs d
s@dbs isktemporal when the sample is inh terms of
groups. Sampling
time, as for example the pulse of a patient is taken every ten
minutes.

Dg&ibF dsDdhs
Disadvantages of r&6ri! $4rb3)
Sarnpling (Defective Sampling)

1. If sampling is biased, or not representative, or too small, the

conclusion may not be valid and reliable.
Here is an example of a repre.sentruive sampling: Suppose
the teaching of science is to be studied in a certain high school
with the students from first year to fourth as the respondents.
The population or universe consists of all the high school
students. A portionof 20%amto betakenas respondents. This
constitutes the sample. Suppose the students are divided into
sections according to ability. The diagram below illustrates
16R

how a representative sample is taken. Take the first year

students who are sectioned into throe according to ability.

Number 20%
Male 20 4
Section I Female 30 6
Male 20 4
Section 2 Female 25 5
Male IS 4 (rounded)
Section 3 Female 27 5 (rounded)
Total 140 28

As far as the first year students are concerned, 140 is the

population and 28 is the sample which is representative. The
same should be done with the second, third, and fourth years.
rfufuftc]uts!{bge(onbhd).do
If the students arelumped up together (comb' ned)and then
the 20% will be taken from the whole, the sampling is biased
and not representative because mom might be taken from one
section or there may be more males than females, etc.
2. In research, the respondents to a study (the sample) must have
a common characteristic which is the basis of the study. If
some of thesampledonoa have thiscommon characteristic, the
conclusions become faulty. In the example given in No. I, the
common characteristic of the sample or population is that all of
them art high school students. If some college students enter
the sample, the conclusions may become erroneous.
3. If the population is very large and them arc many sections and
&&doE, the
subsections, !ed4 Frdla tuns
se sampling procedure becomes very{ry compli-
@npr.
eau:4. It would be difficult to assign numbers to the elements
(members) of the population or it would also be very difficult
to write their names alphabetically on pieces of paper to
be placed in the raffle box.
4. If the researcher does not possess the necessary skill and
dldho*fovh'optb3@duE'6!spbga4
technical knowhow in sampling procedure, the sampling may
become biased and unrepresentative.
 169

General Types of Sampling

rtcEFMsdlFdsplh4o)poMli!}qlh8
There are two general types of sampling: (1) probability sampling
and (2) non-probability sampling.
PMflr J&!r4 Inh probability
Probability sampling. lEprqq. the
@bdjr sampling, Mde isn aa
tu sample
proportion
D@dotr (a €in @) e @tuq d sh
c certain percent) ofd the population and such sample
snprc is i
&led.fune@j!inb,nftdDme
selected from the population by means of some systematic way in which
every element of the population has a chance of being included in the
sample.
dryerrrryr4 hM{iM esPrh!.e@dr
Non-probability sonyriing. In non-probability sampling, the sample
kdla@hdfutsgiedfu€
is not a proportion of the population and there is no system in selecting
the sample. The selection depends upon the situation.

Types of Non•probabillty Sampling

There are three types of non-probability sampling: (1) accidental

sampling. Q) quota sampling, and (3) convenience sampling,
-Ace ema sampling. In this type of sampling, there is no system
of selection but only those whom the researcherlqik'iqlhcd6}
or interviewer meet by
.@efurddhtuielil
chance are included in the sample. ForFortrlllqde ildbwtud!
instance, the interviewer stands
in a street corner and he interviews every one who passes by. The
problem with this type of sampling is its lack of representativeness. The
rddcdgh,Erbdoir tr&detueh@rMrsM!
sample might be a biased one. If the place where the interviewer stands
is a business section, most of the people who pass by arcbusincss and rich
p.odqbe
people, 6c@id eo JrddoFod4
hence, the respondents are only well-to-do people. Ifrftpi2@
the place
where the interviewer stands is a slum area, most of the people who pass
bydiFiM@FltsopL
by and interviewed are poor people. In research, every section of the
@llfu&jqgfudidoebprcFdyEldbe
population being studied must be proportionally represented in the
sample.
Aa@od{pth3bt$dbd/}b'ftnmofu
Accidental sampling is resorted 10 only when there is no other
alternative.
Quota sampling. In this type of sampling, specified numbers of
rnde s4@ e
persons of certain types are included in the sample. Suppose the
EdoEdeFdeb{d^leo
reactions i.Eiis to he determined and a
of the people towards a certain issue
cross-section of the population must be involved. d'ldghbddd
It might be decided
that ten doctors,eight lawyers, fifteen businessmen, twenty vendors and
twenty-five fanners should constitute the sample.
170

The advantage of quota sampling over accidental sampling is that

many sectors of the population ate represented. However, its represen-
tativenessis doubtful becausetbemisno proportional representation and
erc!EmsddrElh'Eddod
there arc noguidelines in the selectionof thecwtu; h@dft
respondents. Anyone of the
F{!qqdbN'!iFi[6MydRU
groupsselec tedto participate willdo. Any doctororanylawyer who like
to participate will be included ir the sample. Another danger is that the
,xqjodftnj(i'yry@lpcdieiidis'r&
perception of the minority may become typical in the findings. If the
@Fitydh$p'e.fd.fidrrem.€ndrblEh'k
majority of the sample, for example, are professionals who arc in the
,tudude8fq$@,e@.6sD
minority of the population, their perceptions may become predominant
over those of the non-professionals who are in ne4,;d,,
the majority of theb
population,
\€j+$'0plugnl&udod}{dqds!4@
Again, quota sampling may be used only when any of the more
desirable types of sampling will not do.
Convenience sampling. Convenience sampling is a process of
picking outpeoplcin themost Convenient and fastest way tnimmediately
get their reactions to a eclair] hot and controversiahi$;
l issue. Ifrft€hlbi!
there Is a hot
and controversial issue, say the raising of the price of gasoline, the most
convenient and fasten way of reaching people is by the telephone to be
able to interview them at once. So the interviewer contacts people who
have telephones and asks them what their reactions arc to the issue at
hand.
'Ibis type of sampling is certainly biased and not representative
considering that the people who have telephones am a class by them-
selves and so their views cannot be considered as views of the people. It
should be noted that even in ordinary !r data
dF gathering
shi,, inh research.
F;in
interviews can also be conducted through the telephone provided that
those interviewed by telephone are only among those who arc properly
selected to be included in the sample. It only happens
vnNdd q people
that these @di
have telephones.

T]!6dhfubi}slndh!(Tehiq!6d$h!l6g]
Types of Probability Sampling (Techniques of Sampling)

1. Pare random sampling. This type of sampling is one in which

every one in the population of the inquiry has an equal chance
of being selected to be included in the sample. This is also
er d the
called d$n!h: i}.tue!d
brtry or
tu lottery Fm.4F
o. raffle type of sampling. This may be used
@F,ddoiAmdtEdidtrct'g'ios'o
if the population has no differentiated levels. sections, or
classes.
 171

nu Usually, this is done this way. A certain percent of the

zn- population is to be selected. This is decided upon beforehand.
std Suppose them are 200 persons in the popWailon and 20 percent
the &ertsnqbbdgl1!@',F@d]@@&
is the proportion to be chosen. Hence.20 pement of 200equals
ike ofuilgdJlhd'xfu&'ihd6r,e
40. The names of all the 200 persons are writteneach on a picce
dr dF6rdED.6,!,16d'6'@&
of paper oc if they are given numbers only their numbers are
the fibfur,€dplF4furlddroju
written. The pieces of paper am then placed in a container
the convenient for the purpose, say a box. The pieces of paper
rant which arc usually rolled for secrecy are mixed thoroughly and
the ft4rrdehht.lrc. tu,e!s.'
the 40 pieces are drawn by chance. Those whose names or
tu-dnE-ddbftdd4
numbers are drawn am included in the sample.
Here The main advantage of this technique of sampling h that,
!i€6ybudMJudLkdybsdyh
it is easy to understand and It is easy to apply we. The tumro
main
ss of disadvantage is that, it is hard to use witlitoolarge a population
ately because of de difficulty encountacd in writing the names of
a hot dFl$hdldb{W'c!fuEyEge'!'
the persons involved However. this problem may be offset by
most the use of a table of random numbers. The use of a table of
to he random numbers am explained in good stannical books.
who (Pealman. pp. 181. 204207)
sue at M,&sdhr!&eut'lfutu
Pure raridom sampling is also called unrestricted random
sampling, which means that every individual In the population
'tithe has an equal chance of being chosen to he included in the
them- sample.
ogle. It l'16'4,{'fu!,dl@d4b!brd
2. Systematic Atirrling. This is a techniqseof sampling in which
march. every nth name in a list may be selected to he included in a
d that sample. This is used when die subjects or respondents in the
operty study are arrayed or arranged In some systematic or logical
people manner such as alphabetical arrangement, residential Or house
eFpt+id?hf@db!dd.
arrays, geographical pkteanent from north b south. etc.
ft|ldDrdsl's!@4*deBb9't
The procedure follows. Suppose 20% of the population is
the Sample size. If IUD% Is divided by 20%. the answer Is S.
Hence, every fifth name In the list or array is selected. l low.
which
ever. there must be a random start The researcher may close
donce 6tFdNbes&!hlindfu!t4
his eyes and run Ns finger down the list and then stop
Is also The number which his finger points to at this particular time is
be used
the random start number. Suppose this number is 13. This is
one. or the first selection. The succeeding numbers to be selected are
found by adding S to its predecessor. So the Ma runnber to be
172

selected is 18 (13 + 5), the next is23 (18 + 51, the next number
is 28 (23 + 5), etc.
fun,i,Y&3.ddkd+!dPlog*b
The main advantage of this technique of sampling is that,
it is more convenient, faster, and more economical than the
pure random sampling. The main disadvantage is that the
sample becomes biased if the persons in the list belong to a
class by themselves whereas the investigation requites that all
sectors of the population arc to be involved. Suppose the
bqdrytfud4fudo@dfuor$'i!dq$kdd
inquiry is about agrarian reform and the investigator selected
his respondents from a list of landowners Or land tax payers
obtained from the LandTax Office of a town. Naturally, these
rplee'4kldfu@'!ds!scrclcdlNhb
people are against land retorm, unless the researcher wants to
find out how many of theland tax payers arc in favorer agrarian
reform.
ftry!@ddon@!fugnadddl6h
The systemaile random sampling is a restricted random
sampling because there arc certain restrictions imposed upon
it.
3. Stratified random.ampling. Stratified random sampling is the
process of selecting randomly, samples from the different
!fude@jdoudb6codynuft*!d
strata of the population used in the study. Thus this is used
when the population of the inquiry has class stratifications or
44]nFdeliMyovd.yBop*sdbd
groupings either horizontally or vertically. Examples of hori-
djF.rldiafr$doisirtcscsi&lsd.s
zontal stratifications are sections in the same school grade or
year such as Section 1, Section 1. etc, sex such as males and
females, college course such as AB. BSC, BSN, DEED, BSED,
d&@t^dtdclldLicakD@+16a?.&q
etc. Examples of vertical stratification are age such as 7, 8, 9,
10 years old, grades In school such as Grade 1, Grade 2, Grade
3, etc., economic status such as poor, average, rich, etc.
The procedure of stratified random sampling follows. De-
temi ine a common stratum or class to which all the elements of
the population belong. Then divide or group the elements of
ets@hi.isdqb6qd!fu5lq!&&dh&
the population according to the characteristics inherent in the
whole class or stratwn that make the elements of the population
different from one another. For example, the respondents to a
study am college students. The common class or stratum that
all of them belong to is college or college studies. The
characteristics that make them different from one another are
the courses they are taking, such as BEED, BSED. BSN, etc.
 1

173

Other characteristics are their eurriadar years, such as first,

second, third, or fourth year. Another factor is sex; still another
ns'e(fJfeLbibblmtid'9ptylifuIft
is age. After stratification has been completed, apply either the
pure random or systematic random sampling in the actual
selection of the samples in every section or stratum and the
ddqnlner*d'fune':@FqiM
selection must be proportional, that is, the same permnt is used
in every section or class irrespective of the number in each
section or class.
Tins is another example of stratified random sampling and
its advantage is that it =tributes much to the representative-
n!d&s1'.ti5eryb4plyHftid
ness of the sample. It is also easy to apply. Hem is an
illustration of the technique:Suppose the students of a college
are respondents in a study. The students are stratified accord-
4bft(rr!seIrc*hg'fu9'deod4lq
ing to the courses they arc taking, their sex, and the cunicular
years they am in. The sample of 20% is taken from every
stratum based oncoursc, sex and curricular year. Sec the table
immediately following. For instance, there are 50 male stu-
&ddftndP.di0gdNd@IElog]cjsa6d
dents in the first year taking education. The sample is 20% of
50 is 10. There an: 380 female students in the second year
taking commerce. The sample is 20% Of 380 is 76.

Curricular Years
Coma 1 11 III 1Y Total
Sex Fr 209 Sex Fr 20% Sex Fa Mst Sus Fr 2054 Fr 20%
M 50 10 M 40 8 M 32 6 M 28 6 150 30
E4satite F 7$ 15 F 60 12 F 53 11 1, 50 LO 233 .10
Comment
M 30D 60 M 210 54 M 250 50 M240 48 070 212
F 400 80 F 380 76 F 350 70 F 330 66 460 292
Nursing M 25 5 M 24 5 M 22 4 M 20 4 91 18
F 300 60 F 260 52 F 255 51 F 250 50 065 213
Total 1150230 1034 207 962192 918 184 4064 813

Note: Fr = Frequency, number of students (population), total = 40 64

M = Male students
F = Female students
20% = Sample proportion, alt frequencies under20%am inchi
ded in the sample, total = 813. The selection in every
@Pqlle'lifu!&Fd@@plb!6e
group or stratum, eithenhe pure random sampling or the
Systematic random sampling may be used.
174

f4DdEj4l4Fsi!$dhg;fu@idqe
4. Purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is determining the
target population, those to be involved in the study. The
respondents are chosen on the basis of their knowledge of the
information desired. If research is to be conducted on the
Mrydidu,eddrprcdtupr!{oRhlNd
history of aplace,theold people of the place must bc consulted.
If methods and techniques of teaching arc the subjects of an
nqry'lqh€6EeosoD@dr64j'd
inquiry. teachers are the ones =meted. If die topic of
investigation is the production of rice. the respondents must be
rice fanners and agriculturists. however, the actual selection
olAFiqttdlulifuIbrpErub9qiaoi
Of respondents is done either by pure random sampling or
systematic random sampling, lithe population is composed of
differentiated groups. stratified random sampling must be

S. Cluster sampling (Multistage cluster sampling). Cluster

sampling nr multistage cluster sampling or simply multistage
sampling is used when the population is so big or the geo-
s4pljol!t!dl(ryWijs!]]]g!lt!$DruLflfu
graphical anta of the research is so large. The general prece•
dure is to divide the area or population into clusters or blocks
and then within the final duster apply any of the different
methods of selecting a sample. Suppose a study is to be
conducted to determine the standard of instruction in a cenain
region of the country in elementary schools. Take for granted
that there are nine provinces in the region and the proportion of
die population to be the sample is 20%. The steps are:
a. Make a listing of the sampling units. the primary sampling
units (the first clusters to be sampled), the secondary
sampling units (the second clusters to be sampled within
the primary sampling unit), etc. Suppose the provinces are
the primary sampling units, the towns arc the secondary
sampling units, and the barartgays as the final sampling
units. These are called natural clusters.
b. Since the sample is 20%, 20% of 9 provinces equals 1.8 or
two provinces. Select these two provinces by either putt
random or systematic random sampling.
c. Within each of these two provinces. select 20% of the
towns tither by pure random or systematic random sam-
pling.
d. Within each town selected, choose 20% of the bmangays
 175

or barrios. Sineethete is only oneelementaryschoolinont

Mode@FnfrlLftfdsptr4d'ddlgr
harrioor barangay, this is the fatal sampling unit or cluster.
The respondents in the study arc to be selected from these
final cluster:. The respondents may be stratified imp
teachers. administrators, parents and pupils. The respon-
dents have to be taken from these stratified groups by
either pure random or systematic random sampling.
The advantage of the multistage cluster sampling is its
efficiency. Its main disadvantage is its reduced accuracy
or representativeness, un account of the fact that in every
stage there is a sampling error. (For a more detailed and
clearerexplanation of the multistage cluster sampling, sec
Babble. pp. 162-169)

Guidelines for Determining Adequate Sampling

The size of a sample isusually detennined before the conduct of any

study. There are no fixed rules in determining the size of a sample
needed. However, them are broad guidelines that should he observed in
determining the size of a sample. Among these guidelines arc:
1. When the universe or population is more or less homogeneous
and only the typical, normakor average is desired lobe known,
alfldh.$n.}|o.u3''
smaller sample is enough. However, if differences are
e\Ldbbho!o'0l4eolehMd
desired to be known, a larger sample is needed.
2. When the populalion is mom or less heterogeneous and only
the typical. normal. or avenge is desired to be known, a larger
sample is needed. However, if only their differences arc
desired to he known, a smaller sample is sufficient.
3. The size of a sample varies inversely as the size of the
population. A larger proportion is required of a smaller
population and a smaller proportion may do for a bigger
4jofu|@h@dfiwfuld.i!@pkdl0
population. Fora population of five thousand, a sample of 10
percent may do but for a population of five hundred. a propor-
tion of 30 percent may be required.
4. For a greater accuracy and reliability of results, a greater
sample is desirable.
r u&dd d cbnr, .@tu eh
S. Inhbiological and chemical experiments such as d!4 e
4 testing the
effects of drugs and other substances, the use of a few persons
 176

is more desirable to determine the reactions of humans to such

drugs and other substances being tested.
6. When the subjects (sample) are likely to be destroyed during
&4FjDsl'iind!'4tbb!€elDIsfu*$
the experiment, it is more feasible to use non-humans such as
animals especially nos.

Steps In Computing the Size of a Sample

The steps in computing the size of a sample am as follows:

1. Determine the size of the study population. This is easily
determined from the scope and delimitation of the study.
2. Decide on the margin °ream. As much as pomihle the margin
of enor should not be higher than 5%. Probably. 3% is an ideal
one.
3. use die formula n = (Ptgoso, et al.. p. 46)
+

in which
n = the sin of the sample
N = the size of the population
c = the margin of error
4. If the sampling is multistage or if the population is suatthed.
an@rft srq,FFioi (Fed) by
compute the sample pmponion (percent) iirbs rcsr
6! result
b dividing the
in Step Nu. 3 by the population.
5. Multiply the number of sampling units in each final sampling
stratum by the rate (per cent) to find the sample from each final
sampling stratum.
6. Add the samples hoin all the final sampling strata to find the
total sample.

Example. Suppose an investigation of the teaching of science in Inc

h!in'NhdmF{nneo u!i,rP
high sehoolsofa region is to he =alum& in which the science teachers
are tole made respondents. There alt 2243 teachers handling biological
sciences. 1406 handling chemical scienew, and 992 teachers handling
physical sciences, a total of 4641 teachers.

I
 177

The sampling procedure follows:

Step 1, The, population is 4,641.

Step 2. The margin of error to be used is 3%.
Step 3. Using the formula

4641
1 +4641COW
4641
I + 4641(.0009)

E41
1 +4.1769

4641
5,1769

= 896.4S25 (This may he rounded to 9l.X.) for

convenience) This is the sample.

Stcp 4. The teachers am grouped into three categories according to

the branch of science they am handling, so we use stratclicd sampling.

Sample proportion (%) = — = .1959

N 4641
.1939 may be rounded off to .20 or 20% for convenience of
computation.

Step 5 and 6

Teachers:handling Number .ss Sample

Biological Sciences 2243 20 449

Chemical Sciences 1406 20 281
Physical Sciences 992 20 198
Total 4641 928

The total sample is 928.

178

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. De(me sampling.
2. Why do we need sampling? Give the reasons.
3. Give the meaning of the following concepts which am used in the
Sampling process: element, population, study population, sample,
sampling frame,samplingunit.observation unit, variable. parame-
ter. statistic. sampling error, representative sampling, confidence
level, sampling simian.
4. Explain the principles of sampling.
5 sd&6!ids rFd$t
5. What am the disadvantages of sampling? 3!
6. Give and explain the general types of sampling.
1'H!v&F!4plj!i'Dbirys''41fu[E!1
7. How do you apply the non-probability sampling procedures?
8. Explain and apply the probability sampling techniques. Under
what conditions do you apply each?
0 Hovtd4uanndru&rmidr \xac !Fidisir
9, How is adequate sampling determined? What are the guidelinesin
determining adequate sampling?
10. how do you compute the size of a sample? Suppose you want to
get a representative sample with 3% margin of error from a college
dti4ftfdo'3d}oesdftte$d$orchq.:
offering the following am= with their respective enrolments:

Course Enrolment

Male Female

BS.E. 221 429

B.S.Ed. 431 782
B.S.C. 925 1894
B.S.N. 37 956

Determine the sample.

 179

PART II
PART II
180

Pan II of this book discusses and explains how to write every

chapter of the thesis.
Chapter 13 explains how to Write Chapter 1 of the thesis. How to
write the introduction, how to formulate the specific questions and
hypotheses, how to write about the importance of the study, how to
define terms, how to delimit the study, and how to construct the
@!du]nq.drEdq{ylrdridded.
conceptual framework am clearly explained and illusuated.
Chapter 14 explains how to write Chapter 2. Discussed arc how re-
lated literature and studies am classified and how to makechaticms. The
characteristic and amount of related literature and studies are also given.
Chapter 15 explains how in write Chapter 3 especially how to
explain the method of research used, how to explain the preparation and
dhgelip d tuvb
validation or the research insuument, the sampling design and how to
select the statistical procedures to be used.
Chapter 16 explains how to write Chapter 4. The analysis of data.
their presentation, and interpretation am given very adequate explana-
tions and very clear illustrations.
d!*n'!']lttr!b'o'd'!.[8d.fu.ds4crEoq
Chapter 17 explains how to write Chapter 5, the final chapter. How
to write the summary, how to formulate the conclusions, and how to
make recommendations am supplied with very adequate and clear
guidelines.
 181

13 HOW
13 ro WRITE
How TO wRrrn CHAPTER
CHAPTER 1r

Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Chapter I of a thesis should contain a discussion of each of the

following topics:
buroduction
Statement of thc Pmblcm
Assumptions and Hypotheses
slFic(qbFiesdd.ny
Signi licence or Imponancc of the Study
Definitions of Terms
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Conceptual Framework

The Introduction

Guidelines in writing the introduction. The introduMionof a thesis

should contain a discussion of any or all of the following:
I. Presentation of she problem.11ic start ofthe introduction is the
presentation of the problem, that is, what the problem is all
fulfrsvddjatvjdlllh4dd6}!{jd}
about. This will indicate what will be covered by the study.
Example: Suppose the investigation is about the teaching of
Science in the high schools of Province A. Inc discussion may
start with this topic sentence: Them is no other period in world
history when sciencehas been making its greatest impact upon
humankind than it is today. (Prolong the discussion citing the
multifarious and wonderful benefits that science is giving to
humanity today. Later, in connection with science, the topic
for inquiry may be presented as the tcaching of science in the
high schools of Province A during the school year 1989-1990
as perceived by the science teachers and students)
2 rb ek{. 6 unsatisfactory
.t on
2. The existence of @dtb aaJdl
d@LnK@ condition. Nlba
felt problem
Irrd,!r@ Ereprd
that needs a solution. Example: rEr4rtqd{i{€
The teaching of science in tu
h the
1112

hr1.6[ dturk eu dxd Er a

high schools of Province A hasi$ been observed tob be
b weak as
!!nb'eEd!dexre'eo{ibeue
shown by the results of the^ survey teas given to the Ntudents
recently. The causes mint be found so tha remedial measures
o'!6id(n.ifub@'E'&sn'!el
may he instituted_ (The discussion may be pcokaged further)
3. Ranonale of the study. bc reason or reasons why it is necessa•
ryb6M@t!'fod's'!d$!itdEli'l'oEoffu
ry to conduct the study must be discussed. Example: One of the
thrusts of the Department of Education, Culture and Spons and
dfu8i!ffq'fo'uu'h&rnb'h!3hfut{Ii3
of the government for that matter is to strengthen the teaching
of science. It is necessary In conduct this inquiry to find out
h!6n4MdlfuddGh&Pd
how to strengthen the instruction of science in the province.
(this may be prolonged)
4. Historical background of the problem. Fora historical back-
@,dst!!dFed&d*{old4&
ground of the research problem of the teaching of science. the
first satellite to orbit the earth sent atoll by Russia may be
nehlcdEahpLls]E!eu&dehbslsbyR!$L
mentioned. Example: Since the sending into space by Russia
of the rust satellite that orbited the earth, educational systems
jlsl'bsddrcfud4licdkPlllr'i'ib*b
all over the world including that of the Philippines have been
trying hard to improve their science curricula and instruction_
''b3bbl!@e'ikqfud|i@
(This can be explained Anther)
5. A desire to have a doper and clearer understanding of a
situation. circumstance. or phenomenon. If the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A is the topic, the •
researcher must explain his earnest desire to have a deeper and
clearer understanding of the situation so that he will be in a
better position to initiate remedial measures.
6. A desire toftr.d a better way of doinguinething or climproving
a product. The researcher must also explain his desire to find
reryddn'$idbehghdidbb
a better way of teachingscience in the high schoolsof Province
A to improve the outcome of in.struction.
7. A desire to discover.omething. In connection with the teach-
rqdr@@ 6 rnrdrd:dftobea,s.norrrr
ing of science in the high schools of Province A, the researcher
may have the desire to discover what is wrong with the
instruction and a desire to discover better ways of teaching the
i6rc Emrtufi@b(ljiladdie
subject. He may discuss his desire to discover such things.
&qdped@4tulytttutu't'!.,ry
8. Geographical condinord of the study Weak. This is necessary
in anthropological and economic studies. If the subject of
iwrrrdsLner dis ft sq the efr,d
investigation is rice production, then su..iinlE
terrain, soil, climate,
etc. of the study locale have to be described.
 183

9. A !Mk between the Introduction and the statement of the

,4h^EaEqhfu6fthat@e
problem, A sentence or two should show the link between die
llrtldfudftffitdel*'a,'dc
introduction and the conducting of the researcher. Example:
fut-:edqd!l'dh@1d4tr
The researcher got very mutt' interested in determining the
6o'di4fub4dglfudfu^d
stasus ofteaching science In the high schools of Province A and
so he conducted this =arch.

Statement of the Problem

There should be a gcnersIstasement of the whole problem followed
tftwftwh6alr.rhbMerdr&
by the specific questions orsubmobkms into which the general problem
is broken up. These arc already formulated at the beginning of the study
dFdy,Mdy&ddhe@ cahn!rd
and so they should only be copied Ira this section. (See the run section
d6Jd4da',''1e,B'4','Jd6fuj@4h
of the Statement of Problem, pp. 28-29. for further guidance in
writing the general problem and the specific questions pp. 29.30.)

Assumptions and Hypotheses

d&ipdE hd!@6dddctthr
nr@r and descriptive investigations do not need explicit Ity-
Historical
@bd&].rdc&d'qbdcd(Edy
potirses and assumptions. Only experimental studies need expressly
fulsn'bdbTikslqkcrH'ifr!@
wriuen a.ssumptions and hypotheses. Since these arc already formulated
at the start of the experiment. they arejust copied in this section. (Sec the
sections Assumptions and Hypotheses, pp. 30-33, for further gui dance in
writing assumptions and hypotheses).

Importance or Significance of the Study

de<n.4M4eb''w.|'kgn'fthN.
Guidance in captaining the importance of the study. The impor•
tante of the whole study must contain explanations ordiscussions of any
or all of the following;
tu@ tu'.dqkrd1.ftujt e
). The rattonak timeliness, and/or relevance of the study.t. The
1.
rationale. timeliness, and/or relevance of the study to existing
drh$ dw' be
conditions must d[od.
dddid .ior discussed. For
b explained hoe ,
tu Instance, a
survey test in science reveals that the performance of the
students in the high schools of Province A is poor. It must he
Ferdob6$'s4E$rby'l6qdFl0d
pointed out that this is a strong reason why an investigation of
the teaching of Science In the said high schools is necessary.
Also, the study is very timely and relevant because today. it is
fudeb'fu'Ih'grDifuy4
science and technology that are making some nations very
highly industrialimi and progressive. So, fscienee is properly
184

Studied and taught and then applied, it can also make the
odrir8Nr
country htud'M dPD@E.
highly industrialized and progressive.
2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to
wdntury@es
unsatisfactory conditions. The poor performance of the stu-
dents in the high schools of Province A In a survey test in
science shOuld be explained as a problem and an unsatisfactory
condition. So if the inquiry is made, the possible causes of the
poorperformance of thestudents in the scleacesurvey testmay
be discovered so that remedial measures may be instituted to
solve the problem or the unsatisfactory situation.
wfu&bee'ir.ad6xe'@.Idvrjh.
3. Who are to be beneficed and how they are going to be
&d4, n na
beneficed. lo e hiMlri
$o*i,tu
h shown
cust be !a the individuals, groups,
who are smF,
or communities who may be placed in a more advantageous
position on account of the study. In the inquiry conducted
about the teaching of science, for instance, some weaknesses of
the instructional program may be disawenni. This will benefit
edhLuondeh4htrbehhojE^ea!$
the administrators of the high schools in Province A because
they can make the findings of the study as a ba.sis for formulat-
hgM&Pj&ryplN'qIfuc@hgr[Tqnry
ing their supervisory plans for the ensuing year. They may
include in their plans some measures to comet the weaknesses
so asIDstrengthenthe instruction. In turn, the students will also
be benefitted for learning more science. In the long run, the
ftrauquuojoy,MFdrcshdlti
whole country will enjoy the good results of the study.]
4. Possible contributionto the fundofknrnvledge. if in the study
it is found out that the inductive method isveryeffective in the
teaching of science, it should be pointed out that this can be a
contribution of the study to the fund of bowledge.
5. Possible implications. It should be discussed here that the
implications include the possible causes of the problems dis-
covered, the possible effects of the problems, and the remedial
measures to solve the problems. Implications also include the
good points of a system which ought to be continued or to be
improved if possible.

Definitions of Terms

Guidelines In defining tens:

I. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique

 185

meanings in the study arc defined. For instance, the term non-
teaching facilities may be used in the study Of the teaching of
doeN@td'afulideyedfua'elitrE
science. Non-teaching facilities may be defined as facilities
dd6'bc![fudkdFbu1!EDldbqpldn
needed by the students and teachers but am not used to explain
the lesson nor make instructions clearer. Examples am toilets
or comfort moms, electric fans, rest rooms or lounges, and the
like. They may also be called non-instructional facilities.
2. Terms should be defined operationally. that is. how they are
used in the study. For instance, a study is made about early
marriage. What is meant by early marriage? To make the
meaning clear, early marriage may be defined as one in which
the contracting panics are both below eighteen years of age.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition fmm the
characteristics of the term dcfmcd. Thus, a house of light
materials maybe defined asonc with bamboo orsmall wooden
posts: nip, buri, or nipa walls: split bamboo floor; and cogon
or nipa roof. This is also an operational definition.
dd'bNn4t'*flrEDqlxilsni$M04!
4. Dentitions may be taken fmm encyclopedias, books, maga-
zines and newspaper anicles. dictionaries, and other publica-
tions but the researcher must acknowledge his sources. Defi-
nitions taken from published materials are called conceptual or
theoretical definitions.
5. Definitions should be as brief, dear, and unequivocal as
possible.
6. Acronyms should always the spelled nut fully especially if it is
not commonly known or if it is used for the first time.

Scope and Delimitations Of the Study

Guidelines in writing the scope and delimitations. The scope and

delimitations should include the following:
1. A brief statement of the general purpose of the study.
2. The subject matter and topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study. where die data were gathered or the
entity to which the data belong.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents were
186

slEdftn6'bh*d4ibh!9@d'd06
selected. This must be large enough to make generalizations
significant
5. Theperiod of the study. nit isthe time,eithermonthsoryears.
during which the data were gathered.

Dtm*iThis
Example: idildo as&dd odbmtues6r
frninvestigation was COnduCted10 determine the status
of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A as perceived
by the teachers and students in science classes during the school year
1989-1990. The aspects looked into were the qualifications of teachers,
their methods and strategies, facilities, forms of supervisory assistance.
Ndch!'dl@d$t'b(bFbtrG
problems, and proposed solutions to problems.
General outpost: To determine the status of the teaching of
science.
$hndi{.i
Subject maucr The }.bdteaching! ofd!d!@
science.
Topics (aspects) studied: Qualifications of teachers, their methods
and strategics, facilities, forms of supervisory assistance, problems and
proposed solutions to die problems.
Population or universe: Teachers and students.
Locale of the study: High schools of Province A.
Period of the Study: School year 1989-1990.

Limitations of the Study

Limitations of the study include the weaknesses of the study

beyond the control of the researcher. This is especially true in descriptive
research where the variables involved are uncountables or continuous
vdidsdadq!('.dr@dlqc$.s
variables such as adequacy. effectiveness. efficiatcy, extent. etc. The
weaknesocs spring out of the inaccuracies oflhJrqdoEde
the perceptions of the
respondents. For instance, library facilities may be rated as very
d4utb,Jojfu&!dqut[y15Jdo]t'fuydquub,30
adequate by 50 students, adequate by 75 students, fairly adequate by 30
students, inadequate by 20 students, and very inadequate by 15 students.
Certainly, with these ratings, not all of them could be correct in their
ascpssinent. Some could have inaccurate if not entirely wrong percep-
tions.

Conceptual Framework

From the review of related literature and studies, the researcher

may formulate a theoretical scheme for his research problem. This
 187

dqoldclqdfu
scheme is a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the
phenomenon or problem and serves as the basis for the formulation of
research hypotheses. Thus. the conceptual framework consists of the
investigator's own position on a problem after his exposure to various
theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the researcher's new
model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher
had studied. (Sanchez, pp. 14-15)
The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus.
the main thrust of the study. It serves as a guide in conducting the
investigation. Briefly stated. the conceptual framework for the teaching
of science can be: The effectiveness of a science instructional program
depends upon the qualifications of the teachers. the effectiveness of their
methods and strategies of teaching, the adequacy of facilities, the
adequacy of supervisory =Imola, and the elimination of problems
hampering the progress.
Currently, however, most theses do not have a discussion of their
conceptual frameworks. Very few thesis writers endeavor to include an
explanation of their conceptual framework in their theses.
Paradigm. A paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a
conceptual framework. It depicts in a more vivid way what the concep-
tual framework wants to convey. Following am examples of a paradigm
for the conceptual framework for the teaching of science as mentioned
above. A paradigm may take different diagrammatic forms.

Example

Inputs Process Outputs

Qualified
teachers Superior
Scitmr
science
Effective nowledge
meihods
Instructional and
Adequate
facilities !kith
Adequate Program of
surcrvisoiy
students
assistance

P gun: R. Paradigm for science teaching in high school.

188

Example 2

Effective
methods
$CiefCC Insimaio

Superior
science
knowledge
and skills of
students

Adequat
super,'
Adcquat
facilities assis a

Figure 9. Paradigm for science teaching in high school.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

1. What are the contents of Chapter I of the thesis?

2. Give the guidelines in writing the introduction.
3. How are the pmhlems. assumptions. and hypotheses stated?
4. Give the guidelines in writing the importance' of the study.
5. Now should reins he defined?
6. I Tow is the study delimited?
7. What is the meaning of conceptual framework? How is it con.
strutted?
 189

l4 HOW
14 nowro wRrrE CHAPTER
TO WRITE CHAPTER 22

ChiPhT:
Chapter RPL4TEbLtrPR\TNE
2 RELATED 4MSMES
LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Guidelines in Citing Related Literature and Studies

A. Characteristics of the MateriaLv Cited

The following are the characteristics of related literature and
studies that should be cited; (Repeated for emphasis)
1. The materials must be as recent as possible. This is important
bN$d|bcBpds!r'Fftsl.llldL'NJtd@o!
because of thc rapid social,political, scientific, and technologi-
ul.6$5Dtgici{;inoid'i@hh&!J
cal changes. Discoveries in historical and archaeological
research have also changed some historical facts. Researchers
in education and psychology an: also making great strides. SO.
idn€!ilhFir40s4hEljdeldeLdl!Uj.$lt
findings fifteen years ago may havelittle value today unless the
study is a comparative inquiry about the past and thc present.
Mathematical and statistical procedures. however, are a litde
more stable.
1Md'^fu|*4|bl4llaatfu|16!6ld.sfr\
2. MateriaLcmustbe av objective and unbiased as passible. Some
materials arc extremely one sided, either politically or reli-
giously biased. These should be avoided.
3. Materials must be relevant to the study. Only materials that
have some similarity to or bearing on the problem researched
on. should be cited.
4. Materials must not he toofew but not too many. They must be
sufficient enough to give the researcher insight into his prob-
lem or to indicate the nature of the present investigation. The
number may also depend upon the availability of related
materials. This isespecially aproblem withpioneering studies.
Naturally, there are few related materials or even none at all.
Ordinarily, from fifteen to twenty-five may do for a master's
thesis and from twenty and above for a doctoral dissertation.
190

depending upon their availability and depth and length of

discussions. The number, however, am only suggestive but
not imperative. These are only the usual numbers observed in
theses anddissenationssurveyed. Doran undergraduate thesis.
about ten may do.

B. Ways of Citing Related Literature and Studies

The following are the ways of citing related literature and studies:
I. By author or writer. In this method the ideas, facts, or
principles, although they have the same meaning, am ex-
plained or discussed scpantaily and cited in the footnote with
their respective authors or writers.

Examples: According to Enriqucz, praise helps much in

learning, etc.,
Maglaque found out that praise is an important factor in
learning, etc.. etc.a

Foomotes:
'Pedro Enriqucz. The Dynamics of Teaching and Learn-
ing. Manila: Canlaort Publishing Company, Inc.. 1981, p. 102.

1 Juanhlaglaque, "Factors Affecting Children's Learning

in Pag-asa District," (Unpublished Master's Thesis, San
Gregorio College. San Gregorio City, 1984.)

2. By topic. In this case. if different authors or writers have the

same opinion about the same topic, the topic is discussed and
cited under the names of the authors or writers. 'Ibis is a
summary• of their opinions. This is to avoid separate and long
discussions of the same umie.
Example: It has been found out that praise is an important
aid in the learning of children.'

Footnote:
' Pedro Entiquez. The Dynamics of Teaching and Learn-
ing. Manila: Cant= Publishing Company, Inc_ 1981, p. 102
and Juan Magl ague, "Factors Affecting Children's Learning in
 191

Pagasa District:* (Unpublished Master's Thesis," San

Gregotio College, San Gregorio City, 1984). (Note: These arc
fictitious names)

3. Chronological. Related materials may also be cited chrono-

logically, that is, according to the year they were written.
Materials which were written cattier should be cum] first
before those which were written later. This can be done
especially when citation is by author or writer. If citation is by
topic, chronological citation can be done in the footnote.

C. What to Cite
It should be emphasized that only the major findings. ideas,
generalizations. principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant
to the problem under investigation should be discussed in this chapter.
Generally, such findings, ideas, genemlizations, principles, or ()onto-
stuns arc summarized, paraphrased. or synthesized.

D. Quoting a Material
A material may be quoted if the idea conveyed is soperfectly stated
or it is conLMvcrsial and it is not too long. It is written single spaced with
wider margins at the left and right sides of the paper but without any
quotation marks.
Example: Suppose the following is a quotation: Said Entiquez,

Praise is an important factor in children's learning.

II encourages them to study their lessons harder. Praise,
however. shookd he given very appropriately!

Footnote: Ibid.

Justification of the Study

It should he made clear that there is no duplication of other studies.

The present inquiry may only be a replication of anotherstudy. It should
be stressed also that inspire of similar studies, the present study is still
necessary m find out if the findings of studies in other places are also true
in the locale of the present study. There may also be a need to continue
with the present investigation to affirm or negate the findings or other
on.!tunn'i4
inquiries about the same research problem or topic so that generaliza-
192

tions or principles may be formulated. These generalizations and

'bs'phel6@ye6@dd'
pscid€ddLeloftb'jGde@@hdgfud
principles would be the contributions of the present investigation to•
se$doftIjdsD@fuddh{H3.fun@de
gcthcr with other studies to the fund of knowledge. This is one of the
more important purposes of research: the contribution that it can give to
'mtnts@'WsdtMb!{trMldmfu6li*b
the fund of knowledge.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

I. What should be the characteri.stita of related literature and studies

reviewed?
2. In what ways may citations be made?
3. How is a material quoted?
4. How do you justify your study?
 193

15
15 HOW ro WRITE
How TO wRtrB CHAPTER
cHAlrER 3

cid{3
Chapter 3 MErf, oD6oFaFsErRCf
METHODS OF RESEARCH AND PROCEDURES rmRO@URES
@dt,d'!d6ssadedd!<r@
Gentrally.the research design is explained in this chapter. Among
edBid@b&.ldcrsdddb*ambr ^lq
those topics included in the research design which need to be given some
!ddqdutudeehrbd{
kind of explanadons arc the following:
Method of Research Used
Method of Collecting Data and Development id the Research
Instrument
Sampling Design
Statistical Treaunent

Method of Research

The method of research used whether historical. descriptive or

dFdd!d!6d@eu ftFddFdft
experimental should he explained briefly. The procedural part of the
r@dsE*
n.@, its
method, r4 appropriateness o tu study,
to the d
n!rr, and some of its advantages
fuluE'ryql'l!@dnDtbdld@
should be given attention and should be welt discussed.

Example: Suppose the descriptive method of research was used in

tudrotE@N4 dE@h Ndd
the study of the teaching of science in the high schools of Province A.
Briefly the discussion follows:

fu&gipdEftdl5d)Wudidadye.n&
The descrimive method of research wasused inthisstudy. Descrip-
d.!'ddfuLl'glM4dysd@[d
tive method of research is a fact-finding study with adequate and
ehEF!@defidbglLlM
accurate interpretation of the findings. It describes what is. It describes
with emphasis what actually exist such as current conditions,
j!&rd q c@!!t[ srceF@dy6
@db! situations. or any phenomena. Since the presenx study or
practices,
investigation was concerned with the present status of the teaching of
science in the high schools of Province A, the descriptive method of
{5sB&nd*qfuoebrcbmL&'6d
research was the most appropriate method to use. (Ibis can be elaborated
further)
194

Method of Collecting Data and Development of the Research

Instrument
The method of collecting dam and theeeldoFq,ddc;q
ftcndhdd{hdhs&uld development of the in
for gathering data must also be explained.
Example: The method Of collecting data used was the normative
survey. This is concerned with looking into the commonality of some
elements. Since the present research is a SLIM study, the normative
survey was the most appmpriate method to use in gathering data.
The instrument used to colleadata wasthequestionnaire. This was
used because it gathers data faster than any other method. Besides, the
respondents were teachers and students and so they arc very literate.
They could read and answer the questionnaire with ease.
Deveropmenroltheinstrument. Allerrcadingandstudying samples
of questionnaire from related studies, the researcher prepared his own
questionnaire. Ilealsoconsulted some knowlvJgcable{Fd!Nll.Jldbv
people about how
to prepare one. 'the researcher saw to it that them were enough items to
collect data to cover all aspects of the problem and to answer all the
specific questions under the statement of the problem. Then he submit-
ted the questionnaire to his adviser for correction after which it was
finalized
For validation purposes, the questionnaire was given to ten high
school science teachers for them to rill up. These teachers did not
participate in die study. After they had filled up the copies they were
interviewed by the research& to find out their assessment of the ques-
tionnaire. They were asked if all the items were clear and unequivocal
to them; if the number of items were ade q uate enough to collect data
about all aspects of the leaching of science; if the questions were
interesting and not boring: If all the items were objective and not biased
except for a few unavoidable essay questions; if all Lilt: items were
relevant to the research problem; and if the questionnaire was not too
long. All of them said the items were clear and unequivocal except a few,
cL{ ,ihn4nidlsLtuqq,6!,
relevant, s!tr4
interesting and objective questions, and the lnligrtr
length was alright_
The few questioned items were revised for more clarity and definiteness.
ft copies
The oterdde+elioMiie\eEd{&dNdF6s
of the questionnaire were then distributed personallyyby
by
the researcher to the respondents. After a few days. all the copies
distributed were retrieved also personally by the researcher. (The
discussion may be extended)
 195

The Sampling Design

Before the collection of data scans in any research project, the

proportion of the population to be used must have bccn determined
al ready and the computation of the sample must have been finished. So,
what the researcher hat to do here is to write about the complete
,duE*lsihetfihhghsinpl.Moqhd{'dde
procedure he used in determininghis sample. Among the things that he
should explain are:
a. The size of the population;
b. The study population;
c. Thc margin of error and the proportion of thestudy mutation
used;
d. The type or technique of sampling used whether pure random
ampling, systematic random sampling, stratified random sam-
pling.
.rh!. cluster !D!L4 qr
dd4 sampling ubqrbi dMqnorc
or a combination of two or mom
techniques:
e. The actual computation of the sample; and
1. 'the sample.
The Researcher must explain very clearly how he selected his
r
sample.
prc. He Dln be
Hc must h able
ibr tob show ddr*,ordc
{ow that his sample is e.e.i!ri.d of the
n representative !4
population by showing that he used the appropriate technique of sam-
pling. This is very important because if it appears that his sample isnot
representative, his findings and conclusionswill be faulty and hence. not
valid and reliable.
n'*stl!d{N!dqlhtry@tr|*s@plhANe
To be able to discuss and explain very well his sampling ['meg-
durcs, the researcher must review sampling procedures in Chapter 12.
Everything about sampling has been discussed in that part of the hook.

Statistical Treatment of Data

the last pan of this chapter usually describes the statistical treat-
ment of data. The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature
of the problem, especially the specific problems, and the nature of the
data gathered. The explicit hypotheses particularly determine the kind
of statistics to he used.
The role of-statistics in research. With the advent of the computer
age, statistics is now playing a vital role in research. This is true
especially in science and technological research. What functions do
statistics perform in research? Some are the following:
196

1 Statistical methods help the researcher in making his research

1.
&iFFdqld!dqlildtlsdfu@@
design. panicularly inexperlmental research. Statistical meth-
dftrE rhqdnddrrIdridk/u
ods am always involved in planning a research project because
in sonic way statistim directs the ntscarchcr how to gather his
data

) u#EhieshllhE*lbd*o@'e
Statistical trchniqua help the it:scan:her in determining the
validity and reliability of his research instruments. Data
gathered with itISUlifilithi that are not valid and Tellable WC
ahnon useless and so the researcher must have to be sore that
his Insiruntents am valid and reliable. Statiroix help hint in
doing this.
uddi!!'@o@j4Eldu4fudyb
%snake' manipulations organize raw data systematically to
r&ftlnh!ll'4ntr6!d}'U4dded
make the latter appropriate Carmody. Unorganized datacannot
be studied. No inferences nor deductions can be made from
@adddjls@!d4dt!d'Mfod}b,
unorganinal data. Statistics organize data systematically by
ordered arrangement. ranking. scars distribution. class fre-
quency distribution or cumulative frequencies. These make
the data appropriate for study.
g:jGadb6eh'dllsfuaGu.ft
A. Stabiles arc used to test the hypotheses. Statistics help the
4r!le@Eb*eBbFksnbh!ryd
restarchcrdeterminc whether hishyputhescsare lobe accepted
or to be rejected.
wnidu!.ddrd{Eoitsdd4dmae
4 Stannic& treatments give meaning and interpretation to data.
For Matinee. if the standard deviation of the dam frequency of
a group is small. we know that the group is more or less
homogeneous but if it Is large. the group is more or less
heterogeneous.
.$. Statistical procedures are Indispensable in determining the
bdid!g!|!led9tllfudn!!N16,fbe
levels of significance of vital statistical measures. These
gbG.Eeft@r(d4fu'h6
atistical measures arc the bases for making infetences. inter-
rdc,sLcldorousd'ahs
pretations. conclusions or generalizations.
tuneMhtudtdtuq@of@dlt
Some guidelines In the selection and application °Amalie°, pro.
(awes. The researcher must haven lean a rudimentary knowledge of
s'idq9snbdsstbstdad4cye+p!od*
statistics so that he will be able to select and apply the appropriate
statistical methods for his data. Some suggestions for the selection and
lcdbdor!'rl@6iFrde
application of statistical techniques follows.
r nd'dd.ftetulqed64qdddd
I. first of all, the data should be organized using any or all of the
following depending upon what is desired to he known or wha'.
 197

is to be compiled: talligram (tabulation table), order s] ar-

rangement of scores. score distribution, class (grouped) fre-
quency distribution, or scancrgram.
2. When certain proportions of the population based on certain
variables such as age, height, income, etc. are desired to be
known, frequency counts with their frequency percents may be
used. For funher analysis, cumulative frequenci (up and
down) with their respective cumulative frequency percents (up
and down) may also be utilized.
For example, a specific question is "How may the high
school science teachers of FMvillee A be described in terns of
sex?" The males were counted and the females were also
counted and their respective percent equivalents were com-
puted.
3. When the typical, normal, or average is desired to be known,
the measures of central tendency such as the median, the mean
or the mode may be computed and used.
4. When the variables being studied are abstract or continuous
such that they cannot be counted individually such as ade-
quacy. efficiency, excellence, extent, seriousness (of prob-
lems), and the like, the weighted mean may be computed and
used if the average is desired to be known. The variable is
divided into categories of descending degree of quality and
then each degree of quality is given a weight. For instance, the
question is "How adequate am the facilities of the school?"
Adequacy may be divided into five degrees of quality such as
'wry{d'c'llu3!ej!hdJ''dqulc'ssa!cgi'
"very adequate" with a weight of 5. "adequate" with a weight
of 4, "Fairly adequate" with a weight of 3, "inadequate" with
a weight of 2. and "very inadequate" with a weight of 1. Then
the weighted mean is computed.
5. When the variability of the population is desired to be known,
the measures of variability such as the range, quartile devia-
tion, average deviation or the standard deviation may be
computed and used. When the measure of variability or dis-
persion is small, the group is mom or less homogeneous but
whcn the measure of variability is large, the group is more or
less heterogeneous.
198

6. When the relative placements of scares or positions are desired

to be known, ranking. quartile or percentile rank may be com-
puted and used. These measures indicate the relative positions
of scores in an ordered arrangement of the scores.
7. When the significance of the trend of reaction or opinion of
persons as a group toward a certain issue, situation, value or
thing is desired to be ►nown but in which there is a neutral
positionthe chi-square of equal probability, single group, is
Computed and interpreted.
8. When the significance Of the difference between the rcatlions,
or opinions of two distinct groups in which there is a neutral
position is desired to be known, the chi-square of equal proba-
bility, two-group, is computed and used.
For instance, a group of 50 persons, 25 males and 25
females, were asked to give their reactions to increasing the
number of curricular years in the elementary. school. Their
reactions may be "Strongly agree," "Agree," "Undecided or
No opinion," "Disagree," or "Strongly disagree." If the per-
sons an: considered as a group, the chi-square of equal proba-
bility. single group is computed as in No. 7. However, if the
significance of the difference between the reactions of the
males and those of the females is to be studied, the chi-square
of equal probability, two-group, is applied as in No. 8.
9. To determine how one variable varies with another, the coef-
ficient of Correlation is computed, as for instance, how the
scoresofagroupofstudents ina Mathematics test vary with the
scores of the same group of =deals in an English test. This is
alsoused codetermine thevalidity of a testbycorrelatingit with
a lest of known validity. When the coefficient of correlation
between the two tests is known and a prediction is to be made
as to whatscoreastudent gosh] a smug lest afterknnwinghis
score in the first, the so-called regression equation is to be
utilized.
10. If the significance of the difference between the perceptions of
two groups about a certain situation is to be studied, the
computation of the difference between means is to be made.
Example: Is there a significant difference between the percep•
lions of the teachers and those of the students about the
 199

@olfu@btlEfusi4h3i|d!'
facilities of the school? To answer this question, the signifs-
canrm of the dif femmes of two means is In used. The statistical
measure computed is called t.
The r is also used to determine the usefulness of a variable
bfue&iryM@iqPd
to which one group called the experimental group is exposed
and a second group called control group Lt not exposed. For
instance, the question is; Doesguidance improve instruction?”
Create two matched gmups mid expose one group to guidance
while the conirul group is not exposed to guidance_ At the end
o.hrEfudpdd.ardgEdE&h8nF.
of theexperimenul period. givethe same lest todenvogroups.
Then compute the z which will Mow ifguidsnce is an effective
aid in insane:don.
II. To deurnine the relative effectiveness of Ow different ways of
doing things to which different randzind red groups an re-
.tsdt'!.rFdDddyIF6lL'\nsd
speaively exposed to and only a post test is given to the
different groups, analysis of variance is appropriate to use. For
Instance, a teacher wants to ilnd out the relative effectiveness
d'lh'q6*i4q'fuoll(rMBLtlifrMt!t.
of the following methods of communication: pure lecture.
keture-demonstration-cecitation-discussiat anal seminar type
of instruction in science. Four groups of students are finned
randomly and each assigned lo one method. 'The four groups
study the same lessons and Altera cenain period given the same
WM. By analysis of variance. the relative effectiveness of the
four methods will be revealed.
If the four groups are given a pm-test and a post-lest. the
analysis of covariance is utilized.
bdllladft.r<tor@3dklp![i8t
12. To determine the effects or some variables upon a single
variable to which they are related. partial and multiple Corral'
64$!teD6!dFa!r''1.'fuFbiL:
tions are suggested to be used. For example, the question is:
Which is most related to the passing of a licensing engineering
examination: college achievement grades, or percentile ranks
in aptitude tests. general mental ability cat. vocational and
professional interest invetory. or Hulot's! College Entrance
lrrtu rDl@(orNjddhdLBcddd
Examination? The process of partial and multiple correlation
*addF({d!d!dcddoddhfu€F6
will reveal the pure and sole effect of each of the independent
variables upon the dependent variable, the passing of the
licensing murninadoo.
200

fTodffidftdJdfulrciid'.&td
13. To determine the association between two independent vari-
d6'rJ!qltddqnfuUd.wfdhj!
ables, thecbi-square of independenceorchi-squareofmultipli-
4@oe!d'ft44qllffdb'fu@dd
cation may be used. The question answered by this statistical
proceas is: Is that an association between education and
leadership? Or, the level of educationand the ability to acquire
wealth? Or, between socialability and economic status?
Indeed, there are lots of research situations in which
different statistical procedures may or can be used and if the
e*}m'$s4he*beighFd!lE&h
researcher is not so sum that he is in the right path, he better
q)dFdldsddkb'sq!l&&sj6d!g!
consultgood statistical books. oraequirc the services of a good
siridd e si6 on@ qcirrv d
d6 the services d
statistician plus of a! computer especially if the
ltMdDd!&s4{Dd6oG'
statistical proccdums are complex ones.

QUESTIONS FOR STUDY AND DISCUSSION

l*d@de1fudhch@l]!
I. What topics are contained in Chapter 3?
2. How do you descnlx your method of research?
3. How is the selection and preparation of the msearch instrument
described?
4. How is the sampling design described?
5. Give the guidelines in the selection of a statistical procedure to be
used.
 201

16 HOW
lrowTo wRnE CHAPTER
TO WRITE CEAPTER 4

crF,. - AJwrsrs.
Chapter 4 — mflM^noN,
ANALYSIS. PRESENTATION, AND
INTERPRETATION OF DATA ^s
In this charger, the researcher makes his analysis. pa:sensation, and
Interpretation or his data.

Analysis

Analysis is the pmccss of breaking up the whole study into Its

.!''@[tsroddepj6ldhlbN
constituent pans of categories according to the specific questions under
&lt.ffid*P*cfr!LbMqdifu16ftlgd
the statememof the problem. This Is to bring out into focus the essential
features of the study. Analysis usually pleat presentation.
&4L:hfudydegd4d$o4rtreh!|{d
Example: In the study of thc teaching of sdcncc in the highschools
of Province A. the whole study may be divided into its constituent pans
as follows according to the specific questions:
I. Educational qualificativau of the sl--ienct teachers
2. Methods and strategies wed in the teaching of science
3. Facilities avaiLitde far the teaching of science
4. Forms of supervisory assistance
S. Differences between the perceptions of the teachers and those
of the students concerning the teaching or science
6'lfuBl@bfu@hi4d$@
6. Problems encountered in the teaching of science
aAqd.funftldEl
7. Proposed solutions to the problems
S. Implications of the findings
Eachconstituent pan may still bc div Wed into its essential categories.
!&{dfudlqndqddhdt
Exampie: The educational qualifications of die teachers may further be
subdivided into the folloxing:
!E'ddiFe cdfu
I. Degrees earned in pm-service (dor-dice
2. M3:10174 or specializations
3 Units earned in science
4. Teacher's examinations and other examinations passed
202

5. Seminars, conferences, and other special (Takings kneaded for

the teaching of science
6. Books, journals, and other materials in science being read
7. Advanced studies
sNujeldFhfu&&lq
B. Number of years in science teaching
9. Etc.
Then undcr degrees camcd arc
I. Bachelor of Arts
2. Bachelor of Science in Education
3. Master of Arts
4. Etc.
The other constituent pans may also be similarly divided and
subdivided. The data arc then grouped under the categories or parts to
which they belong.
Classification ofdata. Classification isgroupingtogetherdata with
similar characteristics. Classification is apart of analysis. The bases of
classification are the following:
a. Qualitative (kind). Those having the same quality or arc of the
Me(datFundDF4ltAou|h!dMd!h
same kind are gmureA nether. The grouping of elements in
the csamplesgiven under analysis is qualitative. Sec examples
under analysis.
b. Qualuitative. Data arc grouped according to their quantity. In
age,
4e, for i'fu. r&
tu instance, people may L grouped
Dry be suFd into iM ages
4e of lcr,
d 10-14,
15-19, 20-24, 25-29, etc.
C. Geographical. Dam may he classified according to their
location. For instance, the schools in the secondary level in
Province A may be grouped by district, as District 1, District 2.
District 3, etc.
d. ChronologicaL In this, data are classified according lo the
°Mere(' theiroccurrcnce. Example:The enrolments of the high
schools of Province A may be classified according to school
years, as for, instance, enrolments during the school years
1985-486, 1986-487, 1912.7-11R.
Cross-clattificarion. This is further classifying a group of data into
subclasses. This is breaking up or dividing a big class into smaller
classes. Forinstance, a groupof students may be classified as high school
 203

students as distinguished from elementary and college gudents. Then

they am further subdivided into cunicular years as first. second, third.
and fourth years. Each curricular year may still be subdivided into male
and female.
Arrangement of data or classes of data. The bases of arrangement
of data or groups of data are the same as those of classification.
a Qualitative. Data may be arranged alphabetically, or from the
biggest class to the smallest class as from phylum to specie in
ddri4tu*qriarc&qL*tuehls{d@q
classifying animals or vice versa, or listing thc biggest country
to the smallest one or vice versa, or from the most important to
the least important. or vice versa, etc. Ranking of students
according to brightness is qualitative arrangement
b. QUernalaliVC. This is arranging data according to their
numerical magnitudes, from the greatest to the smallest num-
ber or vice versa. Schools may be arranged according to their
population, from the most populated to thelemtpopulated, and
so with countries, provinces, cities, mwns, etc.
c. Geographical. Data may be arranged according to their
geographical location or according to direction. Data fmm the
n@5$sd{e]fuiJonNdl@$!db!@1h{s
haws region may be listed from north to south by province as
llocos None, Abra, flows Sur, and La Union.
d. Chronological. Thiele lisdngdowndatathatoccurred first and
last those that occurred last, or vice versa according to the
purpose of presentation. This is especially true in historical
research. For instance. data during the Spanish period should
Efudnd&'@fu&bd{iqscAn.iqF]d.
be treated first before the data during the American period.
Classification, coSs-classification and arrangement of data are
done for purposes of organizing the thesis report and in presenting them
in tabular form. In tables. data am properly and logically classified,
i.qh!!@drt5q
cross-classified, and arranged so that their relationships arc readily sow.

Group•derived Generalizations

oededFNldd*bllgdebLo.oo
One of the main purposes of analyzing research data Is to form
inferences, imerpretatiOnS,COnclusions, and/or generalizations from de
collected data. In so doing the researcher should be guided by the
following discussions about group-derived generalizations.
204

The use of the survey, usually called the normative survey, as a

methodof collectingdata forresearch implies the Ilutly of groups. From
the findings arc formulated conclusions in the form of generalizations
that pertain to !he panicular group studied. These conclusions art called
group•derived genentlizations designed to represent characteristics of
groups and am to be applied to groups rather than to individual cases one
at a time. These arc applicable to all kinds of research, be they social,
science or namral science research. There am several types of these but
are discussed under four categories by Good and Seams. (Good and
Scar= pp 290-298) The key sentences arc of this author.
t q\ v@Fd
etd.dt on'y proportional predictions
1. Generally, prerda8 can * na w
ar be made. One
type of generalization is that which is expressed in terns of proportion
of the cases in a group, often in the form of probability. When this type
is used, we do not have enough information about individual cases to
make predictions for them, but we can nevertheless predict for a group
of future observations. As to individual VIC/11., however, we can say
ar and
nothing: probability is distinctly a group concept sr, too
i.dre only
od applies
groups.
odtr]&,h1
Quality inorrctu4r
control in manufacturing is Fetr4d! ssrne
an example. Based on the
recognition that products cannot be turned out as precisely az: intended•
but 6as
N that hry as
so long Nla given de
dlolDtsi@ cas fall
proportion of t e cases 6sd
Ghh assigned
o rwithin
limits of variation• that is all that is expected. InheMj@di46'
the biological field,
certain proportions of offspring. inherit certain degrees of characteris-
tics of parents, but individual predictions cannot he made In the social
field, in insurance especially, based on demographic and actuarial data,
life tables indicate life expectancies of groups butnothing whatsoever is
known about the life expectancy of any particular individuaL
Here is another example. Suppose in a certainschoolofferingcivil
dnid4'itibs|I!'6ddfuud
engineering. it is a known fact that all through the years, about 70% of
its graduates with an average of 2.0 or its equivalent or higher pass the
(4rglrsil@rrr
licensing examination for civil 4Fietr o.rthis basis,
engineers. On tu$,{;Ddq
we can Media
that about 70% of the graduates of the school with an average grade of
2.0 or higher will pass the next licensing examination for civil engineers
but we cannot predict with ccnainty the passing of a particular graduate
even if his average grade is 1.25.
2. The average can be made to represent the whole group. A
second type of group derived generalization results from using the
average as a Two:sensation of the group of cases and offering it as a
 205

,rddd( BrkiNd4fttu qc
typical result This is ignoring the individuals comprising the group or
the variation existing in the group but the average represents the whole
group. Generally, the mean and the median arc used to denote the
averages of scale position but other statistical measures such as the
common measures of variation, correlation, regression lines. etc. are
also structurally consideredas avenges. These are group fimaionscon-
veying no suit knowledge about any individual cast in the group.
1 n44tu!dtth,bra,a!\tuqtryr1d4{!q
3. Full-frequency
Fdr distribution reveals characteristics oft group.
Asa third type oflmowledgegrowing out of the study of groups, we have
the full-frequency distribution - the most characteristic device, perhaps
Of all statistical work. PerhapS too, the most inferential characteristics of
frequency distribution are shape and spread. Frequency distributions
'q!uydkdMbo&nuts!dtEd
carry the implication of probability. One implication is as follows.
j!dd{gfrtsdhoa
Suppose the heiglus of Grade I pupils are taken and then grouped into a
ds!r4{qdnddmsiqhuh66cdlqsjsdesdh
class frequency distribution, using height as the trait or basis of distribu-
tion in groups. Then the suppliers of chairs and tables for the pupils will
be able to know the numberof chairs and tables to Wit the heights of the
pupils.
I fere is another example which enables us to know certain charae-
tiisdesrops{Fel6!!8jt'hi
teristics of a group. Suppose a test is given to a group of students. Then
their scores are grouped into a class frequency distribution. If the
Standard deviation, a MCBSUTC of variability, is computed and it is
unusually large, then we know that the group is heterogeneous. If the
standard deviation is small, the group is more or less homogeneous. If
bdLdMeo
the Fda dc Q4
6r the
distribudon isn graphed and ! h riLidh
*n $Fd, the distribution
curve is bell-shaped,
is normal, that is, there is ancqual number of bright and dull snidents with
douciAll!t'!lt
the average in the middle. If the curve is skewed to the right, there are
more dull students than bright ones, and if the distribution is skewed to
the left there are more bright student,- than dull ones.
4. A group itsergenerates new qualides.characterislics.proper-
ties, or aspects not present in individual cases. For instance, there are
3dm.{rydvj$'
many chairs in a room. The chairs can be arranged in a variety of ways.
However, if there is only one chair, there can be no arrangement in any
order. Hence, order and arrangement arc group properties and they
represent relationships within a group, properties which can arise only if
there are two or mom oases.
fur@prriAhqindyi@Fn@ts6'q
Other group pmperdes that exist only in groups are cooperation.
q6d40@j4fulFfu!Ldd}dngrufu'
opposition, organization, speciilkation, leadership, teaching, morale.
206

reciprocal sharing of emotions. Mc. which vanish in individual cases

Two more categories of generalization may be added at this point.
1. A generalization can also be made about an individual case.
For insane, a high school graduating student is declared valcdictorianof
tusghtesi*tur
hisclass. Wecan generalize that, that student is the brightest in his class.
ft'k1gD!$i!d3dMndtlw$i
This is a group-derived generallzatin because it cannot he made if there
is only one student Here is another example. A teacher declares that
Juan is the ben behaved pupil ha her class. This is a group-derived
gcneralizationbecause thisstatementcannothe made if them is only one
pupa. There am many instances of this kind.
2. In certain cases. predictions on individual cases can he made.
dyrgtdpdlc
It has been mentioned earlier that, generally, only proponional prodie-
dons can be made. However, in comdmion and regression studies, one
variable can be predicted from another. Take the case of the civil
dsi@i4FJsadhgful@Niqq!,
engineering graduate taking the licensing examination. If thccoefficient
of correlation between the school grades of those who took the licnsing
examination and their scores in the examination is computed and it is
Ng\inFibebEstlfudstd!ldiydldFn!&d
high, it is possible to predict the chance of an individual graduate of
passing the licensing examination by the use of mgreSsiOn equations.
ft,s;-rirdMLh{i,
The ft' is linearity in the relation-
accuracy of prediction is high if (1) them
'fuldhk\sbq'8Elhd
ship of the two variables if graphed, ' (2) the distributions in the two
variables arc normal or not badly skewed, and (3) the spreadorscatter of
!c1{orsdsi!&sn.';eeh@rwiuD!;
the two variables is the same for each column or row in the!o@Ld@correlation
table. The promsx involves a complicated statistical procedure and the
researcher is better referred to a good statistical book especially that of
Garrett, pp. 122-146 forlinear correlation and pp. 151-165 for regression
and prediction

Preparing Data for Presentation

Before presenting data in accepted forms, especially in presenting

them in the form of statistical tables, they have to be tallied first in a
,Mfudk@ftdnryEdHLnrg@.iqmdoddly
tabulation diagram which may be called talligram, a contraction of tally
and diagram. The individual responses to a questionnaire or interview
schedule have to be tallied one by onc.
How to construct a talligram. A talligram may be consnucted as
'4,@dfu'ddl'dAdl8@oryb{fu!
follows:
 207
1. Determine the classes and their respective subeksv-s along
with their respective numbers. For instance, in the study about
science teaching in the high schools of Province A, anent the
qualifications of the teachers, suppose them are four degrees
earned by the teachers such as AB (Bachelor of Arts). BSCE
€rLhr ofd$cE
(Bachelor Science in
n Civil bsEio9. BSE
dd Engineering). (8e*brcr
BsE (Bachelor of
Science in Education) and MA (Master of Arts with under-
graduate courses). The subclasses am the specializations or
n46d'h
majors hftB There
of the teachers. tur are r$ four
@ also sd as! English.
rod such tusbh.
History, Mathematics, and Scicncc. The classes and their
subclasses are arranged alphabetically.
2. Make mws for the classes by drawing horizontal lines with
appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of the
rowsshould he two more than the numberof classes. So in the
example given in step No. 1, there should be six rows because
there am four classes. The uppermost row is for the labels of
the subclasses, the bottom row is for the totals, and the middle
four rows are for the classes: AB, BSCE, BSE. and MA.
M*c@lu6iole$b6*56}d{vngrcfocdhwid
3. Maim columns for the subclasses by d raving vertical lines with
sF tap5M{qekddeqqbd(L
appropriate spaces between the lines and the number of col•
urns should be two more than the number of subclasses. So
in the example in No. 1 step there should be six columns. The
leftmost column is for the labels of the class rows, the right-
most column is for Malay and the four middle columns arc for
the four subclasses.
9.ls4IbI$@pl.dldllsnb
See Figure I for an example of a talligram,

Degrees and Specializations of Teachers

DegnMS Specializations (Majors) Total
English History. Mathematics Science
AB 1(01(2)
BSCE 10.%)
BSE 1(4) 1(3)
MA
Totals

Figure 1
208

td@dtet@)t,ddbt^.@M
How to ratty data (responses) gathered through a qaestionarare.
Tallying responses to a questionnaire in a talligrain follows. Suppose a
questionnaire gives the following data:
r. rl&aLrsgde sd{dd.!,Fr tu d,
a. Teacher A is an AB graduate withascience major. Enter amity
in de cell %Stich is the trausection of the AB row and the
fudld@ftl!l'nrfuFd&*'f'oJ
Science column. The tally Is ashort vertical bar. See Entry (1)
in Rgure 1.
b'16lLesaid!*dll.dejcfurdy
b. Teacher Et Is an AB graduate witha science major. Enter a tally
in the cell which is the intersection of the AB row and the
slellhsErt,Cr}hEsl.
Science column_ See Entry (2) in Rgurc 1.
c. rcectrrNEsi!&{rdod*iiir
!. Teacher C isaBSEgraduate with axle= major. Enter turdt
a thlly
in the cell which is the Intersection of the BSE mw and the
s@fusbq{'dRsl.
Crienn• whim See Entry (3) in Figure 1.
d. ]t&DrrDs!&dr!!!fuDa!Ld
d Teacher D is a BSE graduate with a mathematics major. Eater
Rielly in the cell which is the intersection of the ma row and
eM$h
the Mathematics €dw, &.ElnlohaFr
column. See Entry (4) in Rgure 1.
e. Teacher E Is a BSCP. graduate with a mathematics major.
Enter a tally in the cell which is the interaction of the BSCE
row and the Mathemada column. See F.niry (5) in Figure 1.
L Continue the proem until all the data needed am entered.
When finished, the talligram will look exactly like Figure 2.

Degrees and Spretalbations of the Teachers

Speclakat ons (Majors)

Degrees Tomb
English Kew, Mathematics SCICOD3
AB t tt nal I tstniat tt 21
BSCE int I
BSE it it se Ise ail tunes et Si
MA I II 3
Totals 3 4 25 V ive

Rpm 2
 209

Figure 2 may now be convened into a statistical table for data

presentation. Generally. all quantified data are tallied first in talligrams
6i$fury6!
which arc then convened into statistical tables for data presentation
using Hindu-Arabic numerals in the cells in place of tallies.

Presentation of Data

Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequen-

iddncd4rqlulNiA.dcn.ca,
tial, and meaningful categories and classifications to make them ame-
d*bsud'odh.aehloebd]*dFrldsFdlbh@
nableto study and interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into
proper order and in categories reducing them into Rums that are intdli-
gi6tdhtFu'c9d4ethlodFe&F6.eldh
gible and interpretable so that the relationships between the research
specific questions and their intended answers can be established. There
are three ways of presenting data: textual, tabular, and graphical.

Textual Presentation of Data

Textual presentation uses statements with numerals or numbers to

describe data. The main aims of textual presentation are to focus
attention to some imponant data and to supplement tabular presen-
tation.

ft eders,€r rttr(troobq. trMitrb4to

The disadvantage, especially if it is too long, is that it is boring to
mad and the reader may not even be able to grasp the quantitative
relationships of the data presented. The reader may even skip some
statements.

eope tuftbwrtn,!s!dqd4mdhierd4.
Example: The following refers to the degrees earned by 59 science
ogd!d.@ituhkh
teachers in the hypothetical study of the reaching of science in the high
schools of Province A:

Of the 59 science teachers. 21 or 35.59 percent have earned a

Bachelor of Arts degree with education units, four or 6.78 percent have
earned a Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering degrees with educe-
lion units, 31 or 52.54 percent a Bachelorof Science in Educanun degree,
and three or 5.08 percent a Master of Arts degree.

AgdhAD3ase6gJatD'd6eldFrc@tr{d
According to government regulations, all the teachers axe qualified
bhchhtuhshshsr ir@1btr, d
Gb isr already
to teach in the high school. (This tudy ai 6djqq,
finding, interpretation, or
inference)
210

Tabular Presentation of Data

Statistical table dart A statistical table or simply table is

defined as a systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of
numerical facts or data are given each a row and their subclasses
are given each a column in order to present the miationships of the sets
or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact, and understandable
form or fonts.
Purpose of a table. The putpose is to facilitate the study and
irde:prelation, the making of inferences and implications oldie relation-
ships of Statistical data. Table construction for data presentation is
a pan of analysis because the data are separated and grouped according
to class or category.
Advantages of talndur over ff:Affilli preservation of data.: The ad-
vantages of the tabular over the textual presentation of data are:
1. Statistical tables am concise, and ',manse data arc systemati-
cally grouped and ananget1,- explanatory matterisminintal.
2. Data ate more easily read. understood and compared lr..eause
of their systematic and logical arrangement into rows and
columns. The reader can understand and interpret a great bulk
of data rapidly INICthUSC he can Fat: significant relationship; of
data at once.

3. Tables give the whole information even without combining

numerals with textual matter. This is so because tables am so
constructed that the ideas they convey can be understood even
WillIOUE reading their textual presentation.

The inajor fractional parts of a statistical table. The names of the

functional partsorastatistical table are shown in the following diagrams:
(Bacani. et al. p. 55)
 211

'fable Number
Title
(Headnote)

Ma= Caption
Stub Ilead
Column Column Column 1 Column
Caption Caption Caption Caption

Row label Entry Entry

FAT)?
•• MO

ili• ••

vs II ••

i• el

Total

F0017101e:
Source Note:

The above Illustration of a table k only a simple One. There arc

tables that are very complicated. For instance, the column captions may
Maher be subdivided Into sub-column captions which in turn may still
e#l@fuiqFrLY{!uh}
be subdivided. This happens when the subject matter or the table is
classified. Men the first clas.4ficatiorts an: bather sub:lass-died aM so
on
1. TableNunther. Eachtable should havea number. preierably in
Arabic. for reference purposes. Tbis is Nonuse only the table numbers
arc cited. The number is written dime the title of the table. Tables are
nuirlbered consecutively throughout the thesis report. Iftheie is only one
table the number is unnoCes:ary. Scc Table I for illtzlnuion.
Title. The tale should tell alma the following:
I th$idotuedid.eisdr
a. The subject matter that said table deals svide
b. where such subject matter Is situated. or to what entity or
persons it belongs, or (mm whom the data about such
subject matter wen; gathered:
212

c. when data about such subject matter were gathered or the

time period what such data were existent; and
d sometimes
d. !ftdDsbow6!dikib $d $blrlerieda+
how the data about such subjw. meter are etas-
sifitxt.
Usually, however, only the first two elements are mentioned in the
1dc.!d!q!bq,rq,rsusrt&e@ ft iislibbtrtutrnc
tide, and occasionally only the subject matter. This is possible if the time
period of the study as well as the locale and respondents are well
discussed in the scope and delimitation of the study. Only the tegirming
letters of the important words in the title arc capitalized. If the title
contains more thanone I ine, t should he written like an inverted pyramid.
Sec Table 1 below.

Table I
Degrees and Specializations of the Teachers

Specializations (Majors)
Degrees Totals
Earned" English History Mathematics Science
96" F % F % F To F 9E

AB 1 1.69 2 3.39 6 10.17 12 20.34 21 3559

BSCE 4 6.78 4 6.78
USE 2 3.39 2 3.39 14 23.73 13 22.03 31 52.54
MA 1 1.69 2 3.39 3 5.08

Totals 3 5.08 4 6.78 25 42.37 27 4536 59 99.99'

Foomotes: a. All the teachers have enoughcclucation units asrequired

by regulations.
b. The total number of teachers. 59, was the hate used in
computing all percents.
c. The percent total does not equal to 100.00 percent due
to rounding off of partial percents to two decimal places.
However, the 99.99 percent can be increased to 100.00
percent by adding .01 to the larecst partial perceat. A
principle supports this process.
Sources: The Principals' Offices.
 213

6'hqflpt,tubtr.'*sbndn rri lcsohslid

In thccxample,Table 1, thc subject matter's "degrees and speciali-
zations," and the entities from whom thetlataor from whom thedata were
gathered are the teachers. The period of the inquiry was school year
1989-1990 but that was already mentioned in the scope and delimitation
of the study and it does not need to be included in all tables anymore.
"flow the data are classified" need not be included in the title because the
table is only a simple one and the classifications of the data are clear
enough. If the title is "Distribution of Teachers According to Degrees
and Specializations,- the way the teachers arc classified is already
indicated.
1r.tut,P41e,trrn
3. lleadnoreor Prefatory/Vote. This is written below the ink and
it is usually enclosed in parentheses. h explains somethings in the table
that am not clear. Suppose a table entitled "Monetary Values or
Propenies of the High Schools in Province A" is in he constnicted and
the entries in the table arc in rounded millions of pesos. If the amount to
be entered is six million pesos, the entry is only 6, instead of entering
8,000,000 the entry is only 8, etc. The heaths ni in than N11011111 be written
below the title should be "Millions of PCNOS." SO. Lhe entry of 6 istead
six million pesos, the entry of t: should be road eight million pesos,ete.
4. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and the row labels. The
stub head tells what the stub contains. the row labels. Each row label
describes the data contained in that row. In the table given as example,
Table I. Degrees is the stub head and below it arc the degrees which arc
the row label: AB, BSCE, BSE. and MA. In the AB row all the teachers
listed them, are AB graduates, in the BSCE row all BSCE graduates, in
the BSE row all BSE graduates, and in the MA row all MA graduates.
Tow& may be considered as pan of the snub.
5. Box Head. The box head contains the master caption. the
column captions, and the column subeaptions. The master caption
describes the column captions anti the column captions in turn describe
the subcolumn captions. InTable 1, ftmaster caption is .pecializations
(trii\) (tuhi qdqs
rlc column captions arc
(Majors). The r4hr
i!. English, History. Mathematics.
Science, andTotals. The sulmaptions are F(Iniquency), and % (percent).
The F indicates the number of teachers under it and the symbol %
indicates the proponinn of the number under F to the total, 59.
6. Main bodyjield or text. The main body, field, or text of the
table contains all the quantitative andthr propunional information pre-
sented in the table in rows and in columns. Each numerical datum is
entered in the cell which is the intersection of the row and the column
214

of the daunt For instance, thc 14 teachers who am BSE graduates and
who majored in mathematics am entered in the cell which is the
intersection of the BSE row and the mathematics column.
7. Footnote. The footnote which appears immediately below the
bottom line of the table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some items in the
table which am not readily understandable or are missing. Proper
symbols are used to indicate the items that arc clarified or explained. In
Table I. a is used to indicate that all the teachers have enough education
units, b is used to indicate that all Frcents were computed with 59 as the
base, and cis used to indicate that the total percent does not equal 100.00
due to the rounding off of the partial percents to two decimal places.
The footnote is not necessary if everything in the table is clear and
there is nothing to clarify or explain.
S. SOuree utile. The source nom which is generally written below
the footnote indicates the origin or source of the data presented in the
table. In Table I, the sources oldie data are the Principals' Office.s. The
purposes of placing the source noie arc:
a. To give credi or mcognitionto the au thorof the table or the
source or sources of the data;
b. To allow the user to %Cairn additional data from the same
source:
c. To provide the user a basis for determining the accuracy
and reliaht ity of the inform anon provided by the table; and
d. To protect the maker of the table against any charge of
inaccuracy and unreliability.

The source note is not necessary if the sources of the data arc the
respondnts to a questionnaire or interview schedule.
Rulings and Sparing in tables. Ruling is done in a table to empha-
sin or make dear relationships. There am no fixed standard rules 10
follow in ruling and spacing tables. Emphasis and clarity am the
determining factors. However, the following guidelines are generally
followed in the COMIRICCICIII of tables for a thesis report:
1. The table number is not separated by line from the title. It is
written two spaces above the title.
2. 71ic title is separated from the rest of the table by a double line
placed two spaces below the lowest line of thc title.
 215

3. The stub, master caption, captions. subcaptions, and totals are

separated from one another by vertical and horizontal lines.
4, The rows and columns arc not separated by lines. Major
groups. however. am separated by single lines. For purposes
of clarity, rows am separated by a double space and the
columns am separated by as wide a space as possible.
5. Roth ends of the table am urinded.
6. There is always a line, either single or double. at the bottom of
the table.

Unity in a table. Thera shouldalwaysbeunity in a table. Toachieve

this, pmsenting too many ideas in a single table should he avoided. One
subject matter is enough, one that can be divided into categories which
in turn can be divithid into common classifications. ht Table 1. for
instance, the subject mailer is degrees and majors. Degrees is divided
into similar categories such as AR. HSC-F. BSE. and MA. The subclasses
such as English. I listory, Mathematics. and Science are common to the
degree categories.
Texiclid presentation of tabular data. Gencnilly, there should be a
textual presentation Of a table which precedes the table or the table my
he placed within the textual pn2stallation. The table and its teaml
pn:centation should be placed as near as possible to each Other. Textual
presenlation is mixing words with numbers in statements.
There arc Iwo ways of making a textual presentation of a table:
1, All the hems in the table are textually presented. This manner
enables the reader to commehetuf the totality of the data even
without consulting die table. This is alright if the data we not
so many. However. if the data are so numerous. reading
becomes boring and die made; may even skip some of the
items.
2. Only the highlights or important pans of the data are textually
presented.

The basic principles that should be remembered in the textual

presentation of a table am:
1. The textual presentation of a table SlinuIcl be as complete as
possible so Thai the ideas conveyed in the table are understood
even without referring to the table itself.
216

2. Textual presentation is generally followed by interpretation.

inference or implication. This is done after the data from the
table have been textually presented.
3. findings in the present study should be compared with the
findings of other studies as pre.sentect in the related literature
and studies. This enables the researcher to make some gener-
alizations if there am enough data to support such generaliza-
tions.

Following is the textual presentation of Table 1:

(Completell'able 1 slows that there were 59 science teachers in the
highschoolsof Province A. Of thisnurnter,21 or 35_59 percent were AB
graduates. Of the AB graduates, one or 1.69 percent majored in English,
two or 3.39 percent in Ilisti try, six or 10.17 percent in Mathematics, and
12 or 10.34 percent in Science.
Them were only four or 6.78 percent who were BSCE graduates,
all majoring in Mathematics.
Thereviere 31 or52.54 percent who were BSE graduates and ofthis
number, two or 3.39 percent majored in English. the same number in
History. 14 or23.73 percent in Mathematics, and 13 or 22.03 permit in
Science.
Summarizing the majors, three or SOS percent were majors in
English, four or 6.78 percent in I I istnry. 25 or 42.37 per= in Mathe-
matics, and 27 nr 45.76 pement in Science.

nritr.rtldlr'on(eLadFL!!lDrrBsEs r 6
(Onlyshifitighlighis)01 the59 metiers, the AB and BSEgraduates
constilutcx1 the most number. Twenty-one or 35.59 percent were AB
graduates and 31 or 52.54 percent had BSE degmes or a total of 52 or
88:13 percent. Of the mayint 27 or 45.76 percent of the teachers were
dlii^i fr i jiiloF t
s.i tu.25nor 42.37 pen2ent in IMathematics,
majonin Science, rnL and three or 5.011
percept in English and four or 6.7R percent in History.
Findings. Findings arc the original data. quantitative or otherwise,
derived Or Laken from the Original M-nntes and which are insults of
questionnaires, interviews, experiments. tests, observations and other
data gathering histmums, Data prc$1,11m1 in tables and their textual
presentations are examples of findings. Findings do nut directly answer
the specific questions asked at the beginning of the investigation or the
explicit hypotheses but the findings provide the bases for making the
answers. Hence, the main timetions of the findings are to provide bases
for making the conclusions.
 217

inyilicatinn, inference, interpretation. These three terms arc

synonymous if not exactly the same in meaning. They are used inter-
changeably. Each is a statement or statements of the possible meaning,
probable causes and probable effects of a situation or condition as
revealed by dm findings plus a veiled suggestion to contimic thesiwation
if it is good onto adopt some remedial measures in eradicate or minimize
its bad effects. Those who we to be benefitted and those who arc going
CO suffer the bad effects should also be mentioned.
Implication, inference, or interpretation has at least four elements,
namely, condition. Cause, effect. and continuance or mmedial measure.
(1) Statement of the condition or situation. The condition or
siutation is stated basedupon the findings. whahcrsatisfactory
or unsatisfactory.
(2) Probable cause of the condition. Usually, also every
condition has a cause but, there must also be a logical and
valid relationship between the condition and its cause.
(3) Probable effects of the condition. Usually, also every condi-
tion has an ef feet, either had or good. However, them must also
he a logical and valid rebnonship between the condition and its
effect and this must be clearly given.
(4) A veiled suggestionfor contimumce os remedialmeasure. if the
possible effect is bad. If the effect or dm:condition is good, then
there must be a hint for the continuance of the existence of the
condition. Itowever. if the effect is deleterious them must be
some suggestions for the adoption of measures aimed at
minimizing the harmful effects.

The interpretation of Table 1 and its textual presentation is as

follows- All the science teachers were qualified to teach in the high
school as per regulation. Unfortunately, more than half of them wen:
not science majors and therefore cannut teach science. Taking all other
o4\ equal,
things !&i d!with a, science
!q!!.3a teacher ni.c!,major
rjocu
can teach science Letter than
one with a non-science major. Consequently, it can be assumed that the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province Ms weak. Asa result
the modems and the whole country will suffer and the consequences will
he far-reaching. There is a need to encourage the teachers who am non-
science majors to increase their scicncc units by attending evening or
summer courses or by attending more science seminars.
211I

Graphical Presentation of Data

AsnphisackQrcgbge+4d!'icYddoBq
A graph is a chart representing the quantitative variations or
changes of a variable itself. or quantitative changes of a variable in
comparison with those of another variable or variables in pictorial or
diagrammatic form.
The quantitative variations or changes in the data may refer to their
qualitative, geographical. or choronological attributes. For instance, if
the number of teachers teaching science in the high schools of Province
A is graphed according to their degrees, the graphing is qualitative; if
their number is graphed according to their assignments in the towns
where the high schools are located. the graphing is geographical; and if
their number is graphed according to school year, the graphing is
chronological.
Purpose of graphing. The purpose of graphing is to present the
100{l6nc, d.
variations,changes, and relationshipsofdata inamost anon-five. appeal-
ing, effective and convincing way.
Advantages of the graphic method. (Bacani. et al., pp. 5445)
According to Bacani, el al. the following am the advantages of the
graphical method:
I. It attracts attention more effectively than do tables, and, there-
fore. k less likely to be overlooked. Readers may skip tables
but pause to look at charts.
2. The use of colons and pictorial di agrams makes a liSL of figures
in business reports more meaningful. (Also in thesis reports)
3. It!gj!61@|Eic4icltwdqj4h!ddfu
gives a comprehensive view of quantitative data. The
wandering of a linccxens amorepowerfuleffectin thereaders
mind than tabulated data. It shows what is happening and what
is likely to take place.
4. Graphs enable the .", ** *.
;" busy executive of a business concern to
"*,.,,."and",without .
grasp the",.,,"
".d" essential facts quickly " much trouble.
Any relation not seen from the figures themselves is easily
dlwcndlM,.F!tr
dist:covered U$ai4'hdsbA
fmm the graph. Illustrations Ed;
. including attractive
charts and graphs, are 110W considered by most businessmen as
indispensable accompaniment to good business reports.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the
presentation of numerical data.
 219

MitariOra of grapht (Racani. et al.. p 55)11 there arc advantages

kE&tur!@dtr3n!6 bcdee
that arc also disadvantages of the graph. Some of these are:
1. Graphs do not show as much Information at a time as do tables.
cDFtebrturdu!!.t)@r,e'e6
?. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
2.
3. Charts require more skill, more time, and more expense to
prepare than tables.
4. Graphs cannot be quoted in the same way ax tabulated data.
5'64!5cdbn&dyftle&be.hqofu
5. Graphs can be made only after the data have been tabulated.

DF6oq*ta nryb e.d d i

cnda may be classified into the
Types of graph< or charm Graphs
following types:
1. Rar graphs
a. $!rs&d*@*
I Single vertical bar graph
b. Single horizontal bar graph
..c@rddo!d!6snFiE&3r{6
c. Grouped or multiple or composite bar graph
d. Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
C. Subdivided or component bar graph
C. Histogram
2. Linear graphs
I
a. Time sis
Tn! series or dosl4rcd line
d cbmnological rie chartdui
b. Composite line than
c. Frequency polygon
d. Ogive
C. Band chart
3. Ilualmd per cent graphs or charts
r $Hid&qEd@1r&F+
a. Subdivided bar or rectangular bar graph
b. Circle or pie graph
4. Pictograms
5. Statistical maps
6. Ratio charts

cdtl,le!r&'drqtu sddieeri.c6
Construction of individual graphs. Stated herein are the principles
to be followed in the construction of individual graphs.
L The
I. &xr4rr
11. bar rE bar
graph. Tice tu graph !is often
Bmph rr4 used uli fur
6r the s$r
e graphic
Ffud!a!nn.!d}Htdutsbd
presentation of data It is generally its.t IQ make comparison of
simpk magnitude": wry much more clearly admit distinctly
220

B@fub**e'&tda,ib!d3{cla,l
perequible to the eye. Each bar is drawn to a height or length
+'bftnlg''id1ll'E€'!fub&4f
equal tothe magnitude it NA... asasindicardin the Kale (Y-
axis). The ham as separated from each other by a space equal
Wont-half the width of a bar. However, them are no fixed rules
that govern the construction of graphs and the maker may ordy
be guided Icy hestheric. pmponional. and symmetrical con-
sideratioin and for convenience.

Comparison in bar graphs Is linear. It is the length of each bar that

determines the sin of a magnitude it represents and the relative position
d@u4;ddl.Adl&dieDgilA
of that magnitude in a scrics of like and related magnitudes.
|7!n4![ddeg4,bej4lyldNF'}'
a. The single vertical bar graph. In the single venial bar graph,
fuef.6si!'^!ei!$4\dsq|in'o.fitEi
the bars are constructed vertically and they portray the magni-
tudes of the categories Imo which data have been classified.
&6srR'qrrd.
Sec Figure 3 as in example of bark4F vldba&
graph. Vertical bars me
usually used to depict time sales data.
hd'F.sunE
b. Single horizontal bar graph. In this smith. the bon are
constructed horizontally and am used to compare magnitudes
of the different categories into lath* the data arc classified
fuhide46,nk!!J'dbm@DF;
Thc horizontal bar graph Is usually used to compare magni-
tudes of categories.

cetu,/r@k
Construction of graphs. In oilitr.i
b constructingu graphs.
e4hr two u
LM straight16
s' lines
arc drawn perpendicular to each other. Miaowing a a point called the
point or origin and marked 0 (zero).
The horizontal line is called baseline, coordinate, or X-axis. ft
represents the variables Involved or the classes or categories of the
variable Involved.
The vcnical !Inc kr called ordinate or Y-axis. It represents the
quantities of the variables or clasesoreategoricsuf a variable Involved.
The Y-axis is divided into unit distances with each unit distance repre-
sda!4fte4x4!,9t!eqg
senting a definite quantity. If one unit distance 01 unit length represents
4,2 taut itistanon rpm..-nt X. 3 unit dust es represnu 12. etc.This
is called the seak.
The distance measured to any point parallel to the X-axiS from the
Y•axis is called the abscissa of the point and the distance of that point
Fd6LhcYlA.@fur!!iiftod
parallel to the Y-axis from tic X-axis is the ordinate of the point. The
abscissa and the ordinate of a point am called the coordinates of
the point.
 221

Plotting the graph means locating the meeting point of the abscissa
and the ordinate.

Frs,u! 14 rd,l lE evdr! a6 d

essentials of a graph. The exsential parts of ! graph
it 0 the
Fph arc ft
following:
1. Number. Clans or graphs arc also numbered for reference
purposes. The general practice is to write the number asFigure
1. Figure 2, Figure 3. ctc. at the bottom of the graph.
rnl.l$!erdtr.rd\b|iF!55sh6*!fte,de
2. Title. The same principles hold in graphs as in tables. The title
is usually written above the graph.
3. Scale. The scale indicates the length or height unit that
4cedsledloNu ] li variable
represents a certain amour° of the {|ld i
!,h,6 t which is the sb]d
sc subject
of the graph, The scale enables the reader to interpret the
significance of a number of length or height units. Thus, if a
length or height unit is equal to 2. two length or height units
equal 4. 3 length or height units equal h. etc. The Y-axis
represents the scale.
4. Classification and arrangement. The principles of elassifica
lion and arrangement are the same in graphs as in iablcs.
5. Classes. categories, or time series arc indicated at the X-axis
and the scale units are indicated at die Y-axis.
6. Synanetry of the graph. The whole chart or graph should be
aboutsquare.othenvise the length should be abide greater than
the height. The chart should placed0n dic page in such a way
that the margins al the left and at the right should he about the
same, or the margin at the left is a little wider.
7. Footnote. The footnote. if (here is any, should be placed
immediately below the graph aligned with the left side of the
graph.
8. Source. The source of data, if there is any, should he written
just below the chart at the lower kit ' • handy below the
footnote if there is any, but it should be above the graph
number.
222

hddliedl{dcdegqc*FlsE]'ft&hdvijdlt
An esampleof a vertical bargraph is Figum3.thedata of which am
taken from the following table. Table 2

Table 2
Enrolment of Pagasa High School
1995-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)

School Years
CUlTiC13- 985-19 1986-1987 988.1989 1989.I990To1a1
Ycars F % F % P % F
I 85 36 144 46 173 41 192 38 221 34 815 38
II 57 24 77 24 132 32 148 29 179 28 593 28
III 53 23 49 16 69 16 114 22 138 22 423 20
IV 40 17 45 14 46 11 56 II 102 16 289 14
Total 235 100315 100 420 100 510 100 640 100 2120 100
Source: Principal's Office

Enrolment of Pagasa high School

1995-1986 to 1989.1SVO
Number of
Smdcnts
700
600
500
400
300
200
100 '
0
1985 1986 1986 1987 1987.1988 1988.1989 19891990
Source: Principal's Office
FIB* 3
 223

Example of a horizontal bar graph is Figum 4.

Enrolment of Pagasa High School

1989•I990
(By Curricular Year)

Cunicular
Year
1 25 51) 75 100 125 150 175 200 '225

IV
I

fi

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 4.

c. Grouped (MuttipleorComposito Rae graph. The grouped bar

graph is used in comparing two or inure categories nf a variable
during a specified period or over successive periods of time
when the subgroups of the categories have common aurihutes.
Figure 5 shows the 03»lignison or the enmlments over five
successive years of the curricular years of the students of
Pagasa High Schistt. Table 2.
224

Enrolment of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1989-1990
(By Curricular Year)

Number of
Students

250
ED First Year
Second Year
200
Ea Third Year
FE:1 Fourth Year
150

100

50

0 lilh
1985-'86 1986-'87 1987- 88 1988- 89 989-90

Source: Principal's Office

Rpm. 5

,d!r{no.{r
d. Duo-directional or rbad er3r4, fr! 8id,.
d bilateral bar graph. This graph is usedued tob
present datain the form of ass, profits. and positivc numbers,
liabilities. losses and negative numbers. If the baseline is
vertical, the bars al the left of the baseline represent liabilities,
losses, or negative numbers and those al the right side rept-twit
assets, profits, or positive numbers. If the timeline is horizon-
tal, ihe bars alinve it represent assets, profits. or positive
nwnber and those below represent liabilities, losses, or nega-
licNnfua$oihprcd.bf!&fjj|liFE6ai.]
tivenumbers. An example of a bilateral gmpli is Figure 6 which
is derived from Table 3 just below.
 225

Table 3
FllledoF
Financial oDdP!4snLdisod
Operations of Pagasa High School
1985-1986 to 1988-1989
(In Thousands of Pesos)

Results of School Years

Operations 1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 Total
Eamings 310 450 470 600 1830 •
Expenses 250 390 510 510 1660
Profits 60 60 90 210
Loss 40 40

Source: Treasurer's Report

Profit and Loss of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1988-1989
Thousands
of Pesos
90

60.

30

30

60

—90
1985.1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989

Source: Treasurer's Reran

Figure 6
226

c. Subdivided (nr Component) bar graph. Subdivided bar graphs

d nd tob show
am used sry the ft{ 4
$! variations orq changes r
duF{ of the @nNin
rto component
pans of a whole and the whit itsel f. Crosseomparison of the
proponionme distribution of the different parts can be TTIMIC
easily. Figure 7 is an example of a sulxlividcd bar graph
showing theearningsexpenses.andpreditsand loss of the Nag-
asa !Ugh School fora number of years.

Financial Operations of Fagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1988-1989

Thousands
Of Pesos

680
C Earnings
ITEDI Expenses
500 r/-
Peak
WA Loss
400 ..--4

300

200

100

1985.1986 1986 1987 1987 1988 1982- 989

Source: Treasurer's Report

Figun: 7

1. Histogram. A histogram is composed of bars placed side by

side whose heights indicate the maimitudcs of their respective
classesor categories. is used withgmupcd orclass frequency
distributions. Figure 8 is an example. The heights of the bar
indicate the number of students in certain age grouts. Data are
taken from Table 4.
 227

Table 4
Age Distribution of Pagasa High School Students
School Year 1989-1990

Cumulative Cumulative
Age Groups Frequency Frequency Frequency
Upward Downward

20 -21 53 640 53
18 -19 162 587 215
16 -17 211 425 426
14 -- 15 150 214 576
12 - 13 64 64 640
N=640

Source: Principal's Office

Agc Distribution of Pagasa High School Students

School Year 1989-1990

Number of
Stoth.nts
250

2rAl

I sn

1(X)

50

U
12 3 14 15 16-17 18 19 20-21
Age in Years

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 8
228

2. linear graphs. linear graphs arc good devices to show

variations of values oversuccessive periodsof time. Changes in the data
are indicated by the linear curves.

Advantages of linear graphs or charts. Theadvantagesofthelinear

graph or chart am the following: (13=ni, et al., p, t'7)
a. The curve shows data as a continuous line; hence, it is con-
tinuous in its effect.
b. The wandering line of the cunt tells the whole story. At a
glance one can sec just what the situation is and what is likely
to happen.
c. Its preparation requires less lime and skill.

Construction. Linear graphs arc constructed in much thesatne way

as many of other graphs are. A slight difference lies in the process of
locating the intersections of the abscissa representingaClassor category
of a variable and the ordinate representing the magnitudes of the classes
or categories of the variable. The intersections of the abscissa and the
oin N marked
ordinate! arc Dard by br
rr bold dots!i r$ji
e$ and then joined successively by either
straight lines or curved lines to show the variations of a variable or the
variable in relation to that of another.

a. Timeseries linear charts. (single line)'limc series linearsingle

line chaos depict the variations of a variable over a period of
time. Generally, the abscissa represents the periods of time and
the Y-axis represents ttmusitative values of the variable. The
intersections of the X-axis temeneming time and tine Y-axis
reptesestring magnitude arc located and marked and then
joined successively by straight or curved lines. The resulting
line, a hmkenstraight lineora curved line, showsthe variations
of the variable. An example of this chart is Figure 9 which
shows the enrolment of Pagasa nigh School for five school
years. See Table 2 for exact data.
 229

Enrolment of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 fl) 1989-1990

SOU-

400

300

211.1

100

0
1985- 986 1986 1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990

Source: Principal's 001cc

Figure 9

b. Time series composite or mulfilinear titans. These charts am

used whancomparissms am made betweenoramongcategories
of the same variables or variations of two or more variables
over periods of time. Figure 10 is an example comparing the
enrolments of the curricular years overa period of fiveycars in
the Pagasa High School. Exact data am found in Table 2,
230

Enrolment of Pagan High School

1985.198610 1989-1990
(t3y ClIfTiCul21 Year)

Number of
Students

250
First Y IN ---Thi Year
200 Second Form Year _a

150 OW

100

50

0 all
19851986 1986-1987 198--1988 1988-1989 1989-1990

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 10

c. Frequency polygon. The frequency polygon is used to graph

class or plumed frequency distributions. The X-axis repre-
sents the classes and the Y-axis ttpresems the frequencies of
the classes. In plotting the interections of the abscissas and
OnlitialcS, the midpoints of the classes arc used as abscissas.
The linear cur:c starts from the midpoint of theempty ela.ss just
]ttrcdcd6i\ijrr{qfiyMd!xhdlsftIft
he fore the class with a frequency and ends at die midpoint of the
cnBdas just
emptyclatts jLiih{hri!r*{.a!vrddEq@tr} Esrc
after theffighest class witha frequency. Figure
1 is an example presenting the age distributions of Pagan
High School students. sellout year 1989-1990. The graph is
based on data from 'fable 4.
 231

Age Distribution of Pagass High School Students

During the School Year 1989-1990

Number of
Students

Ages in Years

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 11

d. The °give. The ogive is used to graphcumulative frequencies

(partial sums of frequencies). either cumulative frequencies
upward (from lower classes to upper classes) or cumulative
frequencies downward (from upper classes to lower classes).
The items graphed may be absolute frequencies or derived
frequencies (percents). Figure 12 gives examples of ogives
showing the cumulative frequencies of students classified
according to age. Data are taken from Table 4.
232

Cumulative Frequencies of the Students of Pagan High School

DLdufusfudy4Aqlq
During Ow School Year 1989-1990
(Distribution by Agc)

Number of
Students
IliV

600 ......

500 Ogi • upward

Fr
400
300
200 A
100
ri
iiii °give d wnwud

12 14 16 18 20 22

Ages in Yeats

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 12

e. Band chars. A band chart is a form of line graph of the dine

series variety. It shows the proponional variations of the com-
ponent parts of a whole over a period of time. The percent
{!i!Jobd!@Mditrbeotsrjdjqr6difud!@
equivalents of the components are the ones plotted but absolute
values may be used though rarely. The bands representing the
proportional changes may he colored or cross-hatched differ-
ently to increase the clarity of the variations. Figure 13 is an
example which is based on data in Table 2. It shows the
proportional or percent changes of the students in the four
curricular years.
 233

In consuucting the band chart, the largest component at the begin-

ning of the period is placed at the bottom, followed by the second largest
component. etc. If percents am used the band chart is a rectangle. If
actual values are used, the upper line boundary of the chart will be
im:gular.

Composition of Pagan High School Students

1985.198G to 1989-1990
(Hy Curricular Year)

Percent Percent
100 ear 0

80 20

60 40

40
frffir 60

20 80

U 100
1985-1986 1986-1987 1987-1988 1988-1989 1989-1990

Source: Principal's Office

Figure 13

3. One hundred per cent graphs or dons. One hundred percent

graphs or charts show the comparison of the proportional sizes of the
component parts that make up the whole, the whole being made equiva-
lent to 100%. it is the percent equivalent of the component pans that are
ponrayed in the graph. The percent equivalent of each component part
is found bydividingit/1y the total of the component parts and multiplying
the result by 100%. There arc two types or hinds of 100%charts: a.) the
100% barer rectangularchart and b.) the pie chart or circlegraph. Thcsc
are to graph budgets, enrolments, sales. etc.
a. The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. Usually, he bar
erected vertically and the whole height is equivalent to 100%.
234

The bar is subdivided into segments whose number is equal to

the number of component pans. The size of each segment is
lwlfubdF(ddeqDts6{Fai*sa
proportional to the parent of the component part it represents.
The segments am arranged according to size with the largest
segment at the bottom. Each segment is labeled by the value
and percent it repreSents. the percent inside and the value
oNdak.s.]etfu.|r14
outside. See example Mow, Figure 14.
Suppose the following arc the expenditures of the Pagasa
|j3'sfuj4d4esMlFxl98'19m:lgTdb])
High School during the school year 1987-1988: (See Table 3)

Administration (Salaries) P 60,000.00 11.76%

Instruction (Salaries) paio,coo.00 60.79%
Facilities (Including building) P100,000.00 19.61%
Miscellaneous P lqmm L!4!
P 40.00000 7.84%
Total P510,000.00 100.00%

Expenditures of Pagasa High School

During the School Year 1987-19S8

Miscellaneous
7.84% P40,000.00

A Atbninistration (Salaries)
P60000.00

Facilities (Including Building)

PI00,000.00

Instruction (Salaries)
P310,000.00

Source: Treasurer's Report

Figure 14
 235
6fuPk.b'ql4L1444
b. The pie than or circk graph. The dick graph has
the same
principles and functions as the mmanguhr chart It is also
+d.l@dbaledEJ@'l*!al[;
equated to 10D% and because the circle has 360%1%kequated
br'Ifu@Nc@b,lf c.|@) c;fu
to 3.6' so that 60% mug be equal to 216°(3.6 a 60). Graphing
sfu .*lFdhslll,hfulul*' ls.di;
again the expenses of Pagan High School in 1987-1988 using
the circle graph, it is done as in Figure 15 below.

Fe&Gdhr{Htd'b
Expenditures of Pag-as. High School
B{ftsdv4lwl*
During tic School Year 1987-1968

Administration ///l /1
(Salaries)
P60,000.00
fifrt
Facilities Instruction
(Including (Salaries)
Building) 8310,000.00
RIO0,000.00

fu:Tl4u!rs'
Source: Treasurer's Repon

6p!l'1$
Figure

4. Pictograms. The pictogram or pictograph Is

used to ponray
data by means of pictures or symbols. Since \'' 4the pictog
D]fffu ."n;Lt
ram canno
Firyellt@,]l@l]FMtroD&edrD!]gd
ponra 'il the comparison of
y data accurately, its only purpose is to make
magnitudesmom vivid and dear. 13c..icks, it is very attract
ive and never
fails to catch mention.

Construction. Flrat, make a scale, that is, each

picture or symbol
must represent a definite number of Walt Sn,
r;i e .-;, r
sr tou find the number of
pictures or symbols to represents a magnitude. divide the magni
tude by
the numtcrof units represcruoi by east picture or symbol.
qlrrrqede!e4drnzdhtrd; -d r;*;
Or symbols must be of the slide ail; and arranged in a low or
The puree
r@trMd44EI4Edtue!i6*dkd-&br
Symbols should suggest the nature of the subject matterof thc
fr
rOiNS. The
data being
236

4sdb}.LcbBd
presented. For instance, an army may be presented by pictures of
$risiFp dm by
soldiers; population ptuq dFtur
b, pictures of persons: carrcdiik'
c{ registration by tdu€!
by pictures
of automobiles; money m circulation by pictures of money bills or peso
coins: etc. Figure 16 is an example showing the enrolment of Pagan
HighSchoot from 1985-1986 to 19R9-1990. The graph is bated on Table
2.

Enrolment of Pagasa High School

1985-1986 to 1989-1990

1985-1986 kk
t,F,fft
1C Q Legend: k =50

1986-1987
MktF
1987-198ft etaa--
19"1989Mktlk tr
nth
1989-1990
ttFttlttf'ftfFr
MIttt 1111-kk
Source: Principal's Office. Table 2

Figure 16

Implications of the Findings

It is the general practice of thesis writers to discuss die summary

of the implications of their findings at the end of Chapter 4 or elsewhere
in the thesis. From observations, it appears that as far as research
reporting is concerned, an implication consists of at least five elements.
namely:
 237

I. The was ' ranee of a condition. This condition is a finding

discovered in the research. The condition may be favorable or
ldrcdEninjNEdc.iLa$4udfusbd
unfavorable. If it is favorable, it is a strength of the subject
studied. If it is unfavorable, it is a wealmess of the subject. For
instance. in the study of the teaching of science in the high
schools of Province A. it is discovered that the majority of the
science teachersare not qualified toteach science. This finding
is an unfavorable one and it is a weakness in the teaching of
science.
2. The probable cause of the condition. If there is a condition
there must be a cause and there must be a logical relationship
between the condition and the cause, otherwise the cause may
not be a valid one. In the example above. the logical cause of
{rd!N!gh+r:.duxruMrFd6q{e$rt4!
tu lack of enough qualified teachers to handle science subjects
the
isthat either flit:people responsible for recruiting teachers were
not careful enough in the selection of teachers or there are not
enough qualified applicants for the positions of science teach-
ers, or both.
3. The probable effect of the condition. Most likely, there is also
a probable effect of the condition and there must be a logical
relationship between the condition and its probable effect.
The logical effect of the lack of enough qualified teachers to
teach science is that, taking all other things equal, the science
teachers in the high schools of Province A arc not as effective
as when all the science teachers are hilly qualified. It is
understandable that a hilly qualified science teacher has more
science knowledge and skills to impart to his students than
a numqualificd science leacher. Hence, the students would
suffer adversely.
4. The measure to remedy the unsatisfactory• condition or to
continue tostrengthen the favorableone. It isanatural reaction
to institute a measure to remedy an unfavorable situation.
However, if a condition is found to be a favorable one it is also
a natural reaction to continue it in nitration and to even further
strengthen it. The logical step to take to remedy the unfavor•
able situation is, if it is impractical m cast out the unqualified
science teachers, to enjoin or rapinre them to improve their
qualification by taking evening or summer studies in science.
238

b]m!]4I@doc6fu'qby]@iil6
by attending more science seminars. or by increasing their
cd4d'fu*d!l'fu63Fllll@bd*
mailings in science especially those being published in science
Jdn&h+iEdfrrintu
journals. magazinns. and other publirarionc.

t. tu.tu, @ 4d4. tttu.e* M

c area iniefrheddoraTdd
5. The entity or offend. In the amok cited
&,inorre!or'tfuhEda-Md
above, it is the teaching of science in the high schools of
lk'sc'qcfud$a,@
Province A that is affected. [knee. the topic for discussion
should be entitled "Implications of the Findings to the Teach-
ing $ru^]dd,!Edc nrlrdou
r4orsck,€"
of Science." Some researchers use the titletr "Implications
to Education" which is too broad and vague. The area direedy
affected by the unfavoraNe or favorable conditions discovered
bds':,de.idift'ddl
in the study should be cited more specifically.

mr snDl
orEfioNs FOR STUDY AND
QUESTIONS Axo DISCUSSION ,rsroN
1. Explain die meaning of analysis and give examples.
2. I low are data classified and arranged? Explain.
Eqi!'bFF&dFd'ld4@'$t'e
3. Explain how group-derived generalizations am made. Why are
they important in analysis?
4. What is a ullignat? Explain how to construct and use one.
5. What are the three general ways of presenting dam? What am the
advantages and disadvantages of each?
6. What ate die major functional tams of a statistical table? What am
their functions?
7. Construct a table for the following data: Theenmlmentof Cardaon
I igh Stained. 1990-1991 follows:

First year. boys, 124. girls. 141

Scared )6.b! rr rii
$qrd year• boys, t t5, girls. 134
Third year. boys, 109, girls, 12$
ae
I:ninth year. boys, 98. shit 115
Ftdr i the
8. Explain 6s,hsrld!{. hirliliotrd.!€, d hcr
s! meanings of finding, implication, inference, and inter-
pretation.
9. Enumerate the different types of graphs and their uses.
 keti..d&dr!"d!r@tu.
11. What are the essentials of graphs and their functions?1
i],@rn!r!Yd1L.'!N
12. Construct a single vertical bar graph rr'!!dubrc
for the data in No. t, {4ra
7. Also
&4hdtbr8alfrtE9r@,drt
single !4
horizontal bar graph, 100% bar graph, and a pictogram.
fulnlFyol'[l5tE''dall'ed.
13. Construct a frequency polygon. histogram. and oglve for the
following frequency diaribution;

Ages Frequency

10.14 24
15-19 30
20-24 35
25-29 45
30-34 40
35.39 32
40-44 26
 241

17 Howro
17 HOW cHAprER 5s
TO WRITE CHAPTER

Chapter 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

This is the last chapter of Ow thesis and the mov important part
because it is here where the findings, and the whole thesis for that matter,
are summarized; generalizations in the form of conclusions are made;
and the recommendations for the solution of problems discovered in the
study are addressed to those concerned.

Summary of Findings

Guidelines M writing the summary of findings. The following

should be the characteristics of the summary of findings:
I. There should beabriefstatement about the main purpose of the
study. the population or respondents. the period of the study.
Method of' march used. the research instrument, and the
sampling design. There should be no explanations made.
Example. (Using the hypothetical study of teaching sci-
ence in the high schools of Province A) This study was
conducted for the purposeofdetemtiningthe statusof teaching
science in the high schools of Province A. The descriptive
method of research was utilized and the normative survey
technique was used for gathering data. The questionnaire
pd6ftrfuolfu@trgd4eE.{trfutdes
served as the instrument for collecting data. All the teachers
hldn€$iMldraFrdepNlbdnplcdft
handling science and a 20 percent representative sample of the
students were the respondents. The inquiry was conducted
during the school year 1989-'90.
2. The findings may be lumped up all together but clarity de-
mands that each specific question under the statement of the
problem must bewritten first to be followed by the findingsthat
242

would answer it. The specific questions should follow the

o*ley0!vq!!d'hnMnrsffurdcn
order they am given tutder the statement of the problem.
Example. How qualified am the teachers handling scien&
in the high schools of Province A?
Of thc 59 teachers, 31 or 53.54 percent wereESEgraduates
and three or 5.08 percent were MA degree holders. The res.
25 or 42.37 percent, were non-USE baccalaureate degree
holders with at &1st 18 education units. Less than half of all the
teachers, only 27 or 45.76 percent were science majors and the
wjo y,!da1Ni,wreN6ab,jo6
majority, 32 or 54.24 percent were non-science majors.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations, that is. a sum-
mary of the important data consisting of text and numbers.
Every statement of fact should COW'S( of words, numbers, a
EslD -qu
k'ini measures
statistical io a! meaningful
woven into s",-qt No
n6d4.'! statement. Nr
deduction, nor inference nor interpretation should be made
otherwise it will only be duplicated in the conclusion. Sec the
example in N0.2 Just above.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights Of the data, should
e;bdr ruory e !r
$Fdirr those upon which
be included in thec summary, especially wsd the G
conclusions should be based.
Fdnglarorc!,1Mrc(kbd!FUp!t.ft! 2y
5. Findingsarenotexplainednorelaborated upon anymore:11,
should be stated as concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced in the SunmThry of findings-

Conclusions

Guidelines In writing the conclusions. The following should be the

characteristics of the conclusions:
l6dsjddd4u5doqabhio'hPle
1. Conclusions are inferences, deductions. abstractions, implic
lions. interpretations. general statements, and/or generaliza-
tions based upon the findings. Conclusions are the logical ani
valid outgrowths of the findings. They should not contain any
numeral because numerals generally limit theforcefuleffect cc
impact and scope of a gcncraliamion. No conclusions should
be made that am not based upon the findings.
!:@91.ft.e]!'ons6E&Mfun!!
Example: The conclusion that can he drawn from the
findings inNo. 2 under the summary of findings is this: All the
 243

teachers *4 qualified
hbc6 wen: qE,,tr* to rd inb the
b teach & high
sd school
tui but tu
hr the
majority of them were not qualified to teach science.
coeL6h(lfuU4Eqli0ali!&ndsi6cs6'
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer the specific ques-
tions raised at the beginning of the investigation in the order
they e given
dq are dq the
tloi under r*ftor of
e statement dtuthe pEbio ftdy
problem. The study
becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised are not
D@l}4Xdb}ib!Ndulitr!
properly answered by the conclusions.
Example: If the question raised at the beginning of the
research isi"lloviadequate am the facilities for the teaching of
science?" and the findings show that We fac i hies am less than
the needs of the students, the answer and the conclusion should
be: "The facilities for die teaching of science are inadequate".
3. Conclusions shoutd point ow. what were factually learned front
the inquiry. However, no conclusions should be drawn from
the implied or indirect effects of the findings.
Example: From the findings that the majority of the
teachers wcrc non-science M*1:3 and the facilities were less
than the needs of the students, what have been factually learned
are that the majority of the teachers wen: nut qualified to teach
science and the science facilitit.s were inadequate.
It cannot be concluded that science teaching in the high
schools of Province A was weak because there am no data
telling that the science instruction was weak, The wealmess of
the science leaching is an indirect or implied effect of the non-
qualification of the teachers and the inadequacy of the facili-
ties. This is better placed under the summary of implications.
If there is a specific question which runs this way "How
strong is science instruction in the high schools of Province A
as perceived by the teachers and students?". then a conclusion
to answer thisquestion should he drawn. However, the respon-
dent should have been asked how they perceived the degree of
strength of the science instruction whether it is very strong.
simng, fairly strong. weak or very weak The conclusion
should he based upon the responses to the question.
4. Conclusions should be formulated concisely, that is. brief and
so4}d$oqw,Jjfu{6qiddDao4@€
short, yet they convey all the necessary information resitting
from the study as required by the specific questions.
244

5. Without any strong evidence to the contrary, conclusions

should be stated categorically. They should be worded as if
ft,dn[NqlncFiqftdft4tNU@lgjlc4}
they am 100 percent true and eommt. They should not give any
hint that the researcherhassomedoubts about their validity and
reliability. The use of qualifiers such as probably, perhaps,
may be, and the like should be avoided as much as possible.
6. Conclusions should refer only to the population, area. or
$lr4ldftfrd]1&hinre'ehrh'nl
subject of the study. Take for instance, the hypothetical
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A. all
conclusions about the faculty. facilities. methods, problems,
rctuqrlb$!
dc refer
etc. k!$hcds cKi 6ciuinbeLd
only to the teaching of science in the high schools of
Province A.
7. Conclusions should not he repetitions of any statements any-
where in the thesis. They may be recapitulations if necessary
hut they should be wonted differently and they should convey
the same information as the statements recapitulated.

Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up Conclusions Based on

Quantitative Data

There are some pitfalls to avoid in the use of quantitative data.

(Satan', et al., pp. 4/2-52) Researchers should not accept nor utilize
quantitative data without question or analysis even if they are presented
in authoritative-looking (onus. This is so because in some instances
quantitative data arceither inaccurateor misleading either unwittingly or
by design. The data should be analyzed very critically lo avoid mislead-
ing interpretations and conclusions. Among the factors that a researcher
should guard against arc the following:
I. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or organizations
usually present or manipulate figures to their favor. For
instance, an advertisement may quote statistics to show that a
Ft.!i!lsFdolDu}dhltqbqd]w.
given product is superior to any other leading brand. We
should be waryof theuscolSialliWC$ in Miscast beeauseof the
obvious profit motive behind. An individual may also do the
same. A respondent to a questionnaire or in an interview may
con»nit the same hia.s to protect his own interests. Like the case
of the science teachers in the high schools of Province A, they
may rub-pond that the science facilities in their respective
 245

schools are adequate although they am not adequate just to

protect the good names of their ovm schools. A respondent, if
asked how many science books he has read,maysay thathe hat
read many although he has read only a few LO protect hisname.
Hence, if there is a way of checking the veracity of presented
data by investigation, observation. or otherwise, this should be
done to insure the accuracy of the conclusion based upon the
data under consideration.
2. Incorrect generalization. Anincorrect generalization is made
whenthereis alimited bodyof information or when thesarnple
is not representative of the population. Take this cast. The
Alumni Association of a big university would like to conduct
a survey to determine the average income of the alumni dining
their first ten years after graduation. Though the total number
of retumS may meet the sample size requirement, the popula-
tion maynot be properly represented by the actual composition
of the sample. This is likely to happen because chances arc that
as€rDrtri!ddcrlmnu r rr income
a great majority of the alumni in the! high bracket utr
hi lhr eldd will
respond readily but the great majority of those who arc not
doing well may ignore the survey by mason of pride. In such
J*
a case, the hi n @4n;. !r( !, {d rv
!E high income group is over represented n and low
income group is under represented in the sample. resulting in
the overestimate of the average income of LIE entire alumni
group. This is the result of a built-in sampling bias.
3. Incorrect deduction. This happern when a general pate is
applied to a specific case. Suppose them is a finding that the
science facilities in the high schooLs of Plovince A arc inade•
quate. We cannot conclude at once that any particular tool or
equipment is definitely inadequate. Suppose there is an over-
supply of test tubes. Hence. to make the conclusion that all
science equipment and tools in the high schools of Province A
am inadequate is an incorrect deduction in this case.
4. Incorrect comparison. A basic error in statistical wok is to
compare two things that arc not really comparable. Again• let
us go to the high schoolsof Province A. Suppose inthc survey.
School C has been found to have 20 microscopes and School
has only eight. We may conclude immediately that School
. eqqliu!,16nrslD h!$;dD
C is better equipped with microscopes than School D. How- jo!
ever, upon further inquiry, School C has 1500 students while
246

School D has only 500 students. t knee, the ratio in School C

, is 75 students is in now tnieroscope while in School D the ratio
is 63 students to one microscope: Hence. School D is better
equipped with microscopes than School C. To conclude that
School Cis better equipped with microscopes than School D
based on the number ofmiCMACOIXS owned by each school is
incorrect comparison.
i. Abuse of correlation data. A correlation study may show a
high degree of association between Iwo variables. They may
move in the same direction at the same rate but it isnot light to
conclude at once that one is the cause of the other unless
confirmed so bymhersiudies. !ono case dues eorrelationshow
causal relationship. When the government increases the mice
of gasoline. the prices of commoditir.s Ito man to rise. W::
cannot conclude immediately that the increase in price of
gasoline is the sole cause of the increase in the prices of
commodities. There areother causes to be considered such as
shoitage or undcrsupply of the commodities, increased cost of
production, panic buying, etc. To be able to make a conclusive
statement as to what is or what ate the real causes of the
increases in prices of commodities. an intensive investigation
is needed.
6. Limtied informallonfurnished by anyone ratio. A ratio shows
only a podia' picture inmost analytical work. Supposetheonly
information that we have about a cenain establishment is that
the ratiodots not show the kindsof cmployeesleaving and why
they an: leaving. We do net know whether the losses of the
employees are caused by death. retirement. resignations. or
dismissals. We can only surmise but we cannot conclude with
definiteness that the causes of the 20% employeeturnover am
death, retirement. poor working conditions, poor salary, etc.
Avoid as much as possible making conclusions not sufficiently
and adequately supported by facts.

Lthkdw impression
7. Misleading d4 ai. of
nh4aix magnitude
@r4n-i concerning bn vari-
ol bare e'tt
able. Ratios can give erroneous impressions when they arc
used to express relationships between two variables of small
magnitudes. Take the following examples. A college an
nouneed that75% or. itsgraduares passed the CPA examination
 247

at a cenain time. Al101)&7 college also advertised that 100% of

its graduates who took that same extunination passed. From
these announcements we may form the impression that the
standard of instruction in the two colleges is high. Actually,
only four graduates from the first college took the CPA
licensing examination and three happened to pass. In the
second college, only one of its graduates took the same exami-
nation and he happened to pass. To avoid making false
impressions by making (X111011.6011S using ratios concerning
#il\*r{dlnlgjt&i!$dcoigjq&a
variables of very small magnitudes, use the original data
because the relationship is clear even without the use of a ratio.
Of the first college, we may say that three out of the four
graduates who took the CPA test passed and of the second
college, we may sat that the one graduate who took the same
test passed.

Recntmnendations

Guidelines in writing the recommendations. Recommendations

are appeals to people or CatitiCS concerned to solve or help solve the
problems discovered in the inquiry. 'rimy should have the following
charicleristics:

1. As mentioned above, recommendations should aim to solve or

help solve problems discovered in the investigation. For
instance, one problem discovers! in the inquiry about the
teaching of science in the high schools of Province A is the lack
of adequate Pecilities. I fence. the recommendation is for the
schools to acquire more facilities. Surely this will solve orhelp
solve the problem of lack of adequate facilities.

2. No recommendations should be made for a problem, or arty

thing for that matter, Nal has not been dist:oven:A OrdiSCuSZ:1
in the study. Recommendations for Mines not discussed in the
study arc irrelevant.
3. There may also he recommendations for the continuance of a
good practice or system, or even recommendation for its
improvement This is to insure a continuous benefit lying
accorded to the universe involved.
248

4. Recommendations should aim tor the ideal but they must he

feasible, practical, mad attainable. IL is useless co recommend
Ore impoksible. This, of course. depends upon the situation.
For a big university or ten thousand students, it would be easy
to recommerul the purchase of a generator as a safeguard
against bmwnoms. but fora small private high school of only
two hundred students, this May not he fen-sage.
S. Recommendations should be logical and valid. lithe problem
is the lack of facilities, it is only logical to recommend the
acquisition of the lacking facilities.
6. Recommendations should be addressed to the persons entities,
agent:Ms.mallets whoor whichare inapositionto implement
them. Example. Suppose one problem discovered is the lack
of science The recommendation should be: The
SCI100) principals, through the Di vision Superintendent. should
make an urgent petitionto the propergovemmcnt authorities to
purchase adequalescience equipment for the high schools. For
private schook, their petitions should be dinxicd to their
respective Boards of Trustees.
7. There should be a recommendation for further research on the
same topic in other places to verify, amplify, or negate the
findings of the study. This is necessary so that if the findings
arc the same, generalizations of wider application can be
formulated.

For recommending similarrescarchcs to he conducted, the recom-

mendation should be: It is recommended that similar researches should
euedditqrc!
be ohf oriesfu dddF'*i4uids
conducted inotherplices. Otherpmvincesshould alsomakeinquirics
into the status of the teaching of science in their own high schools so that
if similar problems and deficiencies am found, conceited efforts may he
exerted to improve science teaching in all high schools in the country.

Evaluation of a thesis or Dissertation

Generally, a thesisordissenation has to be defended before a panel

of examiners and thensubmittcd Lo the proper authorities for acceptance
I!|*d{Ml4{*ndje.hasb!
as a piece of serially work. Iknce, there should be some guidelines in
evaluating a thesis or dissertation. The following are offered to be the
general criteria in judging the worthiness of a thesis or dissertation:
 249
I. The Subject and the Problems
i the. subject
I.r. Is jsfrc4l timely,
i6jd significant, di!,, and
!d ofd current rsel
0@r issue?
2. Is it clearly delimited but big enough for making valid gener-
alizations?
3. Is the title appmprime for the subject?
4. Are the sub problems specific, clear, and unequivocal?
II. The Design of the Study
1. Ls the research methodology appropriate?
2. Is the design clear and in accordance with the scientific method
of research?
3. Is the report prepared carefully following acceptable format
and mechanics?
4. Am the documentations adequate and properly done?
III. The Data (Findings)
1. Are the data adequate, valid, and reliable?
2. Arc they analyzed carefully and correctly prated statistically?
4. Am they interpreted correctly and adequately?
IV. Conchisions (Generati2mions)
1. Are the conclusions hasal upon the findings?
2. Do they answer the specific questions raised at the beginning
of the investigation?
3. Are they logical and valid outcomes of the study?
4. Are they stated concisely and clearly and limited only to the
subject of the study?
V. Recommendations
1. Am the recommendations based upon the findings and conclu-
sinns?
2. Are they feasible, practical, and attainable?
3. Arc they action-oriented? (They recommend action to remedy
uh,f& condition
unfavorable ds,.id
.qd,b! discovered)
4. Arc theylimited only to the subject of the study but recommend
further research on the same subject?
250

ouaioNsS FOR.
QUESTION FoR STUDY N
DirccsoN
srDY AND DISCUSSI ON

1. Give the guidelines in wridng the summary of findings. Give

examples.
2. Give the guidelines in writing the conclusions. Give the rationale
for each guideline and give examples.
3. What arc some dangers to avoid in drawing up conclusion based
on quantitative data?
4. What arc the guidelines in writing the recommendations? What is
ft rationale
the Bdod! for is*h sddiql Give
each guideline? cw.flmdei
examples.
5. How do you evaluate a thesis or dissenation? What are the criteria
jdrq the
6r judging
for wdiE$dof a thesis
ft worthiness i.nrddistuddr
or dissertation?
251

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