A coenzyme is an organic non-protein compound that binds

with an enzyme to catalyze a reaction.

Coenzymes are often broadly called cofactors,
but they are chemically different.
A coenzyme cannot function alone,
but can be reused several times when paired with an enzyme.
An enzyme without a coenzyme is called an apoenzyme. Without coenzymes
or cofactors, enzymes cannot catalyze reactions effectively.

When an enzyme gains a coenzyme, it then becomes a holoenzyme, or active

enzyme. Active enzymes change substrates into the products an organism needs
to carry out essential functions, whether chemical or physiological. Coenzymes,
like enzymes, can be reused and recycled without changing reaction rate or
effectiveness. They attach to a portion of the active site on an enzyme, which
enables the catalyzed reaction to occur. When an enzyme is denatured by
extreme temperature or pH, the coenzyme can no longer attach to the active
site.
• Vitamins
• Many coenzymes, though not all, are vitamins or derived from vitamins. If
vitamin intake is too low, then an organism will not have the coenzymes
needed to catalyze reactions. Water-soluble vitamins, which include all B
complex vitamins and vitamin C, lead to the production of coenzymes. Two of
the most important and widespread vitamin-derived coenzymes are
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and coenzyme A.

Non-vitamin coenzymes typically aid in chemical transfer for

enzymes. They ensure physiological functions, like blood clotting
and metabolism, occur in an organism. These coenzymes can be
produced from nucleotides such as adenosine, uracil, guanine, or
inosine.
dehydrogenase
coenzyme
So actually ATP
is also a
coenzyme

B5
Ubiquinone plastoquinone
2003年 难度等级B
Topic 2.About protein and amino acid

Tyndall effect （colloid）

Topic 3 . DNA & RNA
The is a ribosomal binding site in bacterial and archaeal messenger RNA, generally
located around 8 bases upstream of the start codon AUG. The RNA sequence helps recruit
the ribosome to the messenger RNA (mRNA) to initiate protein synthesis by aligning the
ribosome with the start codon.

The Shine-Dalgarno sequence exists both

in bacteria and archaea. It is also present in
some chloroplast and mitochondrial transcripts.
For the eukaryotes the counterpart sequence of Shine-
Dalgarno (SD) sequence is Kozak consensus sequence

uncertain (gcc)gccRccAUGG
significance

the most
common base at a highly
position where conserved
the base can bases
nevertheless vary
'R' which indicates that
a purine (adenine or guanine)
is always observed at this
position
Most of the enzymes are protein
Topic 4.
Second messengers are intracellular signaling
molecules released by the cell to trigger
physiological changes such
as proliferation, differentiation, migration,
survival, and apoptosis. Secondary messengers are
therefore one of the initiating components of
intracellular signal transduction cascades.
Examples of second messenger molecules
include cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, inositol，
trisphosphate, diacylglycerol, and calcium.
cAMP
cGMP

diacylglycerol
Topic 4. Detail of cells
• SGLT1 in the intestinal epithelium transports sodium ions (Na+) and
glucose across luminal membrane of the epithelial cells so that it can
be absorbed into the bloodstream. This is the basis of oral rehydration
therapy. If this symporter did not exist, individual sodium channels
and glucose uniporters would not be able to transfer glucose against
the concentration gradient and into the bloodstream.

Na+/K+/2Cl− symporter in the loop of Henle in the renal tubules of

the kidney transports 4 molecules of 3 different types; a sodium ion
(Na+), a potassium ion (K+) and two chloride ions (2Cl−). Loop
diuretics such as furosemide (Lasix) act on this protein.
Topic 5. Respiration
Thermogenic protein
（UCP1）
•UCP2
•UCP3
•SLC25A27（UCP4）
•SLC25A14（UCP5）
2,4-Dinitrophenol， Uncoupling proteins are increased by
DNP
Thyroid hormone
Norepinephrine
Epinephrine
leptin
Differential centrifugation

homogeneous fractions
Unbroken
cells
Sucrose